China

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the People's Republic of China. For the Republic of China, see Taiwan. For
other uses, see China (disambiguation) and PRC (disambiguation).

People's Republic of China

Zhnghu Rnmn Gnghgu

Flag

National Emblem

Anthem:

Yyngjn Jnxngq (Pinyin)

"March of the Volunteers"

Area controlled by the People's Republic of China shown in dark green; claimed but
uncontrolled regions shown in light green.

Note: Although Taipei is shown as one of the cities of the PRC, China does not hold
actual sovereignty over Taiwanand its capital Taipei.

Capital

Beijing[a]
3955N 11623E

Largest city
Official languages

Shanghai[1]
Standard Chinese[2][b]
Mongolian

Recognised regional languages

Tibetan
Uyghur
Zhuang
various others

Official written language

Vernacular Chinese

Official script

Simplified Chinese[2]

Ethnic groups
91.51% Han[3]
55 minorities[c]

1.30% Zhua
ng
0.86% Man
chu
0.79% Uyg
hur
0.79% Hui
0.72% Miao
0.65% Yi
0.62% Tujia
0.47% Mon
gol
0.44% Tibet
an

0.26% Buye
i
0.15% Kore
an
1.05%
others
Demonym

Chinese

Government

Single-party socialist state

- President

Xi Jinping[d]

- Premier

Li Keqiang

- Congress Chairman

Zhang Dejiang

- Conference Chairman

Yu Zhengsheng

Legislature

National People's Congress

Formation

- Unification of Chinaunder

221 BCE

the Qin Dynasty

- Republic established

1 January 1912

- People's Republic

1 October 1949

proclaimed
Area
- Total

9,596,961 km2[e](3rd/4th)
3,705,407 sq mi

- Water (%)

0.28%[f]
Population

- 2012 estimate

1,350,695,000[8] (1st)

- 2010 census

1,339,724,852[9] (1st)

- Density

2011 estimate:[10]144/km2 (83rd)

373/sq mi

GDP (PPP)

2014 estimate

- Total

$14.625 trillion[11](2nd)

- Per capita

$10,695[12] (88th)

GDP (nominal)

2014 estimate

- Total

$10.028 trillion[12](2nd)

- Per capita

$7,333[12] (82nd)

Gini (2014)

55.0[13][14]
high

0.719[15]

HDI (2013)

high 91st
Currency

Renminbi (yuan)()[g](CNY)

Time zone

China Standard Time(UTC+8)

Date format
yyyy-mm-dd
or yyyy m d
(CE; CE-1949)
Drives on the

right[h]

Calling code

+86

ISO 3166 code

CN

Internet TLD
.cn
.
.

China (

/tan/; simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Zhnggu),

officially the People's Republic of China(PRC), is a sovereign state located in East Asia. It is the
world's most populous country, with a population of over 1.35 billion. The PRC is a single-party
state governed by the Communist Party, with its seat of government in the capital city of Beijing.[16] It
exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four direct-controlled
municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, andChongqing), and two mostly self-governing special
administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). The PRC also claims the territories governed
by Taiwan, a separate political entity officially known as the Republic of China (ROC), as its 23rd
province, a claim which is controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan.[17]
Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometers, China is the world's second-largest country by
land area,[18] and either the third or fourth-largest by total area, depending on the method of
measurement.[i] China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes and
the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts in the arid north to subtropical forests in the wetter south.
The Himalaya, Karakoram,Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from South and
Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, run from
the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific
Ocean is 14,500 kilometres (9,000 mi) long, and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East and South
China Seas.
The history of China goes back to the ancient civilization one of the world's earliest that
flourished in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, China's
political system was based on hereditary monarchies, known as dynasties, beginning with the semimythological Xia of the Yellow River basin (c. 2000 BCE). Since 221 BCE, when the Qin
Dynasty first conquered several states to form a Chinese empire, the country has expanded,

fractured and been reformed numerous times. TheRepublic of China (ROC) overthrew the last
dynasty in 1911, and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949. After the defeat of theEmpire of
Japan in World War II, the Communist Party defeated the nationalist Kuomintang in mainland China
and established the People's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, while the Kuomintang
relocated the ROC government to its present capital of Taipei.
China had the largest and most complex economy in the world for most of the past two thousand
years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline.[19][20] Since the introduction
of economic reforms in 1978, China has become one of the world'sfastest-growing major economies.
As of 2013, it is the world's second-largest economy by both nominal total GDP and purchasing
power parity (PPP), and is also the world's largest exporter and importer of goods. [21] China is a
recognized nuclear weapons stateand has the world's largest standing army, with the second-largest
defence budget.[22] The PRC has been a United Nations member since 1971, when it replaced the
ROC as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council. China is also a member of numerous
formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai
Cooperation Organization, the BCIMand the G-20. China is a regional power within Asia and has
been characterized as a potential superpower by a number of commentators.[23][24]
Contents

1 Etymology

2 History

2.1 Prehistory

2.2 Early dynastic rule

2.3 Imperial China

2.4 End of dynastic rule

2.5 Republic of China (19121949)

2.6 People's Republic of China (1949present)

3 Geography
o

3.1 Political geography

3.2 Landscape and climate

3.3 Biodiversity

3.4 Environmental issues

4 Politics
o

4.1 Communist Party

4.2 Government

4.3 Administrative divisions

4.4 Foreign relations

4.4.1 Trade relations

4.4.2 Territorial disputes

4.4.3 Emerging superpower status

4.5 Sociopolitical issues, human rights and reform

5 Military

6 Economy

6.1 Economic history and growth

6.2 China in the global economy

6.3 Class and income equality

6.4 Internationalization of the renminbi

7 Science and technology

o

7.1 Historical

7.2 Modern era

8 Infrastructure
o

8.1 Telecommunications

8.2 Transport

9 Demographics
o

9.1 Ethnic groups

9.2 Languages

9.3 Urbanization

9.4 Education

9.5 Health

9.6 Religion

10 Culture
o

10.1 Cuisine

10.2 Sports

11 See also

12 Footnotes

13 References

14 Further reading

15 External links

Etymology
Main article: Names of China
China

Chinese name

Simplified Chinese:

Traditional Chinese:

Literal meaning:

Middle Kingdom[25][26]

Transliterations
Gan
- Romanization:

Tung-koeet
Kejia

- Romanization:

Dung24 Gued2
Mandarin

- Hanyu Pinyin:

Zhnggu

- Tongyong Pinyin:

Jhonggu

- Wade-Giles:

Chung1-kuo2

- Gwoyeu Romatzyh:

Jong'gwo

- Bopomofo

- Xiao'erjing

Min

- Hokkien POJ:

Tiong-kok

- Min Dong BUC:

Dng-guk
Wu

- Romanization:

Tson koh
Xiang

- Romanization:

/tan33 kw 24/
Yue

- Jyutping:

Zung1 gwok3

- Yale Romanization:

Jnggwok

People's Republic of China

Alternative Chinese name

Simplified Chinese:

Traditional Chinese:

Transliterations
Gan
- Romanization:

Chungfa Ninmin Khungfokoet

Hakka

- Romanization:

Dung24 fa11 ngin11 min11kiung55 fo11 gued2

Mandarin

- Hanyu Pinyin:

Zhnghu Rnmn Gnghgu

- Bopomofo

- Xiao'erjing

Min

- Hokkien POJ:

Tiong-ha jn-bn king-h-kok

- Min Dong BUC:

Dng-hu ng-mng Gng-hu-guk

Wu

- Romanization:

Tson gho zin min gon ghu koh

Xiang

- Romanization:

/tan33 go13 in13 min13gan45 gu13 kw 24/

Yue

- Jyutping:

Zung1 waa4 jan4 man4gung6 wo4 gwok3

- Yale Romanization:

Jngwh Yhnmhn Guhngwhgwok

Mongolian name

Mongolian:

Transliterations
- SASM/GNC

Bgde nayiramdaqu dumdadu arad

ulus

Tibetan name

Tibetan:

Transliterations
- Wylie:

krung hwa mi dmangs spyi

mthun rgyal khab

- Zangwen Pinyin:

Zhunghua Mimang Jitun

Gyalkab

Uyghur name

Uyghur:

Transliterations
- Latin Yziqi:

Jungxua Xelq Jumhuriyiti

- Yengi Yezikk:

Junghua Hlkk Jumhkuriyiti

- SASM/GNC:

Junghua Hlkk Jumuriyiti

- Siril Yziqi:

Zhuang name

Zhuang:

Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz

This article
contains Chinese text.Without
proper rendering support, you
may see question marks, boxes, or
other symbols instead of Chinese
characters.

The word "China" is derived from the Persian word Chin (), which is from
the Sanskrit word Cna ().[27] It is first recorded in 1516 in the journal of the Portuguese
explorer Duarte Barbosa.[28] The journal was translated and published in England in 1555.[29]The
traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by Martino Martini, is that Cna is derived from "Qin"
(), the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou Dynasty.[30] However, the word was
used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahbhrata (5th century BC) and the Laws of
Manu (2nd century BC).[31][32]
The official name of the present country is the People's Republic of China (Chinese:
; pinyin: Zhnghu Rnmn Gnghgu). The common Chinese names for the country
are Zhnggu (Chinese: , from zhng, "central" or "middle", and gu, "state" or "states," and in
modern times, "nation") and Zhnghu (Chinese: ), although the country's official name has
been changed numerous times by successive dynasties and modern governments. The
term Zhnggu appeared in various ancient texts, such as the Classic of History of the 6th century
BCE,[j] and in pre-imperial times it was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish
the Huaxia tribes from perceived "barbarians". The term, which can be either singular or plural,
referred to the group of states or provinces in the central plain, but was not used as a name for the
country as a whole until the nineteenth century. The Chinese were not unique in regarding their
country as "central", with other civilizations having the same view of themselves. [33]

History

History of China
ANCIENT

Neolithic c. 8500c. 2100 BCE

Xia dynasty c. 2100c. 1600 BCE
Shang dynasty c. 1600c. 1046 BCE
Zhou dynasty c. 1045256 BCE

Western Zhou
Eastern Zhou
Spring and Autumn
Warring States
IMPERIAL

Qin dynasty 221206 BCE

Han dynasty 206 BCE 220 CE
Western Han
Xin dynasty
Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220280
Wei, Shu and Wu
Jin dynasty 265420
Western Jin
Eastern Jin

16 Kingdoms

Southern and Northern Dynasties

420589
Sui dynasty 581618
Tang dynasty 618907
(Second Zhou 690705)
5 Dynasties and
10 Kingdoms
907960

Liao dynasty
9071125

Song dynasty
9601279
Northern Song

W. Xia

Southern Song

Jin

Yuan dynasty 12711368

Ming dynasty 13681644
Qing dynasty 16441911
MODERN

Republic of China 19121949

People's Republic
of China
1949present

Republic of
China on Taiwan
1949present
Related articles

Chinese historiography

Timeline of Chinese history

Dynasties in Chinese history

Linguistic history

Art history

Economic history

Education history

Science and technology history

Legal history

Media history

Military history

Naval history

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Main articles: History of China and Timeline of Chinese history

Prehistory
Main article: Chinese prehistory

Jade deer ornament dating from theShang Dynasty (17th11th centuries BCE)

Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China between 250,000 and 2.24
million years ago.[34] A cave inZhoukoudian (near present-day Beijing) exhibits hominid fossils dated
at between 680,000 and 780,000 BCE.[35] The fossils are ofPeking Man, an example of Homo
erectus who used fire.[36] The Peking Man site has also yielded remains of Homo sapiens dating back
to 18,00011,000 BCE.[37] Some scholars assert that a form of proto-writing existed in China as early
as 3000 BCE.[38]
According to Chinese tradition, the first imperial dynasty was the Xia, which emerged around 2070
BCE.[39] However, the dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations
found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou, Henan in 1959.[40] It remains unclear whether these sites are
the remains of the Xia Dynasty or of another culture from the same period. [41]

Early dynastic rule

Further information: Dynasties in Chinese history
The first Chinese dynasty that left historical records, the loosely feudal Shang,[42] settled along
the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE.[43] The oracle bone script of
the Shang Dynasty represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found, [44] and is a direct
ancestor of modern Chinese characters.[45] The Shang were conquered by the Zhou, who ruled
between the 12th and 5th centuries BCE, until its centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal
warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou state and
continually waged war with each other in the 300-yearSpring and Autumn Period, only occasionally
deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th3rd centuries BCE,
there were seven powerful sovereign states in what is now China, each with its own king, ministry
and army.

Imperial China

Some of the thousands of life-sizeTerracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty, ca. 210 BCE

The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE, after the state of Qin conquered the other six
kingdoms and established the first unified Chinese state. Qin Shi Huang, the emperor of Qin,
proclaimed himself the "First Emperor" () and imposed reforms throughout China, notably the

forced standardization of the Chinese language, measurements, length of cart axles, and currency.
The Qin Dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after Qin Shi Huang's death, as its
harsh legalist and authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion. [46][47]
The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, and created a lasting Han
cultural identity among its populace that has endured to the present day.[46][47] The Han
Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea,
Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia. Han
China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.[48] The Han Dynasty
adopted Confucianism, a philosophy developed in the Spring and Autumn period, as its official state
ideology. Despite the Han's official abandonment of Legalism, the official ideology of the Qin,
Legalist institutions and policies remained and formed the basis of the Han government. [49]

The Great Wall of China was built by several dynasties over two thousand years to protect the sedentary agricultural
regions of theChinese interior from incursions bynomadic pastoralists of the northernsteppes

After the collapse of Han, a period of disunion known as the period of the Three Kingdoms followed.
[50]
In 581 CE, China was reunited under the Sui. However, the Sui Dynasty declined following its
defeat in the GoguryeoSui War (598614).[51][52]
Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology and culture entered a golden
age.[53] The An Shi Rebellionin the 8th century devastated the country and weakened the dynasty.
[54]
The Song Dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first
Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy.[55] Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the
population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly due to the expansion of rice
cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song
Dynasty also saw a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and portrait painting
were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity,[56] and social elites gathered to view art, share
their own and trade precious artworks. The Song Dynasty saw a revival of Confucianism, in
response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang.[57]

Detail from Along the River During the Qingming Festival, a 12th-century painting showing everyday life in theSong
Dynasty's capital city, Bianjing (today's Kaifeng)

In the 13th century, China was gradually conquered by the Mongol empire. In 1271,
the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty; the Yuan conquered the last remnant

of the Song Dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120
million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300. [58] A peasant
namedZhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty. Under
the Ming Dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the
world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this
period that Zheng He led explorations throughout the world, reaching as far as Africa.[59] In the early
years of the Ming Dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. During the Ming
Dynasty, philosophers such as Wang Yangming further critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism
with concepts of individualism and innate morality.[60]
In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official
who led the peasant revolt. The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell.
The Manchu Qing Dynasty then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li's
short-lived Shun Dynasty, and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital
of the Qing Dynasty.

End of dynastic rule

A 19th-century painting depicting the Taiping Rebellion of 18501864

The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. In the
19th century, the dynasty experienced Western imperialism following the First Opium War (183942)
and the Second Opium War (185660) with Britain. China was forced to sign unequal treaties, pay
compensation, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the
British[61] under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking. The First Sino-Japanese War (189495) resulted in Qing
China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan.[62]
The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which millions of people died. In the
1850s and 1860s, the failedTaiping Rebellion ravaged southern China. Other major
rebellions included the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (185567), the Nien Rebellion (185168), the Miao
Rebellion (185473), the Panthay Rebellion (185673) and the Dungan Revolt (186277).
In the 19th century, the great Chinese Diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by
conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 187679, in which between 9
and 13 million people died.[63] In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan to establish a
modern constitutional monarchy, but he was overthrown by the Empress Dowager Cixi in a coup
d'tat. The ill-fated anti-Western Boxer Rebellion of 18991901 further weakened the Qing dynasty.
The Xinhai Revolution of 191112 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic
of China.

Republic of China (19121949)

Main articles: Republic of China (19121949) and History of the Republic of China

Sun Yat-sen, the father of modern China (seated on right), and Chiang Kai-shek, laterPresident of the Republic of
China

On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the
KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president. [64] However, the presidency was later
given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In
the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to
abdicate and reestablish the republic.[65]
After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government
was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its
territory.[66][67] In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the
country under its own control with a series of deft military and political manoeuvrings, known
collectively as the Northern Expedition.[68][69] The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital
to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development
outlined in Sun Yat-sen's San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state. [70]
[71]
The political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the Communists, against whom
the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War. This war continued
successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the Communists retreated in the Long March, until
Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan.[72]
The Second Sino-Japanese War (19371945), a theatre of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance
between the Kuomintang and the Communists. Japanese forces committed numerous war
atrocities against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died. [73] An
estimated 200,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese
occupation.[74] Japan surrendered unconditionally to China in 1945. Taiwan, including
the Pescadores, was put under the administrative control of the Republic of China, which
immediately claimed sovereignty. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained.
The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil
war. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing unrest, many
provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.[75]

People's Republic of China (1949present)

Main article: History of the People's Republic of China

Mao Zedong proclaiming the establishment of the PRC in 1949

Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most
of mainland China, and the Kuomintang retreating offshore, reducing the ROC's territory to
only Taiwan, Hainan, and their surrounding islands. On 1 October 1949, Communist Party
Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China. [76] In 1950,
the People's Liberation Army succeeded incapturing Hainan from the ROC[77] and occupying Tibet.
[78]
However, remaining Nationalist forces continued to wage an insurgency in western
China throughout the 1950s.[79]
Mao encouraged population growth, and under his leadership the Chinese population almost
doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million. [80] However, Mao's Great Leap Forward, a largescale economic and social reform project, resulted in an estimated 45 million deathsbetween 1958
and 1961, mostly from starvation.[81] Between 1 and 2 million landlords were executed as
"counterrevolutionaries."[82] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a
period of political recrimination and social upheaval which lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In
October 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations, and took its seat as a
permanent member of the Security Council.[83]
After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the faction known as the Gang of Four, who were blamed
for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution,Deng Xiaoping took power and led the country
to significant economic reforms. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control
over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded in favour of private land leases. This
turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with
an increasingly open market environment.[84] China adopted its current constitutionon 4 December
1982. In 1989, the violent suppression of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought
condemnation and sanctions against the Chinese government from various countries. [85]

Shanghai skyline

Jiang Zemin, Li Peng and Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s. Under their administration, China's
economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an
average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.[86][87] The country formally joined
the World Trade Organization in 2001, and maintained its high rate of economic growth under Hu
Jintao and Wen Jiabao's leadership in the 2000s. However, rapid growth also severely impacted the

country's resources and environment,[88][89] and caused major social displacement.[90][91] Living
standards continued to improve rapidly despite the late-2000s recession, but centralized political
control remained tight.[92]
Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012 were marked by factional
disputes and political scandals.[93] During China's 18th National Communist Party Congress in
November 2012, Hu Jintao was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party by Xi
Jinping.[94][95] Under Xi, the Chinese government began large-scale efforts to reform its economy,[96]
[97]
which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing growth.[98][99][100][101] The Xi-Li
Administration also announced major reforms to the one-child policy and prison system.[102]

Geography
Main article: Geography of China

A composite satellite image showing the topography of China

Longsheng Rice Terrace in Guangxi

The Li River in Guangxi

Political geography
Main articles: Borders of China and Territorial changes of the People's Republic of China
The People's Republic of China is the second-largest country in the world by land
area[103] after Russia, and is either the third- or fourth-largest by total area, after Russia, Canada and,
depending on the definition of total area, the United States. [k] China's total area is generally stated as
being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi).[104] Specific area figures range from
9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to theEncyclopdia Britannica,
[105]
9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook,[5] to
9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the CIA World Factbook.[7]

China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) from the
mouth of the Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin.[7] China borders 14 nations, more than any other
country except Russia, which also borders 14.[106] China extends across much of East Asia,
bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Burma in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan[l] in South
Asia; Afghanistan, Tajikistan,Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; and Russia, Mongolia,
and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia. Additionally, China shares maritime boundaries
with South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, the Philippines and Taiwan.

Landscape and climate

The South China Sea coast atHainan

Jiuzhaigou Valley in Sichuan

The territory of China lies between latitudes 18 and 54 N, and longitudes 73 and 135 E. China's
landscapes vary significantly across its vast width. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow
Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the
edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is
dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two
major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include
the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the
Himalayas. High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as
the Taklamakan and theGobi Desert. The world's highest point, Mount Everest (8,848m), lies on the
Sino-Nepalese border.[107] The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake
bed of Ayding Lake (154m) in the Turpan Depression.[108]
China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced
temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from
high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes
are warm and moist.[109] The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country's
highly complex topography.

A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi
Desert.[110][111] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency
of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust
stormsplaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including
Korea and Japan. China's environmental watchdog, Sepa, stated in 2007 that China is losing a
million acres (4,000 km) per year to desertification.[112] Water quality, erosion, and pollution
controlhave become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the
Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortagesfor hundreds of millions of people.[113]

Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of China

A giant panda, China's most famous endangered and endemicspecies, at the Wolong National Nature
Reserve in Sichuan

China is one of 17 megadiverse countries,[114] lying in two of the world's major ecozones:
the Palearctic and the Indomalaya. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and
vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after Braziland Colombia.
[115]
The country signed the Rio de Janeiro Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and
became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993.[116] It later produced a National Biodiversity
Strategy and Action Plan, with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September
2010.[117]
China is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest such number in the world),
[118]
1,221 species of birds (eighth),[119] 424 species of reptiles (seventh)[120] and 333 species of
amphibians (seventh).[121] China is the most biodiverse country in each category outside of the
tropics. Wildlife in China share habitat with and bear acute pressure from the world's largest
population of homo sapiens. At least 840animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of
local extinction in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and
poaching for food, fur and ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine.[122] Endangered wildlife is
protected by law, and as of 2005, the country has over 2,349 nature reserves, covering a total area
of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area. [123]
China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,[124] and is home to a variety of forest types.
Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such
as moose and Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species.[125] The understorey of
moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of juniper and yew,
the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons. Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and
southern China, support as many as 146,000 species of flora.[125] Tropical and seasonal rainforests,
though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species
found in China.[125] China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi,[126] and of them, nearly 6,000
are higher fungi.[127]

Environmental issues
Main article: Environmental issues in China

See also: Water resources of the People's Republic of China

Wind turbines in Xinjiang. TheDabancheng project is Asia's largestwind farm

In recent decades, China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution.[128]
[129]
While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, they are
poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in
favour of rapid economic development.[130] Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country;
the World Bankestimated in 2013 that 16 of the world's 20 most-polluted cities are located in China.
[131]
China is the world's largest carbon dioxideemitter.[132] The country also has water problems.
Roughly 298 million Chinese in rural areas do not have access to safe drinking water,[133]and 40% of
China's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011. [134] This crisis is
compounded by increasingly severe water shortages, particularly in the north-east of the country.[135]
[136]

However, China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy commercialization,

with $52 billion invested in 2011 alone;[137][138][139] it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy
technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects. [140][141] By 2009, over 17%
of China's energy was derived from renewable sources most notably hydroelectric power plants, of
which China has a total installed capacity of 197 GW.[142] In 2011, the Chinese government
announced plans to invest four trillion yuan (US$618.55 billion) in water infrastructure
and desalination projects over a ten-year period, and to complete construction of a flood prevention
and anti-drought system by 2020.[135][143] In 2013, China began a five-year, US$277-billion effort to
reduce air pollution, particularly in the north of the country.[144]

Politics
Main article: Politics of the People's Republic of China

Tiananmen with a portrait of Mao Zedong

The People's Republic of China is one of the world's few remaining socialist states openly endorsing
communism (see Ideology of the Communist Party of China). The Chinese government has been
variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian andcorporatist,[145] with
heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably against free access to the Internet, freedom of the
press, freedom of assembly, the right to have children, free formation of social
organizations and freedom of religion.[146] Its current political, ideological and economic system has
been termed by its leaders as the "people's democratic dictatorship", "socialism with Chinese
characteristics" (which isMarxism adapted to Chinese circumstances) and the "socialist market
economy" respectively.[147]

Communist Party
The country is ruled by the Communist Party of China (CPC), whose power is enshrined in China's
constitution.[148] The Chinese electoral system is hierarchical, whereby local People's Congresses
are directly elected, and all higher levels of People's Congresses up to theNational People's
Congress (NPC) are indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level immediately below.
[149]
The political system is decentralized, and provincial and sub-provincial leaders have a significant
amount of autonomy.[150] There are other political parties in China, referred to in China as democratic
parties, which participate in the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political
Consultative Conference (CPPCC).[151]

The Great Hall of the People in Beijing, where the National People's Congress convenes

Compared to its closed-door policies until the mid-1970s, the liberalization of China has resulted in
the administrative climate being less restrictive than before. China supports the Leninist principle of
"democratic centralism",[152] but the elected National People's Congress has been described as a
"rubber stamp" body.[153] As a single-party state, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of
China holds ultimate power and authority over state and government. [m]

Government
The President of China is the titular head of state, serving as the
ceremonial figurehead under National People's Congress.[n] The Premier of China is the head of
government, presiding over the State Council composed of four vice premiers and the heads of
ministries and commissions. The incumbent President is Xi Jinping, who is also the General
Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission,
making him China's paramount leader.[94] The incumbent Premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a senior
member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top decision-making body.[156]
There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are
now held at the village and town levels.[157][158] However, the Party retains effective control over
government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of
the time. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government
corruption.[159][160] Nonetheless, the level of public support for the government and its management of
the nation is high, with 8095% of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central
government, according to a 2011 survey.[161]

Administrative divisions
Main articles: Administrative divisions of China, Districts of Hong Kong and Municipalities of Macau

The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces and
considers Taiwan to be its 23rd province, although Taiwan is currently and independently governed
by the Republic of China, which disputes the PRC's claim. [162] China also has five subdivisions
officially termed autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; fourmunicipalities; and
two Special Administrative Regions (SARs), which enjoy a degree of political autonomy. These 22
provinces, five autonomous regions, and four municipalities can be collectively referred to as
"mainland China", a term which usually excludes the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau. None of these
divisions are recognized by the ROC government, which claims the entirety of the PRC's territory.
Provinces ()

Anhui ()

Hainan ()

Hunan ()

Qinghai ()

Fujian ()

Hebei ()

Jiangsu ()

Shaanxi ()

Gansu ()

Heilongjiang ()

Jiangxi ()

Shandong (

Guangdong ()

Henan ()

Jilin ()

Shanxi ()

Guizhou ()

Hubei ()

Liaoning ()

Sichuan ()

Autonomous regions ()

Municipalities ()

Guangxi ()

Beijing ()

Inner Mongolia / Nei Mongol ()

Chongqing ()

Ningxia ()

Shanghai ()

Xinjiang ()

Tianjin ()

Tibet / Xizang ()

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of China

Xi Jinping at a meeting with United States Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta in September 2012.

The PRC has diplomatic relations with 171 countries and maintains embassies in 162.
[163]
Its legitimacy is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries; it is thus the largest
and most populous state with limited recognition. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China
as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members
of the United Nations Security Council.[164] China was also a former member and leader of the NonAligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries.[165] Along with
Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major
economies and hosted the group's third official summit at Sanya, Hainan in April 2011.[166]
Under its interpretation of the One-China policy, Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing
diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties
with the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have protested on numerous
occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan, [167] especially in the
matter of armament sales.[168]Political meetings between foreign government officials and the 14th
Dalai Lama are also opposed by China, as the latter considers Tibet to be formally part of China. [169]
Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles
of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which
encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences. [170] This policy may
have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations,
such as Zimbabwe, North Korea and Iran.[171] China has a close economic and military relationship
with Russia,[172] and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council. [173][174][175]

A meeting of G5 leaders in 2007, with China's Hu Jintao second from right

Trade relations
In recent decades, China has played an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security
pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbours. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new East Asia
Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues.[176] The EAS, which includesASEAN
Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a
founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), along with Russia and the
Central Asian republics. China became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on 11
December 2001.

In 2000, the United States Congress approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with
China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.
[177]
China has a significant trade surplus with the United States, its most important export market.
[178]
In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued,
giving China an unfair trade advantage.[179][180][181] In recent decades, China has followed a policy
of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation;[182][183][184] in 2012, Sino-African
trade totalled over US$160 billion.[185] China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South
American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links
with Argentina.[186][187]
Territorial disputes

Map depicting territorial disputes between the PRC and neighbouring states. For a larger map, see here.

Main article: Foreign relations of China International territorial disputes

See also: List of wars involving the People's Republic of China
In addition to claiming all of Taiwan, China has been involved in a number of other international
territorial disputes. Since the 1990s, China has been involved in negotiations to resolve its disputed
land borders, including a disputed border with India and an undefined border withBhutan. China is
additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East
and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal.[188][189] On 21 May
2014 President Xi, speaking at a conference in Shanghai, pledged to settle China's territorial
disputes peacefully. "China stays committed to seeking peaceful settlement of disputes with other
countries over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests," he said. [190]
Emerging superpower status
China is regularly hailed as a potential new superpower, with certain commentators citing its rapid
economic progress, growing military might, very large population, and increasing international
influence as signs that it will play a prominent global role in the 21st century.[24][191]Others, however,
warn that economic bubbles and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China's growth as
the century progresses.[192][193] Some authors also question the definition of "superpower", arguing that
China's large economy alone would not qualify it as a superpower, and noting that it lacks the
military and cultural influence of the United States.[194]

Sociopolitical issues, human rights and reform

See also: Human rights in China, Hukou system, Social welfare in China, Elections in the People's
Republic of China, Censorship in China and Feminism in China

Protests in support of Cantonesemedia localization in Guangzhou, 2010

The Chinese democracy movement, social activists, and some members of the Communist Party of
China have all identified the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls
have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s, political freedom is still tightly restricted.
The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens
include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal
suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant
protection against criminal prosecution by the state. [195][196] Censorship of political speech and
information, most notably on the Internet,[197][198] is openly and routinely used in China to silence
criticism of the government and the rulingCommunist Party.[199][200] In 2005, Reporters Without
Borders ranked China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index, indicating a
very low level of perceived press freedom.[201]
Rural migrants to China's cities often find themselves treated as second-class citizens by
the hukou household registration system, which controls access to state benefits.[202][203] Property
rights are often poorly protected,[202] and taxation disproportionately affects poorer citizens.
[203]
However, a number of rural taxes have been reduced or abolished since the early 2000s, and
additional social services provided to rural dwellers.[204][205]
A number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies and NGOs also routinely criticize China's
human rights record, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced
abortions,[206] forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights,[146][207][208] and excessive use
of the death penalty.[209][210] The government has suppressed demonstrations by organizations that it
considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests
of 1989. The Chinese state is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses
in Tibet and Xinjiang, including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression.[211][212]
The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the notion of human
rights should take into account a country's present level of economic developmentand the "people's
rights to subsistence and development".[213] It emphasizes the rise in the Chinese standard of
living, literacy rate and average life expectancy since the 1970s, as well as improvements in
workplace safety and efforts to combat natural disasters such as the perennial Yangtze River floods.
[213][214][215]
Furthermore, some Chinese politicians have spoken out in support of democratization,
although others remain more conservative.[216] Some major reform efforts have been conducted; for
an instance in November 2013, the government announced its plans to the abolish the muchcriticized re-education through labour program.[102] Although during the 2000s and early 2010s, the
Chinese government was increasingly tolerant of NGOs that offer practical, efficient solutions to
social problems, such "third sector" activity remained heavily regulated. [217]

Military
Main article: People's Liberation Army

A PLAAF Chengdu J-10 fighter aircraft

With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military
force in the world, commanded by theCentral Military Commission (CMC).[218] The PLA consists of
the People's Liberation Army Ground Force (PLAGF), the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN),
the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF), and a strategic nuclear force, the Second Artillery
Corps. According to the Chinese government, China's military expenditure in 2012 totalled US$100
billion, constituting the world's second-largest military budget.[219] However, other nations, such as the
United States, have argued that China does not report its real level of military spending, which is
allegedly much higher than the official budget.[220]
As a recognized nuclear weapons state, China is considered both a major regional military power
and a potential military superpower.[221]According to a 2013 report by the US Department of Defense,
China fields between 50 and 75 nuclear ICBMs, along with a number ofSRBMs.[22] However,
compared with the other four UN Security Council Permanent Members, China has a relatively
limited power projection capabilities.[222] To offset this, it has developed numerous power projection
assets its first aircraft carrier entered service in 2012,[223][224][225][226] and it maintains a substantial fleet
of submarines, including severalnuclear-powered attack and ballistic missile submarines.[227] China
has furthermore established a network of foreign military relationships along critical sea lanes.[228]

Lanzhou (DDG170) is a Type 052C destroyer of the PLAN

China has made significant progress in modernising its air force since the early 2000s, purchasing
Russian fighter jets such as the Sukhoi Su-30, and also manufacturing its own modern fighters, most
notably the Chengdu J-10 and the Shenyang J-11, J-15 and J-16.[223][229]China is furthermore engaged
in developing an indigenous stealth aircraft and numerous combat drones.[230][231][232] China has also
updated its ground forces, replacing its ageing Soviet-derived tank inventory with numerous variants
of the modern Type 99 tank, and upgrading its battlefield C3I and C4I systems to enhance
its network-centric warfare capabilities.[233] In addition, China has developed or acquired numerous
advanced missile systems,[234][235] including anti-satellite missiles,[236] cruise missiles[237] and submarinelaunched nuclear ICBMs.[238]

Economy
Main articles: Economy of China, Agriculture in China and List of Chinese administrative divisions by
GDP

The Shanghai Stock Exchangebuilding in Shanghai's Lujiazui financial district. Shanghai has the 25th-largest city
GDP in the world, totalling US$304 billion in 2011[239]

As of 2013, China has the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, totalling
approximately US$9.3253 trillion according to the International Monetary. If purchasing power
parity (PPP) is taken into account (US$13.395 trillion in 2013), China's economy is again second
only to the United States. In 2013, its PPP GDP per capita was US$9,844, while nominal GDP per
capita was US$6,747. Both cases put China behind around ninety countries (out of 183 countries on
the IMF list) in global GDP per capita rankings.[12]

Economic history and growth

Main article: Economic history of China (1949present)
From its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet-style
centrally planned economy. Following Mao's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural
Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move
towards a more market-oriented mixed economy under one-party rule. Agricultural
collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign trade became a major new
focus, leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Inefficientstate-owned
enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in
massive job losses. Modern-day China is mainly characterized as having a market economy based
on private property ownership,[240] and is one of the leading examples ofstate capitalism.[241][242] The
state still dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy production and heavy industries, but
private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in
2008.[243][244][245][246]

Nanjing Road, a major shopping street in Shanghai

Since economic liberalization began in 1978, China has been among the world's fastest-growing
economies,[247] relying largely on investment- and export-led growth. [248] According to the IMF,
China's annual average GDP growth between 2001 and 2010 was 10.5%. Between 2007 and 2011,
China's economic growth rate was equivalent to all of the G7 countries' growth combined.
[249]
According to theGlobal Growth Generators index announced by Citigroup in February 2011,
China has a very high 3G growth rating.[250] Its high productivity, low labour costs and relatively good

infrastructure have made it a global leader in manufacturing. However, the Chinese economy is
highly energy-intensive and inefficient;[251] China became the world's largest energy consumer in
2010,[252] relies on coal to supply over 70% of its energy needs, and surpassed the US to become the
world's largest oil importer in September 2013.[253][254] However, China's economic growth and
industrialization has damaged its environment, and in the early 2010s, China's economic growth rate
began to slow amid domestic credit troublesinternational demand for Chinese exports has
weakened and this has led to turmoil in the global economy.[255][256][257]
In the online realm, China's e-commerce industry has grown more slowly than the EU and the US,
with a significant period of development occurring from around 2009 onwards. According to Credit
Suisse, the total value of online transactions in China grew from an insignificant size in 2008 to
around RMB 4 trillion (US$660 billion) in 2012. Alipay has the biggest market share in China with
300 million users and control of just under half of China's online payment market in February 2014,
whileTenpay's share is around 20 percent, and China UnionPay's share is slightly greater than 10
percent.[258]

China in the global economy

China is a member of the WTO and is the world's largest trading power, with a total international
trade value of US$3.87 trillion in 2012.[21] Its foreign exchange reserves reached US$2.85 trillion by
the end of 2010, an increase of 18.7% over the previous year, making its reserves by far the world's
largest.[259][260] As of 2009, China owns an estimated $1.6 trillion of US securities.[261] China, holding
over US$1.16 trillion in US Treasury bonds,[262] is the largest foreign holder of US public debt.[263][264] In
2012, China was the world's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting
$253 billion.[265] China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $62.4 billion in 2012,[265] and a
number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies. [266] China's undervalued exchange
rate has caused friction with other major economies,[180][267][268] and it has also been widely criticized for
manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods.[269][270]

A graph comparing the 2012 nominal GDPs of major economies

in US$ billions, according to IMF data[271]

China ranked 29th in the Global Competitiveness Index in 2009,[272] although it is only ranked 136th
among the 179 countries measured in the 2011 Index of Economic Freedom.[273] In 2011, 61 Chinese
companies were listed in the Fortune Global 500.[274] Measured by total revenues, three of the world's
top ten most valuable companies in 2011 were Chinese, including fifth-ranked Sinopec Group, sixthranked China National Petroleum and seventh-ranked State Grid (the world's largest electric utilities
company).[274]

Class and income equality

See also: Income inequality in China
China's middle-class population (if defined as those with annual income of between US$10,000 and
US$60,000) had reached more than 300 million by 2012.[275] According to theHurun Report, the
number of US dollar billionaires in China increased from 130 in 2009 to 251 in 2012, giving China
the world's second-highest number of billionaires.[276][277]China's domestic retail market was worth over
20 trillion yuan (US$3.2 trillion) in 2012[278] and is growing at over 12% annually as of 2013,[279] while

the country's luxury goods market has expanded immensely, with 27.5% of the global share.
[280]
However, in recent years, China's rapid economic growth has contributed to severe consumer
inflation,[281][282]leading to increased government regulation.[283] China has a high level of economic
inequality,[284] which has increased in the past few decades.[285] In 2012, China's Gini coefficientwas
0.474.[286]

Internationalization of the renminbi

Main article: Internationalization of the renminbi
Since 2008 global financial crisis, China realized the dependency of US Dollar and the weakness of
the international monetary system.[287] The RMB Internationalization accelerated in 2009 when China
established dim sum bond market and expanded Cross-Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project,
which helps establish pools of offshore RMB liquidity.[288][289]
In November 2010, Russia began using the Chinese renminbi in its bilateral trade with China.[290] This
was soon followed by Japan,[291] Australia,[292] Singapore,[293] and the United Kingdom.[294] As a result of
the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the eighth-most-traded currency in the world
in 2013.[295]

Science and technology

Main articles: Science and technology in China and Chinese space program

History of science and

technology in China

Inventions

Discoveries
By era

Han dynasty

Tang dynasty

Song dynasty

Science and technology in the Republic of China

(1912-1949)

People's Republic of China (PRC)

Present-day People's Republic of China (PRC)

V
T
E

Historical
China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming Dynasty. Ancient Chinese
discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four
Great Inventions), later became widespread in Asia and Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the
first to use negative numbers.[296][297] However, by the 17th century, the Western world had surpassed
China in scientific and technological development.[298] The causes of this Great Divergence continue
to be debated.[299]
After repeated military defeats by Western nations in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began
promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the
Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based
on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.[300] After
Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations,
[301]
and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.[302]

Modern era
Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific
research,[303] spending over US$100 billion on scientific research and development in 2011 alone.
[304]
Science and technology are seen as vital for achieving economic and political goals, and are held
as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as "techno-nationalism". [305] While
Chinese-born scientists have won the Nobel Prize in Physics four times and the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry once, these scientists had all earned their doctorates and conducted their award-winning
research in the West.[o]

The launch of a ChineseLong March 3B rocket

China is rapidly developing its education system with an emphasis on science, mathematics and
engineering; in 2009, it produced over 10,000 Ph.D. engineering graduates, and as many as
500,000 BSc graduates, more than any other country.[310] China is also the world's second-largest
publisher of scientific papers, producing 121,500 in 2010 alone, including 5,200 in leading
international scientific journals.[311] Chinese technology companies such as Huawei and Lenovo have
become world leaders in telecommunications and personal computing, [312][313][314] and

Chinese supercomputersare consistently ranked among the world's most powerful.[315][316] Currently
China is experiencing a significant growth in the use of industrial robots; from 2008 to 2011, the
installation of multi-role robots has risen by 136 percent.[317]
The Chinese space program is one of the world's most active, and is a major source of national
pride.[318][319] In 1970, China launched its first satellite, Dong Fang Hong I, becoming the fifth country to
do so independently.[320] In 2003, China became the third country to independently send humans into
space, with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5; as of June 2013, ten Chinese
nationals have journeyed into space. In 2011, China's first space station module, Tiangong-1, was
launched, marking the first step in a project to assemble a large manned station by the early 2020s.
[321]
In 2013, China successfully landed the Chang'e 3 probe and Yutu rover onto the moon. The rover
is expected to last 3 months and the lander up to one year. China plans to collect lunar soil samples
by 2017.[322]

Infrastructure
Telecommunications
Main article: Telecommunications in China
China currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country in the world, with over 1
billion users by February 2012.[323] It also has the world's largest number ofinternet and broadband
users,[324] with over 591 million internet users as of 2013, equivalent to around 44% of its population.
[325]
A 2013 report found that the national average internet connection speed is 3.14 MB/s. [326] As of
July 2013, China accounts for 24% of the world's internet-connected devices. [327]
China Telecom and China Unicom, the world's two largest broadband providers, accounted for 20%
of global broadband subscribers. China Telecom alone serves more than 50 million broadband
subscribers, while China Unicom serves more than 40 million. [328] Several Chinese
telecommunications companies, most notably Huawei and ZTE, have been accused of spying for the
Chinese military.[329]
China is developing its own satellite navigation system, dubbed Beidou, which began offering
commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012, [330] and is planned to offer global coverage by
2020.[331]

Transport

The Baling River Bridge is one of the world's highest.

Main article: Transport in China

Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the
creation of a network of national highwaysand expressways. In 2011 China's highways had reached
a total length of 85,000 km (53,000 mi), making it the longest highway system in the world.[332] China
has the world's largest market for automobiles, having surpassed the United States in both auto
sales and production. Auto sales in 2009 exceeded 13.6 million[333] and reach 40 million by 2020.[334] A
side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents,

with poorly enforced traffic laws cited as a possible causein 2011 alone, around 62,000
Chinese died in road accidents.[336] In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport,
despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles as of 2012, there are approximately 470 million
bicycles in China.[337]
[335]

Terminal 3 of Beijing Capital International Airport is the 2nd largest airport terminal in the world

China's railways, which are state-owned, are among the busiest in the world, handling a quarter of
the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006. [338][339] As of 2013, the
country had 103,144 km (64,091 mi) of railways, the third longest network in the world.[340] All
provinces and regions are connected to the rail network except Macau. The railways strain to meet
enormous demand particularly during the Chinese New Year holiday, when the world's largest
annual human migration takes place.[339] In 2013, Chinese railways delivered 2.106 billion passenger
trips, generating 1,059.56 billion passenger-kilometers and carried 3.967 billion tons of freight,
generating 2,917.4 billion cargo tons-kilometers.[340]
China's high-speed rail (HSR) system, built entirely since the early 2000s, had 11,028 kilometres
(6,852 miles) of track in 2013 and was the longest HSR network in the world.[341] The network
includes the BeijingGuangzhouShenzhen High-Speed Railway, the single longest HSR line in the
world, and the BeijingShanghai High-Speed Railway, which has three of longest railroad bridges in
the world.[342] The HSR track network is set to reach approximately 16,000 km (9,900 mi) by 2020.
[343]
The Shanghai Maglev Train, which reaches 431 km/h (268 mph), is the fastest commercial train
service in the world.[344]

The Shanghai Maglev Train

As of May 2014, 20 Chinese cities have urban mass transit systems in operation, with a dozen more
to join them by 2020.[345] The Shanghai Metro, Beijing Subway, Guangzhou Metro, Hong Kong
MTR and Shenzhen Metro are among the longest and busiest in the world.

China's indigenous bullet trainCRH380A

There were 182 commercial airports in China in 2012. With 82 new airports planned to open by
2015, more than two-thirds of the airports under construction worldwide in 2013 were in China,
[346]
and Boeing expects that China's fleet of active commercial aircraft in China will grow from 1,910 in
2011 to 5,980 in 2031.[346] With rapid expansion in civil aviation, the largest airports in China have
also joined the ranks of the busiest in the world. In 2013, Beijing's Capital Airport ranked second in
the world by passenger traffic (it was 26th in 2002). Since 2010, the Hong Kong International
Airport and Shanghai Pudong International Airport have ranked first and third in air cargo tonnage.
Some 80% of China's airspace remains restricted for military use, and Chinese airlines made up
eight of the 10 worst-performing Asian airlines in terms of delays. [347] China has over 2,000 river and
seaports, about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping. In 2012, the Ports of Shanghai, Hong
Kong, Shenzhen, Ningbo-Zhoushan, Guangzhou, Qingdao, Tianjin, Dalian ranked in the top in the
world in in container traffic and cargo tonnage .[348]

The Port of Shanghai's deep water harbour on Yangshan Island in the Hangzhou Bay became the world's busiest
container port in 2010.

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of China

A 2009 population density map of the People's Republic of China. The eastern coastal provinces are much more
densely populated than the western interior

The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China as
approximately 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14%
were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old. [349] The population growth
rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%.[350]
Although a middle-income country by Western standards, China's rapid growth has pulled hundreds
of millions of its people out of poverty since 1978. Today, about 10% of the Chinese population lives
below the poverty line of US$1 per day, down from 64% in 1978. Urban unemployment in China
reportedly declined to 4% by the end of 2007.[351] At present, urban unemployment rate of China is
about 4.1%.[352][353]
With a population of over 1.3 billion and dwindling natural resources, the government of China is
very concerned about its population growth rate and has attempted since 1979, with mixed results,
[354]
to implement a strict family planning policy, known as the "one-child policy." Before 2013, this
policy sought to restrict families to one child each, with exceptions for ethnic minorities and a degree
of flexibility in rural areas. A major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing
families to have two children if one parent is an only child.[355] China's family planning minister
indicated in 2008 that the one-child policy would be maintained until at least 2020. [356] The one-child
policy is resisted, particularly in rural areas, primarily because of the need for agricultural labour and
a traditional preference for boys. Families who breach the policy often lie during the census. [357] Data
from the 2010 census implies that the total fertility rate may now be around 1.4.[358]

Population of China from 1949 to 2008

The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may be contributing to an imbalance in the sex
ratio at birth.[359][360] According to the 2010 census, the sex ration at birth was 118.06 boys for every
100 girls,[361] which is beyond the normal range of around 105 boys for every 100 girls. [362] The 2010
census found that males accounted for 51.27 percent of the total population. [361] However, China's
sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.82 percent of the total
population.[361]

Ethnic groups
Main articles: List of ethnic groups in China, Ethnic minorities in China and Ethnic groups in Chinese
history
China officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which are the Han Chinese, who
constitute about 91.51% of the total population.[9] The Han Chinese the world's largest single ethnic
group[363] outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division except Tibet and Xinjiang.
[364]
Ethnic minorities account for about 8.49% of the population of China, according to the 2010
census.[9]Compared with the 2000 population census, the Han population increased by 66,537,177
persons, or 5.74%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by
7,362,627 persons, or 6.92%.[9] The 2010 census recorded a total of 593,832 foreign citizens living in

China. The largest such groups were from South Korea (120,750), the United States (71,493) and
Japan (66,159).[365]

Languages
Main articles: Languages of China and List of endangered languages in China

1990 map of Chinese ethnolinguistic groups

There are as many as 292 living languages in China.[366] The languages most commonly spoken
belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, which contains Mandarin (spoken
natively by 70% of the population),[367] and other Chinese
languages: Wu(including Shanghainese), Yue (including Cantonese and Taishanese), Min (including
Hokkien and Teochew), Xiang, Gan, and Hakka. Languages of the Tibeto-Burman branch,
including Tibetan, Qiang, Naxi and Yi, are spoken are spoken across the Tibetan and Yunnan
Guizhou Plateau. Other ethnic minority languages in southwest
China include Zhuang, Thai, Dong and Sui of the Tai-Kadai family, Miao andYao of the HmongMien
family, and Wa of the Austroasiatic family. Across northeastern and northwestern China, minority
ethnic groups speak Altaic languages including Manchu, Mongolian and several Turkic
languages: Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Salar and Western Yugur.Korean is spoken natively along the
border with North Korea. Sarikoli, the language of Tajiks in western Xinjiang, is an Indo-European
language. Taiwanese aborigines, including a small population on the mainland, speak Austronesian
languages.[368]
Standard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect, is the official national
language of China and is used as a lingua franca in the country between people of different linguistic
backgrounds.[369]
Chinese characters have been used as the written script for the Sinitic languages for thousands of
years. They allow speakers of mutually unintelligible Chinese languages and dialects to
communicate with each other through writing. In 1956, the government introduced simplified
characters, which have supplanted the older traditional characters in mainland China. Chinese
characters are romanized using the Pinyin system. Tibetan uses an alphabet based on an Indic
script. Uyghur is most commonly written in a Perseo-Arabic script. The Mongolian script used in
China and the Manchu scriptare both derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet. Modern Zhuang uses
the Latin alphabet.

Urbanization
See also: List of cities in China, List of cities in China by population and Metropolitan regions of
China

China has urbanized significantly in the past few decades. The percent of the country's population
living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1990 to 46% in 2007.[370] It is estimated that China's
urban population will reach one billion by 2030.[370] As of 2012, there are more than
262 million migrant workers in China.[371] Most of them are from rural areas and seek work in the
cities.
China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million, [372] including the
seven megacities (cities with a population of over 10 million) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing,
Guangzhou, Tianjin, Shenzhen, and Wuhan.[373][374][375] By 2025, it is estimated that the country will be
home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants.[370] The figures in the table below are from the 2010
census,[3] and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different
ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural
populations). The large "floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban
areas difficult;[376] the figures below include only long-term residents.

V
T
E

Largest cities or towns of China

Sixth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China (20

Rank

Name

Province

Pop.

Rank

Name

Shanghai

Shanghai

22,315,426

11

Nanjing

Jia

Beijing

Beijing

18,827,000

12

Shenyang

Li

Chongqing

Chongqing

15,294,255

13

Hangzhou

Zh

Tianjin

Tianjin

11,090,314

14

Harbin

He

Guangzhou

Guangdong

11,070,654

15

Suzhou

Jia

Shenzhen

Guangdong

10,357,938

16

Jinan

Sh

Wuhan

Hubei

10,120,000

17

Xi'an

Sh

Shanghai

Beijing

Dongguan

Guangdong

8,220,937

18

Wuxi

Jia

Chengdu

Sichuan

7,123,697

19

Hefei

An

10

Hong Kong

Hong Kong

7,055,071

20

Changchun

Jil

Education
Main articles: Education in the People's Republic of China and List of universities in China

Beijing's Tsinghua University, one of the top-ranked universities in China[377]

Since 1986, compulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school, which
together last for nine years.[378] In 2010, about 82.5 percent of students continued their education at a
three-year senior secondary school.[379] The Gaokao, China's national university entrance exam, is a
prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. In 2010, 27 percent of secondary
school graduates are enrolled in higher education.[380] Vocational education is available to students at
the secondary and tertiary level.[381]
In February 2006, the government pledged to provide completely free nine-year education, including
textbooks and fees.[382] Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to
more than US$250 billion in 2011.[383] However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In
2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled 20,023,
while inGuizhou, one of the poorest provinces in China, only totalled 3,204.[384] Free compulsory
education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6
and 15. In 2011, around 81.4% of Chinese have received secondary education. [385] By 2007, there
were 396,567 primary schools, 94,116 secondary schools, and 2,236 higher education institutions in
China.[386]
As of 2010, 94% of the population over age 15 are literate,[387] compared to only 20% in 1950.[388] In
2009, Chinese students from Shanghai achieved the world's best results in mathematics, science
and literacy, as tested by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a worldwide
evaluation of 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance.[389]

Health
Main article: Health in China
See also: Pharmaceutical industry in China

Chart showing the rise of China'sHuman Development Index from 1970 to 2010

The Ministry of Health, together with its counterparts in the provincial health bureaux, oversees the
health needs of the Chinese population.[390] An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine
has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party
started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well
as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and scarlet fever,
which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign. After Deng Xiaoping
began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly due to
better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside
disappeared along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized, and
experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a 3-year large-scale
healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion. [391] By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of
China's population having basic health insurance coverage. [392] In 2011, China was estimated to be
the world's third-largest supplier ofpharmaceuticals, but its population has suffered from the
development and distribution of counterfeit medications.[393]
Life expectancy at birth in China is 75 years,[394] and the infant mortality rate is 12 per thousand.
[395]
Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.[p] Rates of stunting, a condition caused
by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.[398] Despite significant
improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several
emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution,
[399]
hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers,[400] and an increase in obesity among urban youths.[401]
[402]
China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in
recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of SARS, although this has since been largely contained.
[403]
In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China. [404]

Religion
Main article: Religion in China

The Guoqing Temple onMount Tiantai, built in 598 CE, was the founding site of theTiantai branch of Chinese
Buddhism.

Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that lack
official approval can be subject to state persecution.[207][405] Estimates of religious demographics in
China vary. A 2007 survey found that 31.4 percent of Chinese above the age of 16 were religious,
[406]
while a 2006 study found that 46% of the Chinese population were religious. [407]
Over the millennia, the Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements.
China's San Jiao ("three doctrines" or "three religions") include Confucianism,[q] Buddhism,
and Taoism, and historically have had a significant impact in shaping Chinese culture. [409][410]Elements
of these three belief systems are often incorporated into popular or folk religious traditions.[411] A 2008
survey of rural villagers in six provinces found that
more than two-thirds of self-proclaimed religious believers (or 31.09% of all sample villagers) do not or
cannot clearly identify their faith ... These people believe that there are supernatural powers that dominate
or strongly influence the fate of human beings, and they think their fates can be changed through offering
sacrifices to gods or ancestors. These beliefs and practices are often deeply rooted in traditional Chinese
cultures and customs of local communities.[407]

A 2007 survey by the Horizon Research Consultancy Group found that individuals who self-identify
as Buddhists made up 1116% of China's adult population, while Christians comprised around 3
4%, and Muslims comprised approximately 1%.[412] Some of the ethnic minorities of China practice
unique ethnic religions Dongbaism is the traditional religion of the Nakhi people, Moism that of
the Zhuang people, and Ruism that of the Qiang people. The traditional indigenous religion
of Tibet is Bn, while most Tibetans follow Tibetan Buddhism, a form of Vajrayana.[413]

Culture
Main articles: Chinese culture and Culture of the People's Republic of China

A traditional Peking opera being performed

Beijing's Forbidden City, showing itsclassical Chinese architectural style

Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism and conservative
philosophies. For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be
provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which have their origins in
the Han Dynasty.[414] The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural
refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms of art
than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely
inward-looking national perspective.[24] Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in
China today.[415]
The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order, but
were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some
traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and the Confucian system
of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the
state. Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a
continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the Communist Party's
rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such
as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed,
having been denounced as "regressive and harmful" or "vestiges of feudalism". Many important
aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art, literature, and
performing arts like Peking opera,[416] were altered to conform to government policies and
propaganda at the time. Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted; only 34 foreign films a
year are allowed to be shown in Chinese cinemas.[417]
Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as
being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural
Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture
have seen a vigorous revival,[418][419] and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest
nationally and even worldwide.[420] China is now the third-most-visited country in the world,[421] with
55.7 million inbound international visitors in 2010.[422] It also experiences an enormous volume
of domestic tourism; an estimated 740 million Chinese holidaymakers travelled within the country in
October 2012 alone.[423]

Traditional Chinese food in Tianjin, including dumpling, baozi and guobacai

Cuisine
Main article: Chinese cuisine
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history. The
dynastic emperors of ancient China were known to have many dining chambers in their palaces, with
each chamber divided into several departments, each responsible for a specific type of dish.
[424]
China's staple food is rice. Pork is the most popular meat in China, accounting for about threefourths of the country's total meat consumption. [425] Spices are central to Chinese cuisine. Numerous
foreign offshoots of Chinese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine andAmerican Chinese food, have
emerged in the various nations that play host to the Chinese diaspora.

Sports
Main articles: Sport in the People's Republic of China and China at the Olympics

Dragon boat racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport

China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world. There is evidence that
archery (Shjin)was practised during the Western Zhou Dynasty. Swordplay (Jinsh) and a form
of association football (Cj)[426] date back to China's early dynasties as well.[427] Today, some of the
most popular sports in the country include martial arts, basketball, football, table tennis, badminton,
swimming and snooker. Board games such as go (known as weiqi in China), xiangqi, and more
recently chess, are also played at a professional level.[428]
Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such
as qigong and t'ai chi ch'uan widely practised,[429] and commercial gyms and fitness clubs gaining
popularity in the country.[430] Young people in China are also enjoy soccer and basketball, especially
in urban centres with limited space and grass areas. The American National Basketball
Association has a huge following among the Chinese youth, with ethnic or native Chinese players
such as Yao Ming and Jeremy Lin held in high esteem.[431] In addition, China is home to a huge
number of cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012.[337] Many more traditional
sports, such as dragon boatracing, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are also popular.[432]

China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as the
PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, where its athletes received 51
gold medals the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that year.[433] China also
won the most medals of any nation at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95
gold medals.[434][435] In 2011, Shenzhen in Guandgong, China hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade.
China hosted the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and the 2014 Summer Youth
Olympics in Nanjing.

See also
China portal
Asia portal

Index of China-related articles

International rankings of China

Outline of China

Footnotes
1. ^ Or (previously) "Peking".
2. ^ Portuguese (Macau only), English (Hong Kong only).
3. ^ Ethnic minorities that are recognized officially.
4. ^ Xi Jinping holds four concurrent positions: General Secretary of
the Communist Party of China, President of the People's Republic
of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission for both
state and party.[4]
5. ^ The area given is the official United Nations figure for the
mainland and excludes Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan.[5] It also
excludes the Trans-Karakoram Tract 5,800 km2(2,200 sq mi), Aksai
Chin 37,244 km2 (14,380 sq mi) and other territories in dispute with
India. The total area of China is listed as
9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) by theEncyclopdia Britannica.
[6]
For further information, see Territorial changes of the People's
Republic of China.
6. ^ This figure was calculated using data from the CIA World
Factbook.[7]
7. ^ The Hong Kong Dollar is used in Hong Kong and the Macanese
pataca is used in Macau.
8. ^ Except Hong Kong and Macau.

9. ^ The total area ranking relative to the United States depends on

the measurement of the total areas of China and the United States.
See List of countries and outlying territories by area for more
information.
10. ^ :
11. ^ According to the Encyclopdia Britannica, the total area of the
United States, at 9,522,055 km2 (3,676,486 sq mi), is slightly
smaller than that of China. Meanwhile, the CIA World Factbook
states that China's total area was greater than that of the United
States until the coastal waters of the Great Lakes was added to the
United States' total area in 1996. From 1989 through 1996, the
total area of US was listed as 9,372,610 km2(3,618,780 sq mi)
(land area plus inland water only). The listed total area changed to
9,629,091 km2 (3,717,813 sq mi) in 1997 (with the Great Lakes
areas and the coastal waters added), to
9,631,418 km2 (3,718,711 sq mi) in 2004, to
9,631,420 km2(3,718,710 sq mi) in 2006, and to
9,826,630 km2 (3,794,080 sq mi) in 2007 (territorial waters added).
12. ^ China's border with Pakistan and part of its border with India falls
in the disputed region ofKashmir. The area under Pakistani
administration is claimed by India, while the area under Indian
administration is claimed by Pakistan.
13. ^ Xi Jinping, 59, was named general secretary of the 82- million
member Communist Party and is set to take over the presidency, a
mostly ceremonial post, from Hu Jintao in March.[154]
14. ^ The office of the President is a prestigious one. The President is
the Head of the State. The Constitution of 1982 restores powers
and functions of the President of the People's Republic of
China and recognizes him as the Head of the State. But he is not
the real executive like the American President but only a
ceremonial Head. He can be compared with the Indian
President or King/Queen of England.[155]
15. ^ Tsung-Dao Lee,[306] Chen Ning Yang,[306] Daniel C. Tsui,[307] Charles
K. Kao,[308] Yuan T. Lee,[309]
16. ^ The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in
1949 to 75 years in 2008,[396] and infant mortality decreased from
300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001.
[397]

17. ^ Whether or not Confucianism can be classified as a religion is

disputed.[408]

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Further reading

Meng, Fanhua (2011). Phenomenon of Chinese Culture at the Turn of

the 21st century. Singapore: Silkroad Press. ISBN 978-981-4332-35-4.

Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China's WTO Membership: EU and

US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency
Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism".Legal Issues of
Economic Integration. Kluwer Law International. Volume 33, Number 3.
pp. 263304. Abstract.

Heilig, Gerhard K. (2006/2007). China Bibliography Online. ChinaProfile.com.

Jacques, Martin (2009).When China Rules the World: The End of the
Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order. Penguin Books.
Revised edition (28 August 2012). ISBN 978-1-59420-185-1.

Sang Ye (2006). China Candid: The People on the People's

Republic. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24514-8.

Selden, Mark (1979). The People's Republic of China: Documentary

History of Revolutionary Change. New York: Monthly Review
Press. ISBN 0-85345-532-5.

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V
T
E

Group of Twenty (G-20)

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1. All twenty-eight member states of the European Union are also members of the WTO in their own right:
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2. Special administrative region of the People's Republic of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China" and "Macao China". 3. Officially the Republic of C

V
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1. A Special administrative region of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China" 2. Officially the Republic of Chin

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Note: 1. Taiwan is claimed as a province, but is administered by the Republic of China (see Political

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