Computer Awareness For Bank Exams

www.BankExamsToday.
com
Computer
Awareness
For SBI, IBPS and other Govt exams
Ramandeep Singh
B.com (PU), MBA (PAU)
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What are computers?
Computers are machines that perform tasks or calculations according to a set of
instructions, or programs. The first fully electronic computers, introduced in the
1940s, were huge machines that required teams of people to operate. Compared to
those early machines, today's computers are amazing. Not only are they thousands
of times faster, they can fit on your desk, on your lap, or even in your pocket.
Computers work through an interaction of hardware and
software. Hardware refers to the parts of a computer that you can see and touch,
including the case and everything inside it. The most important piece of hardware
is a tiny rectangular chip inside your computer called the central processing unit
(CPU), or microprocessor. It's the "brain" of your computerthe part that
translates instructions and performs calculations. Hardware items such as your
monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, and other components are often
called hardware devices, or devices.
Software refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do.
A word-processing program that you can use to write letters on your computer is a
type of software. The operating system (OS) is software that manages your
computer and the devices connected to it. Windows is a well-known operating
system.
Types of computers
Computers range in size and capability. At one end of the scale are
supercomputers, very large computers with thousands of linked microprocessors
that perform extremely complex calculations. At the other end are tiny computers
embedded in cars, TVs, stereo systems, calculators, and appliances. These
computers are built to perform a limited number of tasks.
Marketing Awareness for SBI PO and Clerk

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The personal computer, or PC, is designed to be used by one person at a time.
This section describes the various kinds of personal computers: desktops, laptops,
handheld computers, and Tablet PCs.
Desktop computers
Desktop computers are designed for use at a desk or table. They are typically
larger and more powerful than other types of personal computers. Desktop
computers are made up of separate components. The main component, called
the system unit, is usually a rectangular case that sits on or underneath a desk.
Other components, such as the monitor, mouse, and keyboard, connect to the
system unit.
Desktop computer
Laptops and netbooks
Laptops are lightweight mobile PCs with a thin screen. Laptops can operate on
batteries, so you can take them anywhere. Unlike desktops, laptops combine the
CPU, screen, and keyboard in a single case. The screen folds down onto the
keyboard when not in use.
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Netbooks (also referred to as mini notebooks), are small, affordable laptops that
are designed to perform a limited number of tasks. They're usually less powerful
than laptops, so they're used mainly to browse the web and check e-mail.
A laptop and a netbook
Smartphones
Smartphones are mobile phones that have some of the same capabilities as a
computer. You can use a smartphone to make telephone calls, access the Internet,
organize contact information, send e-mail and text messages, play games, and
take pictures. Smartphones usually have a keyboard and a large screen.
Smartphone
Handheld computers
Handheld computers, also called personal digital assistants (PDAs), are
battery-powered computers small enough to carry almost anywhere. Although not

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as powerful as desktops or laptops, handheld computers are useful for scheduling
appointments, storing addresses and phone numbers, and playing games. Some
have more advanced capabilities, such as making telephone calls or accessing the
Internet. Instead of keyboards, handheld computers have touch screens that you
use with your finger or a stylus (a pen-shaped pointing tool).
Handheld computer
Tablet PCs
Tablet PCs are mobile PCs that combine features of laptops and handheld
computers. Like laptops, they're powerful and have a built-in screen. Like
handheld computers, they allow you to write notes or draw pictures on the screen,
usually with a tablet pen instead of a stylus. They can also convert your
handwriting into typed text. Some Tablet PCs are convertibles with a screen
that swivels and unfolds to reveal a keyboard underneath.
Tablet PC
What can you do with computers?
In the workplace, many people use computers to keep records, analyze data, do
research, and manage projects. At home, you can use computers to find
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information, store pictures and music, track finances, play games, and
communicate with othersand those are just a few of the possibilities.
You can also use your computer to connect to the Internet, a network that links
computers around the world. Internet access is available for a monthly fee in most
urban areas, and increasingly, in less populated areas. With Internet access, you
can communicate with people all over the world and find a vast amount of
information.
Here are some of the most popular things to do with computers:
The web
The World Wide Web (usually called the web, or web) is a gigantic storehouse
of information. The web is the most popular part of the Internet, partly because it
displays most information in a visually appealing format. Headlines, text, and
pictures can be combined on a single webpagemuch like a page in a
magazinealong with sounds and animation. A website is a collection of
interconnected webpages. The web contains millions of websites and billions of
webpages.
Example of a
webpage (Microsoft Game Studios)

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Surfing the web means exploring it. You can find information on the web about
almost any topic imaginable. For example, you can read news stories and movie
reviews, check airline schedules, see street maps, get the weather forecast for your
city, or research a health condition. Most companies, agencies, museums, and
libraries have websites with information about their products, services, or
collections. Reference sources, such as dictionaries and encyclopedias, are also
widely available.
The web is also a shopper's delight. You can browse and purchase products
books, music, toys, clothing, electronics, and much moreat the websites of
major retailers. You can also buy and sell used items through websites that use
auction-style bidding.
E-mail
E-mail (short for electronic mail) is a convenient way to communicate with
others. When you send an e-mail message, it arrives almost instantly in the
recipient's e-mail inbox. You can send e-mail to many people simultaneously, and
you can save, print, and forward e-mail to others. You can send almost any type
of file in an e-mail message, including documents, pictures, and music files. And
with e-mail, you don't need a postage stamp!
Instant messaging
Instant messaging is like having a real-time conversation with another person or a
group of people. When you type and send an instant message, the message is
immediately visible to all participants. Unlike e-mail, all participants have to be
online (connected to the Internet) and in front of their computers at the same time.
Communicating by means of instant messaging is called chatting.
Pictures, music, and movies
If you have a digital camera, you can move your pictures from the camera to your
computer. Then you can print them, create slide shows, or share them with others
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by e-mail or by posting them on a website. You can also listen to music on your
computer, either by importing music from audio CDs or by purchasing songs
from a music website. Or, you can tune in to one of the thousands of radio stations
that broadcast over the Internet. If your computer comes with a DVD player, you
can watch movies too.
Gaming
Do you like to play games? Thousands of computer games in every conceivable
category are available to entertain you. Get behind the wheel of a car, battle
frightening creatures in a dungeon, or control civilizations and empires! Many
games allow you to compete with other players around the world through the
Internet.

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Computer Components
A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly
complicated problems quickly and accurately.
A computer as shown in Fig. performs basically five major computer operations
or functions irrespective of their size and make. These are
1) It accepts data or instructions by way of input,
2) It stores data,
3) It can process data as required by the user,
4) It gives results in the form of output, and
5) It controls all operations inside a computer.
We discuss below each of these Computer operations
1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer
system. You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other
machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out
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processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an
organized manner for processing.
2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as
storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is
because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the
data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first
stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the
primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality.
It provides space for storing data and instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions:
All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical
operations is called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and
instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the
instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage
unit.
4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting
useful information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after
processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given
to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the
computer for further processing.
5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations
are performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are
performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations
inside the computer.
FUNCTIONAL UNITS

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In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the
computer allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer
system is divided into three separate units for its operation. They are
1) arithmetic logical unit
2) control unit.
3) central processing unit.
Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) Logical Unit
Logical Unit :After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the
primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are
performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the
ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison.
Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the
output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.
Control Unit (CU)
The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the
supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. Control Unit is
responsible for co ordinating various operations using time signal. The control
unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are
executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory,
interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the
computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several
users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of
computers peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central
processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just
like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs
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different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the
operations.
Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological
development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in
increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable
devices.
The various generations of computers an listed below :
(i) First Generation (1946-1954) : In 1946 there was no 'best' way of storing
instructions and data in a computer memory. There were four competing
technologies for providing computer memory: electrostatic storage tubes, acoustic
delay lines (mercury or nickel), magnetic drums (and disks?), and magnetic
core storage.
The digital computes using electronic valves (Vacuum tubes) are known as first
generation computers. the first 'computer' to use electronic valves (ie. vacuum
tubes). The high cost of vacuum tubes prevented their use for main memory. They
stored information in the form of propagating sound waves.
The vacuum tube consumes a lot of power. The Vacuum tube was developed by
Lee DeForest in 1908. These computers were large in size and writing programs
on them was difficult. Some of the computers of this generation were:
Mark I : The IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), called
the Mark I by Harvard University, was an electro-mechanical computer. Mark
I is the first machine to successfully perform a long services of arithmetic and
logical operation. Mark I is the First Generation Computer. it was the first
operating machine that could execute long computations automatically. Mark
I computer which was built as a partnership between Harvard and IBM in 1944.
This was the first programmable digital computer made in the U.S. But it was not
a purely electronic computer. Instead the Mark I was constructed out of switches,

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relays, rotating shafts, and clutches. The machine weighed 5 tons, incorporated
500 miles of wire, was 8 feet tall and 51 feet long, and had a 50 ft rotating shaft
running its length, turned by a 5 horsepower electric motor.
ENIAC: It was the first general-purpose electronic computer built
in 1946 at University of Pennsylvania, USA by John Mauchly and J. Presper
Eckert. The completed machine was announced to the public the evening
of February 14, 1946. It was namedElectronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC). ENIAC contained 17,468 vacuum tubes, 7,200 crystal
diodes, 1,500 relays, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors and around 5 million
hand-soldered joints. It weighed more than 30 short tons (27 t), was roughly 8 by
3 by 100 feet (2.4 m 0.9 m 30 m), took up 1800 square feet (167 m2), and
consumed 150 kW of power. Input was possible from an IBM card reader, and
an IBM card punch was used for output. These cards could be used to produce
printed output offline using an IBM accounting machine, such as the IBM 405.
Today your favorite computer is many times as powerful as ENIAC, still size is
very small.
EDVAC: It stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer and
was developed in 1950.it was to be a vast improvement upon ENIAC, it
was binary rather than decimal, and was a stored program computer. The
concept of storing data and instructions inside the computer was introduced
here. This allowed much faster operation since the computer had rapid access to
both data and instructions. The other advantage of storing instruction was that
computer could do logical decision internally.
The EDVAC was a binary serial computer with automatic addition, subtraction,
multiplication, programmed division and automatic checking with an ultrasonic
serial memory. EDVAC's addition time was 864 microseconds and
its multiplication time was 2900microseconds (2.9 milliseconds).
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The computer had almost 6,000 vacuum tubes and 12,000 diodes, and consumed
56 kW of power. It covered 490 ft (45.5 m) of floor space and weighed 17,300
lb (7,850 kg).
EDSAC: It stands for Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer and was
developed by M.V. Wilkes at Cambridge University in 1949. Two groups of
individuals were working at the same time to develop the first stored-program
computer. In the United States, at the University of Pennsylvania the EDVAC
(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was being worked on. In
England at Cambridge, the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Computer) was also being developed. The EDSAC won the race as the
first stored-program computer beating the United States EDVAC by two
months. The EDSAC performed computations in the three millisecond range. It
performed arithmetic and logical operations without human intervention. The key
to the success was in the stored instructions which it depended upon solely for
its operation. This machine marked the beginning of the computer
age. EDSAC is the first computer is used to store a program
UNIVAC-1: Ecker and Mauchly produced it in 1951 by Universal
Accounting Computer setup. it was the first commercial computer produced in
the United States. It was designed principally by J. Presper Eckert and John
Mauchly, the inventors of the ENIAC.
The machine was 25 feet by 50 feet in length, contained 5,600 tubes, 18,000
crystal diodes, and 300 relays. It utilized serial circuitry, 2.25 MHz bit rate, and
had an internal storage capacity 1,000 words or 12,000 characters.
It utilized a Mercury delay line, magnetic tape, and typewriter output. The
UNIVAC was used for general purpose computing with large amounts of input
and output.
Power consumption was about 120 kva. Its reported processing speed was 0.525
milliseconds for arithmetic functions, 2.15 milliseconds for multiplication and 3.9
Milliseconds for division.

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The UNIVAC was also the first computer to come equipped with a magnetic tape
unit and was the first computer to use buffer memory.
Other Important Computers of First Generation
Some other computers of this time worth mentioning are the Whirlwind,
developed at Massachussets Institute of Technology, and JOHNNIAC, by the
Rand Corporation. The Whirlwind was the first computer to display real time
video and use core memory. The JOHNNIAC was named in honor of Jon Von
Neumann. Computers at this time were usually kept in special locations like
government and university research labs or military compounds.
Limitations of First Generation Computer
Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers.
1. They used valves or vacuum tubes as their main electronic component.
2. They were large in size, slow in processing and had less storage capacity.
3. They consumed lots of electricity and produced lots of heat.
4. Their computing capabilities were limited.
5. They were not so accurate and reliable.
6. They used machine level language for programming.
7. They were very expensive.
Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC, IBM 650 etc
(ii) Second Generation (1955-1964) : The second-generation computer
used transistors for CPU components & ferrite cores for main
memory & magnetic disks for secondary memory. They used high-level
languages such as FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1960) & COBOL (1960 -
1961). I/O processor was included to control I/O operations.
Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky Vacuum tubes in the
first generation computer. Transistors are smaller than Vacuum tubes and have
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higher operating speed. They have no filament and require no heating.
Manufacturing cost was also very low. Thus the size of the computer got reduced
considerably.
It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU),
memory, programming language and input and output units were developed. The
programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during this
period. Some of the computers of the Second Generation
were
1. IBM 1620: Its size was smaller as compared to First Generation computers and
mostly used for scientific purpose.
2. IBM 1401: Its size was small to medium and used for business applications.
3. CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.
Features:
1. Transistors were used instead of Vacuum Tube.
2. Processing speed is faster than First Generation Computers (Micro Second)
3. Smaller in Size (51 square feet)
4. The input and output devices were faster.
Example: IBM 1400 and 7000 Series, Control Data 3600 etc.
(iii) Third Generation (1964-1977) : By the development of a small chip
consisting of the capacity of the 300 transistors. These ICs are popularly known
as Chips. A single IC has many transistors, registers and capacitors built on a
single thin slice of silicon. So it is quite obvious that the size of the computer got
further reduced. Some of the computers developed during this period were IBM-
360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750. Higher level language such as BASIC
(Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed during this
period. Computers of this generation were small in size, low cost, large memory
and processing speed is very high. Very soon ICs Were replaced by LSI (Large

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Scale Integration), which consisted about 100 components. An IC containing
about 100 components is called LSI.
Features:
1. They used Integrated Circuit (IC) chips in place of the transistors.
2. Semi conductor memory devices were used.
3. The size was greatly reduced, the speed of processing was high, they were
more accurate and reliable.
4. Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) were
also developed.
5. The mini computers were introduced in this generation.
6. They used high level language for programming.
Example: IBM 360, IBM 370 etc.
(iv) Fourth Generation : An IC containing about 100 components is called
LSI (Large Scale Integration) and the one, which has more than 1000 such
components, is called as VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration). It uses large
scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon chip called
microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is possible to place
computers central processing unit(CPU) on single chip. These computers are
called microcomputers. Later very large scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC)
replaced LSICs. Thus the computer which was occupying a very large room in
earlier days can now be placed on a table. The personal computer (PC) that you
see in your school is a Fourth Generation Computer Main memory used fast
semiconductors chips up to 4 M bits size. Hard disks were used as secondary
memory. Keyboards, dot matrix printers etc. were developed. OS-such as MS-
DOS, UNIX, Apples Macintosh were available. Object oriented language, C++
etc were developed.
Features:
1. They used Microprocessor (VLSI) as their main switching element.
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2. They are also called as micro computers or personal computers.
3. Their size varies from desktop to laptop or palmtop.
4. They have very high speed of processing; they are 100% accurate, reliable,
diligent and versatile.
5. They have very large storage capacity.
Example: IBM PC, Apple-Macintosh etc.
(v) Fifth Generation (1991- continued) : 5th generation computers use ULSI
(Ultra-Large Scale Integration) chips. Millions of transistors are placed in a single
IC in ULSI chips. 64 bit microprocessors have been developed during this period.
Data flow & EPIC architecture of these processors have been developed. RISC &
CISC, both types of designs are used in modern processors. Memory chips and
flash memory up to 1 GB, hard disks up to 600 GB & optical disks up to 50 GB
have been developed. fifth generation digital computer will be Artificial
intelligence.

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Parts of a Computer
If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any single
part called the "computer." A computer is really a system of many parts working
together. The physical parts, which you can see and touch, are collectively called
hardware. (Software, on the other hand, refers to the instructions, or programs,
that tell the hardware what to do.)
The following illustration shows the most common hardware in a desktop
computer system. Your system might look a little different, but it probably has
most of these parts. A laptop computer has similar parts but combines them into a
single, notebook-sized package.
Desktop
computer system
Let's take a look at each of these parts.
System unit
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The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box
placed on or underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic
components that process information. The most important of these components is
the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain"
of your computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which
temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The
information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.
Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using
cables. The cables plug into specific ports(openings), typically on the back of the
system unit. Hardware that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called a
peripheral device or device.
System unit
Storage
Your computer has one or more disk drivesdevices that store information on a
metal or plastic disk. The disk preserves the information even when your
computer is turned off.
Hard disk drive

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Your computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard diska rigid
platter or stack of platters with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can hold
massive amounts of information, they usually serve as your computer's primary
means of storage, holding almost all of your programs and files. The hard disk
drive is normally located inside the system unit.
Hard disk drive
CD and DVD drives
Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually
located on the front of the system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data
from a CD; many CD drives can also write (record) data onto CDs. If you have a
recordable disk drive, you can store copies of your files on blank CDs. You can
also use a CD drive to play music CDs on your computer.
CD
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DVD drives can do everything that CD drives can, plus read DVDs. If you have a
DVD drive, you can watch movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can
record data onto blank DVDs.
Tip
If you have a recordable CD or DVD drive, periodically back up (copy)
your important files to CDs or DVDs. That way, if your hard disk ever
fails, you won't lose your data.
Floppy disk drive
Floppy disk drives store information on floppy disks, also
called floppies or diskettes. Compared to CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can store
only a small amount of data. They also retrieve information more slowly and are
more prone to damage. For these reasons, floppy disk drives are less popular than
they used to be, although some computers still include them.
Floppy disk
Why are these disks called "floppy" disks? The outside is made of hard plastic,
but that's just the sleeve. The disk inside is made of a thin, flexible vinyl material.
Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer
screen. Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit
like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a
long wire that resembles a tail. Some newer mice are wireless.

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Mouse
A mouse usually has two buttons: A primary button (usually the left button) and a
secondary button. Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which
allows you to scroll smoothly through screens of information.
Mouse pointers
When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the
same direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on where it's
positioned on your screen.) When you want to select an item, you point to the
item and then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing and clicking
with your mouse is the main way to interact with your computer. For more
information, see
Keyboard
A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard
on a typewriter, it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special keys:
The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions
depending on where they are used.
The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows
you to enter numbers quickly.
The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your
position within a document or webpage.
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Keyboard
You can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you can
perform with a mouse.
Monitor
A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The
portion of the monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like a
television screen, a computer screen can show still or moving pictures.
There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and the
newer LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images,
but LCD monitors have the advantage of being much thinner and lighter.
LCD monitor (left);
CRT monitor (right)
Printer

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A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper. You don't need a printer to
use your computer, but having one allows you to print e-mail, cards, invitations,
announcements, and other material. Many people also like being able to print their
own photos at home.
The two main types of printers are inkjet printers and laser printers. Inkjet
printers are the most popular printers for the home. They can print in black and
white or in full color and can produce high-quality photographs when used with
special paper. Laser printers are faster and generally better able to handle heavy
use.
Inkjet printer
(left); laser printer (right)
Speakers
Speakers are used to play sound. They can be built into the system unit or
connected with cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound
effects from your computer.
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Computer speakers
Modem
To connect your computer to the Internet, you need a modem. A modem is a
device that sends and receives computer information over a telephone line or
high-speed cable. Modems are sometimes built into the system unit, but higher-
speed modems are usually separate components.
Cable modem
The Motherboard
The motherboard is the main circuit board of a computer. It contains the central
processing unit (CPU), the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS), memory, mass
storage interfaces, serial and parallel ports, expansion slots, and all the controllers
for standard peripheral devices like the keyboard, disk drive and display screen.
The chipset and other motherboard circuitry are the "smarts" of the motherboard.
Their job is to direct traffic and control the flow of information inside the
computer.

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The chipset is a critical part of any computer, because it plays a big role in
determining what sorts of features the computer can support.
BIOS
BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System.
lowest-level software in the computer
Acts as an interface between the hardware (especially the chipset and
processor) and the operating system.
The BIOS provides access to the system hardware and enables the creation
of the higher-level operating systems that you use to run your applications.
The BIOS is also responsible for allowing you to control your computer's
hardware settings, for booting up the machine when you turn on the power
or hit the reset button, and various other system functions.
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ROM: Read Only Memory
ROMis nonvolatile. ROM chips contain permanently written data, called
firmware (your BIOS lives here).
ROMcontains the programs that direct the computer to load the operating
system and related files when the computer is powered on.
ROMchips are usually recorded when they are manufactured.
PROM-Programmable Read Only memory chip cannot be changed to update or
revise the program inside
EPROMErasable Programmable Read Only memory Data can be erased and
chip can be reused Can be erased by shining high intensity UV light through the
window
EEPROMElectrical Erasable Programmable Read Only memory under high
voltage
FROM-Flash ROM is reprogrammable memory using normal voltage inside the
PC- You can upgrade the logic capabilities by simply downloading new software.
This saves the expense of replacing circuit boards and chips.
Processing Devices

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Cache
Pronounced cash.
It is a small, high-speed memory area that is placed between the processor and the
system memory.
The value of the cache is that it is much faster than normal system memory.
The most frequently used instructions are kept in cache memory so that the CPU
can look in there first - allows the CPU to run faster because it doesn't have to
take time to swap instructions in and out of main memory.
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Large, complex programs such as complex spreadsheets or database management
programs benefit the most from having a cache memory available. Pentium II
processors generally come with at least 512 KB of cache memory.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAMis Primary Storage, also called internal storage.
Serves as computers workspace, storing all or part of the program that is
being executed, as well as data being used by the program.
RAMprovides instructions and data to the CPU.
These instructions/data are coded in bytes.
Each byte is placed in a precise location in memory, called an address.
To access data or instructions in memory, the computer references the
addresses containing the bytes.
The amount of memory available is therefore measured in bytes
RAMchips consist of millions of switches that are sensitive to changes in
electric current.
RAMchips are typically packaged on small circuit boards called memory
modules, which are inserted into special slots on the motherboard.
RAMis Volatile storage: Power goes, data goes!

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Data/instructions are copied into memory as needed.
Not enough memory or corruption of data/instructions in memory can
cause crash.
On booting, operating system files are loaded from a storage device (the
hard disk, usually) into RAM, and they remain there as long as your
computer is running.
RAMcontents changes as programs are executed.
RAM chips consist of millions of switches that are sensitive to changes in
electric current.
RAM chips are typically packaged on small circuit boards called memory
modules, which are inserted into special slots on the motherboard.
On booting, operating system files are loaded from a storage device (the
hard disk, usually) into RAM, and they remain there as long as your
computer is running.
RAM contents changes as programs are executed.
The amount of RAM needed depends on the types of applications you
intend to run on the computer. S/w indicate the minimum amount of RAM
required to run.
Two basic types of RAM are Dynamic RAM (DRAM), and Static RAM (SRAM).
Most computers today use DRAM, which are also of two types:
SDRAM Synchronous Dynamic RAM runs at the same pace as the system
clock runs
DDR SDRAM DDR stands for Double Data Rate - runs at double the pace
the system clock runs - available in speeds from 266 MHZ upto 600MHZ
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DDR2 SDRAM runs at four times the pace the system clock runs -
available in speeds from 400 MHZ upto 800MHZ
Most desktops and notebooks use one of the three most popular types of
synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM) for the main system
memory. Single data rate (SDR) SDRAM is the older type of memory, commonly
used in computers prior to 2002. Double data rate (DDR) SDRAM hit the
mainstream computer market around 2002, and DDR2-based systems hit the
market in mid-2004.
DDR SDRAMis a straightforward evolution from SDR SDRAM. The big
difference between DDR SDRAM and SDR SDRAM is that DDR reads data on
both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal, so the DDR module can
transfer data twice as fast as SDR SDRAM.
While DDR has a limited clock rate, the evolutionary changes to DDR
architecture enable DDR2 to achieve speeds beyond of DDR, delivering
bandwidth of 5.3 GB per second and beyond! Because DDR2 is able to operate
with faster bus speeds, your memory doesn't hold back the performance of your
processor.
Generally speaking, motherboards are built to support only one type of memory.
You cannot mix and match SDRAM, DDR, or DDR2 memory on the same
motherboard in any system. They will not function and will not even fit in the
same.
Why is RAM so important?
Aside from the processor, the two most important factors affecting a PC's
performance are RAM and hard disk capacity.
Hard disks are typically huge, so the primary limiting factor is the amount of
installed RAM.

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Without enough RAM, the operating system must swap out storage space with the
hard disk. The OS creates a Paging File (swap file) to supplement RAM
(workspace). This is Virtual Memory.
Virtual memory is inherently slow! RAM speed can typically be 120,000 times
FASTER than the hard disk so the less you must rely on virtual memory
(swapping files between RAM and hard disk), the faster your system will
perform.
Microprocessor
Heart and brain of the PC
One electrical circuit in control of another
Successive generation of processors
80286,80386,80486 -32 bit interface
Pentium family P1, P2, P3, P4 64 bit interface
Dual-core technology is like having two processors - A dual core
processor is a CPU with two separate cores residing on the same chip
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DBMS - Overview
Database is collection of data which is related by some aspect. Data is collection
of facts and figures which can be processed to produce information. Name of a
student, age, class and her subjects can be counted as data for recording purposes.
Mostly data represents recordable facts. Data aids in producing information which
is based on facts. For example, if we have data about marks obtained by all
students, we can then conclude about toppers and average marks etc.
A database management system stores data, in such a way which is easier to
retrieve, manipulate and helps to produce information.
Characteristics
Traditionally data was organized in file formats. DBMS was all new concepts
then and all the research was done to make it to overcome all the deficiencies in
traditional style of data management. Modern DBMS has the following
characteristics:
Real-world entity: Modern DBMS are more realistic and uses real world
entities to design its architecture. It uses the behavior and attributes too.
For example, a school database may use student as entity and their age as
their attribute.
Relation-based tables: DBMS allows entities and relations among them
to form as tables. This eases the concept of data saving. A user can
understand the architecture of database just by looking at table names etc.
Isolation of data and application: A database system is entirely different
than its data. Where database is said to active entity, data is said to be
passive one on which the database works and organizes. DBMS also stores
metadata which is data about data, to ease its own process.

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Less redundancy: DBMS follows rules of normalization, which splits a
relation when any of its attributes is having redundancy in values.
Following normalization, which itself is a mathematically rich and
scientific process, make the entire database to contain as less redundancy
as possible.
Consistency: DBMS always enjoy the state on consistency where the
previous form of data storing applications like file processing does not
guarantee this. Consistency is a state where every relation in database
remains consistent. There exist methods and techniques, which can detect
attempt of leaving database in inconsistent state.
Query Language: DBMS is equipped with query language, which makes
it more efficient to retrieve and manipulate data. A user can apply as many
and different filtering options, as he or she wants. Traditionally it was not
possible where file-processing system was used.
ACID Properties: DBMS follows the concepts for ACID properties,
which stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation and Durability. These
concepts are applied on transactions, which manipulate data in database.
ACID properties maintains database in healthy state in multi-transactional
environment and in case of failure.
Multiuser and Concurrent Access: DBMS support multi-user
environment and allows them to access and manipulate data in parallel.
Though there are restrictions on transactions when they attempt to handle
same data item, but users are always unaware of them.
Multiple views: DBMS offers multiples views for different users. A user
who is in sales department will have a different view of database than a
person working in production department. This enables user to have a
concentrate view of database according to their requirements.
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Security: Features like multiple views offers security at some extent
where users are unable to access data of other users and departments.
DBMS offers methods to impose constraints while entering data into
database and retrieving data at later stage. DBMS offers many different
levels of security features, which enables multiple users to have different
view with different features. For example, a user in sales department
cannot see data of purchase department is one thing, additionally how
much data of sales department he can see, can also be managed. Because
DBMS is not saved on disk as traditional file system it is very hard for a
thief to break the code.
Users
DBMS is used by various users for various purposes. Some may involve in
retrieving data and some may involve in backing it up. Some of them are
described as follows:
[Image: DBMS Users]
Administrators: A bunch of users maintain the DBMS and are
responsible for administrating the database. They are responsible to look
after its usage and by whom it should be used. They create users access
and apply limitation to maintain isolation and force security.
Administrators also look after DBMS resources like system license,

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software application and tools required and other hardware related
maintenance.
Designer: This is the group of people who actually works on designing
part of database. The actual database is started with requirement analysis
followed by a good designing process. They people keep a close watch on
what data should be kept and in what format. They identify and design the
whole set of entities, relations, constraints and views.
End Users: This group contains the persons who actually take advantage
of database system. End users can be just viewers who pay attention to the
logs or market rates or end users can be as sophisticated as business
analysts who takes the most of it.
DBMS - Architecture
The design of a Database Management System highly depends on its architecture.
It can be centralized or decentralized or hierarchical. DBMS architecture can be
seen as single tier or multi tier. n-tier architecture divides the whole system into
related but independent n modules, which can be independently modified, altered,
changed or replaced.
In 1-tier architecture, DBMS is the only entity where user directly sits on DBMS
and uses it. Any changes done here will directly be done on DBMS itself. It does
not provide handy tools for end users and preferably database designer and
programmers use single tier architecture.
If the architecture of DBMS is 2-tier then must have some application, which uses
the DBMS. Programmers use 2-tier architecture where they access DBMS by
means of application. Here application tier is entirely independent of database in
term of operation, design and programming.
3-tier architecture
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Most widely used architecture is 3-tier architecture. 3-tier architecture separates it
tier from each other on basis of users. It is described as follows:
[Image: 3-tier DBMS architecture]
Database (Data) Tier: At this tier, only database resides. Database along
with its query processing languages sits in layer-3 of 3-tier architecture. It
also contains all relations and their constraints.
Application (Middle) Tier: At this tier the application server and
program, which access database, resides. For a user this application tier
works as abstracted view of database. Users are unaware of any existence
of database beyond application. For database-tier, application tier is the

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user of it. Database tier is not aware of any other user beyond application
tier. This tier works as mediator between the two.
User (Presentation) Tier: An end user sits on this tier. From a users
aspect this tier is everything. He/she doesn't know about any existence or
form of database beyond this layer. At this layer multiple views of
database can be provided by the application. All views are generated by
applications, which resides in application tier.
Multiple tier database architecture is highly modifiable as almost all its
components are independent and can be changed independently.<
DBMS - Data Models
Data model tells how the logical structure of a database is modeled. Data Models
are fundamental entities to introduce abstraction in DBMS. Data models define
how data is connected to each other and how it will be processed and stored inside
the system.
The very first data model could be flat data-models where all the data used to be
kept in same plane. Because earlier data models were not so scientific they were
prone to introduce lots of duplication and update anomalies.
Entity-Relationship Model
Entity-Relationship model is based on the notion of real world entities and
relationship among them. While formulating real-world scenario into database
model, ER Model creates entity set, relationship set, general attributes and
constraints.
ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of database.
ER Model is based on:
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Entities and their attributes
Relationships among entities
These concepts are explained below.
[Image: ER Model]
Entity
An entity in ER Model is real world entity, which has some properties
called attributes. Every attribute is defined by its set of values, called domain.
For example, in a school database, a student is considered as an entity. Student
has various attributes like name, age and class etc.
Relationship
The logical association among entities is called relationship. Relationships are
mapped with entities in various ways. Mapping cardinalities define the number of
association between two entities.
Mapping cardinalities:
o one to one
o one to many
o many to one

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o many to many
Relational Model
The most popular data model in DBMS is Relational Model. It is more scientific
model then others. This model is based on first-order predicate logic and defines
table as an n-ary relation.
[Image: Table in relational Model]
The main highlights of this model are:
Data is stored in tables called relations.
Relations can be normalized.
In normalized relations, values saved are atomic values.
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Each row in relation contains unique value
Each column in relation contains values from a same domain.
DBMS - Data Schemas
Database schema
Database schema skeleton structure of and it represents the logical view of entire
database. It tells about how the data is organized and how relation among them is
associated. It formulates all database constraints that would be put on data in
relations, which resides in database.
A database schema defines its entities and the relationship among them. Database
schema is a descriptive detail of the database, which can be depicted by means of
schema diagrams. All these activities are done by database designer to help
programmers in order to give some ease of understanding all aspect of database.

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[Image: Database Schemas]
Database schema can be divided broadly in two categories:
Physical Database Schema: This schema pertains to the actual storage of
data and its form of storage like files, indices etc. It defines the how data
will be stored in secondary storage etc.
Logical Database Schema: This defines all logical constraints that need
to be applied on data stored. It defines tables, views and integrity
constraints etc.
Database Instance
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It is important that we distinguish these two terms individually. Database schema
is the skeleton of database. It is designed when database doesn't exist at all and
very hard to do any changes once the database is operational. Database schema
does not contain any data or information.
Database instances, is a state of operational database with data at any given time.
This is a snapshot of database. Database instances tend to change with time.
DBMS ensures that its every instance (state) must be a valid state by keeping up
to all validation, constraints and condition that database designers has imposed or
it is expected from DBMS itself.
DBMS - Data Independence
If the database system is not multi-layered then it will be very hard to make any
changes in the database system. Database systems are designed in multi-layers as
we leant earlier.
Data Independence:
There's a lot of data in whole database management system other than user's data.
DBMS comprises of three kinds of schemas, which is in turn data about data
(Meta-Data). Meta-data is also stored along with database, which once stored is
then hard to modify. But as DBMS expands, it needs to be changed over the time
satisfy the requirements of users. But if the whole data were highly dependent it
would become tedious and highly complex.

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[Image: Data independence]
Data about data itself is divided in layered architecture so that when we change
data at one layer it does not affect the data layered at different level. This data is
independent but mapped on each other.
Logical Data Independence
Logical data is data about database, that is, it stores information about how data is
managed inside. For example, a table (relation) stored in the database and all
constraints, which are applied on that relation.
Logical data independence is a kind of mechanism, which liberalizes itself from
actual data stored on the disk. If we do some changes on table format it should not
change the data residing on disk.
Physical Data Independence
All schemas are logical and actual data is stored in bit format on the disk. Physical
data independence is the power to change the physical data without impacting the
schema or logical data.
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For example, in case we want to change or upgrade the storage system itself, that
is, using SSD instead of Hard-disks should not have any impact on logical data or
schemas.

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Computer Networks
A computer network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to
share resources such as printers and CD-ROMs, exchange files, or allow
electronic communications. The computers on a computer network may be linked
through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
Computer network can be classified on the basis of following features :
By Scale:
Computer networks may be classified according to the scale :
Local Area Network (LAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)
LAN (Local Area Network)
A Local Area Network is a privately owned computer network covering asmall
Networks geographical area, like a home, office, or groups of buildings e.g. a
school Network. A LAN is used to connect the computers and other network
devices so that the devices can communicate with each other to share the
resources. The resources to be shared can be a hardware device like printer,
software like an application program or data. The size of LAN is usually small.
The various devices in LAN are connected to central devices called Hub or
Switch using a cable.
Now-a-days LANs are being installed using wireless technologies. Such a system
makes use of access point or APs to transmit and receive data. One of the
computers in a network can become a server serving all the remaining computers
called Clients.
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For example, a library will have a wired or wireless LAN Network for users to
interconnect local networking devices e.g., printers and servers to connect to the
internet.
LAN offers high speed communication of data rates of 4 to 16 megabits per
second (Mbps). IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 100 Gbit/s,
and possibly 40 Gbit/s. LANs Network may have connections with other
LANs Network via leased lines, leased services.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)
MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Networks is one of a number of types of
networks. A MAN is a relatively new class of network. MAN is larger than a
local area network and as its name implies, covers the area of a single city. MANs
rarely extend beyond 100 KM and frequently comprise a combination of different
hardware and transmission media. It can be single network such as a cable TV
network, or it is a means of connecting a number of LANs into a larger network
so that resources can be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device.

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A MAN can be created as a single network such as Cable TV Network, covering
the entire city or a group of several Local Area Networks (LANs). It this way
resource can be shared from LAN to LAN and from computer to computer also.
MANs are usually owned by large organizations to interconnect its various
branches across a city.
MAN is based on IEEE 802.6 standard known as DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual
Bus). DQDB uses two unidirectional cables (buses) and all the computers are
connected to these two buses. Each bus has a specialized device that initiates the
transmission activity. This device is called head end. Data that is to be sent to the
computer on the right hand side of the sender is transmitted on upper bus. Data
that is to be sent to the left hand side of the sender is transmitted on lower bus.
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The two most important components of MANs are security and standardization.
Security is important because information is being shared between dissimilar
systems. Standardization is necessary to ensure reliable data communication.
A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks using a high-
capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link
services to wide area networks and the Internet.
The Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) protocols are mostly at the data link
level (layer 2 in the OSI model), which are defined by IEEE, ITU-T, etc.
WAN (Wide Area Networks)
A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunication network. A wide area
network is simply a LAN of LANs or Network of Networks. WANs connect
LANs that may be on opposite sides of a building, across the country or around
the world. WANS are characterized by the slowest data communication rates and
the largest distances. WANs can be of two types: an enterprise WAN and Global
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Computers connected to a Wide Area Networks are often connected through
public networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be connected
through leased lines or satellites. The largest WAN in existence is the Internet.
Some segments of the Internet, like VPN based extranets, are also WANs in
themselves. Finally, many WANs are corporate or research networks that utilize
leased lines.
Numerous WANs have been constructed, including public packet networks, large
corporate networks, military networks, banking networks, stock brokerage
networks, and airline reservation networks.
Organizations supporting WANs using the Internet Protocol are known as
Network Service Providers (NSPs). These form the core of the Internet.
By connecting the NSP WANs together using links at Internet Packet
Interchanges (sometimes called "peering points") a global communication
infrastructure is formed.
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WANs (wide area networks) generally utilize different and much more expensive
networking equipment than do LANs (Local Area Networks). Key technologies
often found in WANs (wide area networks) include SONET, Frame Relay, and
ATM.
Clarify Enterprise WANs.
An enterprise WAN (wide area networks) connects an entire organization
including all LANs (Local Area Networks) at various sites. This term is used for
large, widespread organizations such as corporations, universities and
governments.
Clarify Global WANs.
Global WANs (wide area networks) also span the world but they do not have to
connect LANS (Local Area Networks) within a single organization. The Internet
is an example of a global WAN. It connects diverse locations, organizations and
institutions throughout the world. Global WANS (wide area networks) can be
public or private. Private WANs (wide area networks) are called Intranet which
belongs to an organization. Public WANs (wide area networks) are open to
everybody so that anybody can connect and use the resources and services
available.
WLANs - Wireless Local Area Networks
WLANs (Wireless Local Area Networks or sometimes referred to as LAWN,
for local area wireless network) provide wireless network communication over
short distances using radio or infrared signals instead of traditional network
cabling.WLANs (Wireless Local Area Networks) is one in which a mobile user
can connect to a local area network (LAN) through a wireless (radio) connection
Norman Abramson, a professor at the University of Hawaii, developed the
worlds first wireless computer communication network,

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A WLAN typically extends an existing wired local area network. WLANs
(Wireless Local Area Networks) are built by attaching a device called the access
point (AP) to the edge of the wired network. Clients communicate with the AP
using a wireless network adapter similar in function to a traditional Ethernet
adapter.
Network security remains an important issue for WLANs (Wireless Local Area
Networks). Random wireless clients must usually be prohibited from joining the
WLAN. Technologies like WEP raise the level of security on wireless networks
to rival that of traditional wired networks.
The IEEE 802.11 group of standards specify the technologies for wireless LANs.
802.11 standards use the Ethernet
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Networks) hardware was initially so expensive that
it was only used as an alternative to cabled LAN in places where cabling was
difficult or impossible.
All components that can connect into a wireless medium in a network are referred
to as stations. All stations are equipped with wireless network interface controllers
(WNICs). Wireless stations fall into one of two categories: access points, and
clients. Access points (APs), normally routers, are base stations for the wireless
network.
They transmit and receive radio frequencies for wireless enabled devices to
communicate with. Wireless clients can be mobile devices such as laptops,
personal digital assistants, IP phones and other smartphones, or fixed devices such
as desktops and workstations that are equipped with a wireless network interface.
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By Connection Method: Computer networks can also be classified according to
the hardware technology that is used to connect the individual devices in the
network such as Optical fibre, Ethernet, Wireless LAN.
By Functional Relationship (Network Architectures) : Computer networks
may be classified according to the functional relationships which exist between
the elements of the network. This classification also called computer architecture.
There are two type of network architecture :
Client-Server
Peer-to-Peer Architecture
Client/Server Architecture
The client/server architecture significantly decreased network traffic by
providing a query response rather than total file transfer. It allows multi-user
updating through a GUI front end to a shared database. Remote Procedure Calls
(RPCs) or standard query language (SQL) statements are typically used to
communicate between the client and server.
Peer-to-Peer Architecture
1. In the peer to peer computer network model we simply use the same
Workgroup for all the computers and a unique name for each computer in
a computer network.

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2. There is no master or controller or central server in this computer network
and computers join hands to share files, printers and Internet access.
3. It is practical for workgroups of a dozen or less computers making it
common environments, where each PC acts as an independent
workstation and maintaining its own security that stores data on its own
disk but which can share it with all other PCs on the network.
4. Software for peer-to-peer network is included with most modern desktop
operating systems such as Windows and Mac OS.
5. Peer to peer relationship is suitable for small networks having less than 10
computers on a single LAN.
6. In a peer to peer network each computer can not act as both a server and a
client.
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Advantages of Peer to Peer Networks
Such networks are easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
2. It eliminates extra cost required in setting up the server.
3. Since each device is master of its own, they an: not dependent on other
computers for their operations.
Disadvantages of Peer to Peer Networks
1. In peer-to-peer network, the absence of centralized server make it difficult to
backup data as data is located on different workstations.
2. Security is weak as each system manages itself only.
3. There is no central point of data storage for file archiving.
By Network Topology: Network Topology signifies the way in which intelligent
devices in the network see their logical or physical relations to one another.
Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon
which the network is based, such as :
Bus Network
Star Network
Ring Network
Mesh Network
Star-Bus Network
Tree or Hierarchical Topology Network
Types of Topologies

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While making a selection of a particular topology we consider the relative status
of different devices that are to be linked.
The nodes in a network can have following two relationships:
1. Peer to Peer: In this relationship, all the devices in the network have equal
status in sharing the link. For example, Ring & Mesh topology.
2. Primary-Secondary: In this, one device controls the traffic and all other
devices transmit through primary device. e.g. Star topology.
Basic Network Topology
The three simple Topology that are combined to form a basic Network
Topology. They are, Bus Topology, Ring and Star Topology.
Bus Topology
The physical Bus Network Topology is the simplest and most widely used of
the network designs. It consists of one continuous length of cable (trunk) that is
shared by all the nodes in the network and a terminating resistor (terminator) at
each end that absorbs the signal when it reaches the end of line. Without a
terminator the electrical signal would reach the end of copper wire and bounce
back, causing errors on the network.
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Data communication message travels along the bus in both directions until it is
picked up by a workstation or server NIC. If the message is missed or not
recognized, it reaches the end of the cabling and dissipates at the
terminator. Bus Network Topology requires a multipoint connection.
All nodes on the bus topology have equal access to the trunk. This is
accomplished using short drop cables or direct T-connectors. The number of
devices and the length of the trunk can be easily expanded.
Advantages of Bus Topology
The advantages of physical bus topology are:
1. It uses established standards and it is relatively easy to install and the use
for small networks.
2. It requires less media than other topologies.
3. Failure of one node does not affect the network functioning.
2. Cost is less as only one main cable is required and least amount of cable is
required to connect computers.
4. Expansion is easier. New node can be easily added by using a connector.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
The disadvantages of bus Topology are:
1. If the main central line fails the entire network collapses.

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2. The bus networks are difficult to reconfigure, especially when the
acceptable number of connections or maximum distances have been
reached.
3. They are also difficult to troubleshoot because everything happens on a
single media segment. This can have dangerous consequences because any
break in the cabling brings the network to its knee.
4. Sharing a single communication channel results in slower access time.
5. In this topology, higher network traffic slows down the bus speed. Only
one device transmits at a time, other devices wait for their turn. As a result
there is no coordination between the devices for reservation of
transmission time slots, so data collisions are frequent.
Ring Topology
The physical ring Topology is a circular loop of point-to-point links. Each
device connects directly to the ring or indirectly through and interface
device or drop cable. Message travel around the ring from node to node in a very
organized manner. Each workstation checks the message for a matching
destination address. If the address doesn't match the node simply regenerates the
message and sends it on its way. If the address matches, the node accepts the
message and sends a reply to the originating sender.
In ring topology, the various nodes are connected in form of a ring or circle
(physical ring), in which data flows in a circle, from one station to another station.
It has no beginning or end that needs to be terminated.
In this topology, each device or node has a dedicated point to point line
configuration with only two devices on either side of it.
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Signal is passed along the ring in one direction from one station to another until
it reaches destination.
Each device in ring incorporates a repeater.
When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along.
There are two kinds of ring topologies:
1. Single Ring
2. Dual Ring
. In this topology, each device or node has a dedicated point to point line
configuration with only two devices on either side of it.
Signal is passed along the ring in one direction from one station to another until
it reaches destination.
Each device in ring incorporates a repeater.
When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along.
There are two kinds of ring topologies:
1. Single Ring
2. Dual Ring

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1. Single ring - In single ring network, a single cable is shared by all the devices
and data travel only in one direction.
Each device waits for its turn and then transmits. When the data reaches its
destination, another device can transmit.
2. Dual ring: This topology uses two rings to send the data, each in different
direction. Thus allowing more packets to be sent over the network.
Advantages of Ring Topology
The advantages of Ring Topology are:
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1. 1.They are very easy to troubleshoot because each device incorporates a
repeater.
2. 2.A special internal feature called beaconing allows troubled workstations
to identify themselves quickly.
3. There is no master computer on controller. Every computer has equal
chance to place the data and access the token.
4. There are no collisions.
5. Data packets travel at greater speeds.
6. It is easier to locate the problems with device and cable i.e. fault isolation
is simplified. If one device does not receive a signal within a specified
time, it can issue an alarm. This alarm alerts the network operator to the
problem and its location.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
The disadvantages of ring topologies are:
1. A ring network requires more cable than a bus network.
2. A break in cable ring brings down entire network (in case of single ring).
3. Adding or removing the node disturbs the network activity.
4. In ring network, communication delay is directly proportional to the
number of nodes in the network. Hence addition of new nodes in the
network also increases communication delay.
5. It is considerably difficult to install and reconfigure ring Topology
1. 6.Media failure on unidirectional or single loop causes complete network
failure.
Star Topology

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The physical star Topology uses a central controlling hub with dedicated legs
pointing in all directions like points of a star. Each network device has a
dedicated point-to-point link to the central hub. There is no direct link between
these computers and the computers can communicate via central controller only.
This strategy prevents troublesome collisions and keeps the lines of
communications open and free of traffic.
The routing function is performed by the central controller which centrally
controls communication between any two computers by establishing a logical
path between them. It means that if one computer A wants to send data to another
computer B, Computer A sends the data to the controller & this controller then
sends the data to computer B.
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This Topology, obviously, require a great deal of cabling. This design provides an
excellent platform for reconfiguration and trouble-shooting. Changes to the
network are as simple as plugging another segment into the hub and a break in the
LAN is easy to isolate and doesn't affect the rest of the network.
Advantages of Star Topology
The benefits of star topology are:
1. It is easier to add new node or modify any existing node without disturbing
network i.e. expansion is easier.
2. Addition of new node does not increase communication delay.
3. If any local computer or link fails, the entire system does not collapse. Only
that link or computer is affected.
4. It is easy to find device and cable problems i.e. fault identification and isolation
is easier.
5. Media faults are automatically isolated to the failed segment.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
The disadvantages are considered as follows:
1. If the central controller or hub fails, entire system collapses.
2. Cabling cost is more as each node is connected individually to the hub.
3. Requires more cable than most topologies
4. Moderately difficult to install

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Dual-ring Topology : The type of Topology in which each of the nodes of the
network is connected to two other nodes in the network, with two connections
to each of these nodes, and with the first and last nodes being connected to each
other with two connections, forming a double ring the data flows in opposite
directions around the two rings, although, generally, only one of the rings carries
data during normal operation, and the two rings are independent unless there is a
failure or break in one of the rings, at which time the two rings are joined to
enable the flow of data to continue using a segment of the second ring to bypass
the fault in the primary ring.
Advantages of Dual-ring Topology
Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit
Performs better than a star topology under heavy network load
Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the
computers
Disadvantages of Dual-ring Topology
One malfunctioning workstation or bad port can create problems for the
entire network
Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network
Much slower than an bus network under normal load.
Mesh Topology
In mesh topology, each node is connected to every other node in the
network i.e. each node has a dedicated point to point link to every other node as
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shown. Dedicated means that the link carries the traffic only between two devices
it connects.
In this way there exist multiple paths between two nodes of the network. In case
of failure of one path, the other one can be used.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. It is robust as the failure of one node does not collapse the entire system. If one
link fails, the entire system continues to work.
2. There is no traffic congestion problem as dedicated links are being used.
3. Dedicated links ensure faster transmission without any delay.
4. Dedicated links also ensure data privacy and security.
5. Point to point links makes fault identification and isolation easier.

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Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Connecting each device to every other device in the network makes installation
and reconfiguration difficult.
2. It has high cabling cost as n (n-l)/2 links are required to connect n nodes.
Fully Connected Topology: The type of network topology in which each of the
nodes of the network is connected to each of the other nodes in the network
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with a point-to-point link this makes it possible for data to be simultaneously
transmitted from any single node to all of the other nodes. The physical fully
connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for practical
networks, although the topology is used when there are only a small number of
nodes to be interconnected.
Tree Topology
Tree or Hierarchical Topology: The type of Topology in which a central
'root' node, the top level of the hierarchy, is connected to one or more other
nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy i.e., the second level, with a point-
to-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central
'root' node, while each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top
level central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level
lower in the hierarchy, i.e., the third level, connected to it, also with a point-to-
point link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other
node above it in the hierarchy the hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical, each
node in the network having a specific fixed number, f, of nodes connected to it at
the next lower level in the hierarchy, the number, f, being referred to as the
'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.

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Advantages:
1. Supported by several hardware and software venders.
2. It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub and can
therefore increases the distance a signal can travel between devices.
3. It allows the network to isolate and prioritize communication from
different computers i.e. the computers attached to one secondary hub can
be given priority over the computers attached to another secondary hub.
Disadvantages:
Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
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If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies
It has higher cabling cost in setting up a tree structure.
Hybrid Topology
The hybrid Topology is a type of Topology that is composed of one or
more interconnections of two or more networks that are based upon different
physical topologies in a single network that is composed of one or more
interconnections of two or more networks that are based upon the same physical
topology.
When two hubs of different topologies are joined so that the devices attached to
them can communicate as in figure, it is called a Star-Bus network.

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When two or more star topologies are linked together using a specialized hub
called a MAU (Multi-utilization Access Unit), it is known as Star-Ring topology.
The following factors are considered while selecting a topology:
1. Cost
2. Reliability
3. Scalability
4. Bandwidth capacity
5. Ease of installation
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6. Ease of troubleshooting
7. Delay involved in routing information from one node to another.
Advantages of Network
The following are the distinct notes in favor of computer network.
a. The computers, staff and information can be well managed
b. A network provides the means to exchange data among the computers and to
make programs and data available to people
c. It permits the sharing of the resources of the machine
d. Networking also provides the function of back-up.
e. Networking provides a flexible networking environment. Employees can work
at home by using through networks ties through networks into the computer at
office.
Various Network Services
1. Network services are the thing that a network can do. The major networking
services are
2. File Services: This includes file transfer, storage, data migration, file update,
synchronization and achieving.
3. Printing Services: This service produces shared access to valuable printing
devices.

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4. Message Services: This service facilitates email, voice mails and coordinate
object oriented applications.
5. Application Services: This services allows to centralize high profile
applications to increase performance and scalability
6. Database Services: This involves coordination of distributed data and
replication.
When we enter data into the computer via keyboard, each keyed element is
encoded by the electronics within the keyboard into an equivalent binary coded
pattern, using one of the standard coding schemes that are used for the
interchange of information. To represent all characters of the keyboard, a unique
pattern of 7 or 8 bits in size is used. The use of 7 bits means that 128 different
elements can be represented, while 8 bits can represent 256 elements. A similar
procedure is followed at the receiver that decodes every received binary pattern
into the corresponding character.
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Network Security What is Network
Security Threats?
Computer Security means to protect information. It deals with prevention and
detection of unauthorized actions by users of a computer.
In simple words security is defined as "Protecting information system from
unintended access"
Security of information system refers to protecting all components of
information system, specifically data, software, hardware and networks.
Network security measures are needed to protect data during their transmission
and to guarantee that data transmissions are authentic.
Network Security Threats
Network security threats fall into two categories
1. Passive threats
(a) Release of message contents
(b) Traffic analysis
2. Active threats
(a) Masquerade
(b) Replay
(c) Modification of message contents
(d) Denial of service

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Passive threats, sometimes referred to as eavesdropping dropping, involve
attempts by an attacker to obtain information relating to communication.
(a) Release of message contents
A telephone conversation, an e-mail message and a transferred file may contain
sensitive or confidential information.
We would like to prevent the opponent from learning the content of these
transmissions.
(b) Traffic analysis
It is a kind of attack done on encrypted messages.
The opponent might be able to observe the pattern of such encrypted message.
The opponent could determine the location and identity of communicating hosts
and could observe the frequency and length of messages being exchanged .
Active threats involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a
false stream.
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(a) Masquerade
It takes place when one entity pretends to be a different entity.
A masquerade attack usually includes one of the other forms of active attack.
For e.g. authentication sequences can be captured and replayed after a valid
authentication sequence has taken place, thus enabling an authorized entity with
few privileges to obtain extra privileges by impersonating an entity that has those
privileges.
(b) Replay
It involves the passive capture of a data unit and its subsequent retransmission to
produce an unauthorized effect.
(c) Modification of message
It means that some position of a message is altered, or that messages are delayed
or rendered, to produce an unauthorized effect.
(d) Denial of service (DOS)
A denial of service attack takes place when the availability to a resource is
intentionally blocked or degraded by an attacker.
In this way the normal use or management of communication facilities is
inhibited.
This attack may have a specific target. For e.g. an entity may suppress all
messages directed to a particular destination.
Another form of service denial is the disruption of an entire network, either by
disabling the network or by overloading it with messages so as to degrade
performance.

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What is a Firewall
A firewall is a device installed between the internet network of an organization
and the rest of Internet. When a computer is connected to Internet, it can create
many problems for corporate companies. Most companies put a large amount of
confidential information online. Such an information should not be disclosed to
the unauthorized persons. Second problem is that the virus, worms and other
digital pests can breach the security and can destroy the valuable data.
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Data Transmission Concept and
Types of Data Transmission.
Data transmission refers to the movement of data in form of bits between two or
more digital devices.
This transfer of data takes place via some form of transmission media (for
example, coaxial cable, fiber optics etc.)
Types of Data Transmission
1. Parallel transmission
Defination: Within a computing or communication device, the distances between
different subunits are too short. Thus, it is normal practice to transfer data
between subunits using a separate wire to carry each bit of data. There are
multiple wires connecting each sub-unit and data is exchanged using a parallel
transfer mode. This mode of operation results in minimal delays in transferring
each word.
In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously on
separate communication lines.

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In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own
line.
All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to
another i.e. multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.
Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.
As shown in the fig, eight separate wires are used to transmit 8 bit data from
sender to receiver.
Advantage of parallel transmission
It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are transmitted
simultaneously with a single clock pulse.
Disadvantage of parallel transmission
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It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n lines to transmit n bits at
the same time.
2. Serial Transmission
Defination: When transferring data between two physically separate devices,
especially if the separation is more than a few kilometers, for reasons of cost, it is
more economical to use a single pair of lines. Data is transmitted as a single bit at
a time using a fixed time interval for each bit. This mode of transmission is
known as bit-serial transmission.
In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after
the other.
It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data from
sender to receiver.
Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.
In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
As shown in fig., suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source to
destination. Then least significant bit (LSB) i,e. 0 will be transmitted first
followed by other bits. The most significant bit (MSB) i.e. 1 will be transmitted in
the end via single communication line.
The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in order
to change this parallel data into serial data, conversion devices are used.
These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the sender
side so that it can be transmitted over single line.

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On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so that
the interval circuitry of computer can accept it
Serial transmission is used for long distance communication.
Advantage of Serial transmission
Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the factor
of n as compared to parallel transmission.
Disadvantages of Serial transmission
1. Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to increase in
overall transmission cost.
2. This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are
transmitted serially one after the other.
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Types of Serial Transmission
There are two types of serial transmission-synchronous and asynchronous both
these transmissions use 'Bit synchronization'
Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the beginning
and end of the data transmission occurs.
Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know when data begin and
end during a transmission. Therefore bit synchronization provides timing control.
Asynchronous Transmission
Asynchronous transmission sends only one character at a time where a character
is either a letter of the alphabet or number or control character i.e. it sends one
byte of data at a time.
Bit synchronization between two devices is made possible using start bit and
stop bit.
Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the receiver to the arrival of
new group of bits. A start bit usually 0 is added to the beginning of each byte.
Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the receiver know that byte is
finished, one or more additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These
bits, usually 1s are called stop bits.

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Addition of start and stop increase the number of data bits. Hence more
bandwidth is consumed in asynchronous transmission.
There is idle time between the transmissions of different data bytes. This idle
time is also known as Gap
The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals. This mechanism is called
Asynchronous, because at byte level sender and receiver need not to be
synchronized. But within each byte, receiver must be synchronized with the
incoming bit stream.
Application of Asynchronous Transmission
1. Asynchronous transmission is well suited for keyboard type-terminals and
paper tape devices. The advantage of this method is that it does not require any
local storage at the terminal or the computer as transmission takes place character
by character.
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2. Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in which
information is transmitted in short bursts. This type of transmission is used by
modems.
Advantages of Asynchronous transmission
1. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to
synchronous e.g. If lines are short, asynchronous transmission is better, because
line cost would be low and idle time will not be expensive.
2. In this approach each individual character is complete in itself, therefore if
character is corrupted during transmission, its successor and predecessor character
will not be affected.
3. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.
4. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted becomes
available.
5. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.
Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission
1. This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission due to
the overhead of extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.
2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits.
These bits can be missed or corrupted.

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Synchronous Transmission
Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.
In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain
multiple bytes.
There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream.
In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established between
sender & receiver by 'timing' the transmission of each bit.
Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the
responsibility of receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes so as to reconstruct
the original information.
In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at the
same clock frequency.
Application of Synchronous transmission
Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between
computers.
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Advantage of Synchronous transmission
1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits
(start bit & stop bit) and also there is no gap between the individual data bytes.
Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission
1. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer
storage at the two ends of line to assemble blocks and it also requires accurately
synchronized clocks at both ends. This lead to increase in the cost.
2. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This
requires proper synchronization which makes the system complicated.
Comparison between Serial and Parallel transmission

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Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous.
Multiplexer - What is Multiplexer? Type of
Multiplexer
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A communications device that multiplexes (combines) several signals for
transmission over a single medium. A demultiplexer completes the process by
separating multiplexed signals from a transmission line. Frequently a multiplexer
and demultiplexer are combined into a single device capable of processing both
outgoing and incoming signals. A multiplexer is sometimes called a mux.
Type of Multiplexer

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Internet
The Internet, World Wide Web (WWW) and information super highway have
penetrated into lives of millions of people all over the world. The Internet is a
network made up of thousands of networks worldwide. Obviously, these networks
are composed of computers and other intelligent and active devices. In fact,
Internet is an example of self-regulating mechanism and there is no one in-charge
of the Internet.
There are organizations which are entrusted to develop technical aspects of this
network, but no governing body is in control. Private companies own the Internet
backbone, through which Internet traffic or data flows in the form of text, video,
graphics, sound image etc. All computers on the Internet communicate with one
another using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol architecture,
abbreviated to TCP/IP, based on client/server architecture. This means that the
remote server machine provides files and services to the user'~ local client
machine. Software can be installed ort a client computer to take advantage of the
latest access technology.
A wide variety of services, namely, electronic mail, file transfer, vast information
resources, interest group membership, interactive collaboration, multimedia
displays, real-time broadcasting, shopping opportunities, and many more are
available on the Internet. To provide all these services, the Internet consists
primarily of a variety of access protocols. Many of these protocols feature
programs that allow users to search for and retrieve material made available by
the protocol.
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCPIP) is the protocol suite
developed for the Internet. In this chapter we describe how the Internet was
formed, how it developed and how it is likely to develop in the future. We also
look at the basic properties of TCP/IP.
History of The Internet
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The Internet, www and Information Super Highway are terms which have deep
impact in the lives of millions of people allover the world. The widespread impact
of Internet across the globe could not be possible without the development of
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). This is the protocol
suite developed specifically for the Internet. The Information Technology
revolution of today cannot be achieved without this vast network of networks.
This has become a fundamental part of life of millions of people allover the
world. All the aforesaid services, basically, provide us the necessary backbone for
information sharing in organizations and within common interest groups. That
information may be in several forms. It can be notes and documents, data to be
processed by another computer, files sent to colleagues, and even more exotic
forms of data
(IP) Internet Protocol - What is
Internet Protocol (IP)?
Internet Protocol (IP) of network layer contains addressing information and some
control information that enables the packets to be routed.
IP has two primary responsibilities:
1. Providing connectionless, best effort delivery of datagrams through a
internetwork. The term best effort delivery means that IP does not provides any
error control or flow control. The term connectionless means that each datagram
is handled independently, and each datagram can follow different route to the
destination. This implies that datagrams sent by the same source to the same
destination could arrive out of order.
2. Providing fragmentation and reassembly of datagrams to support data links
with different maximum transmission unit (MTU) sizes.

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IP packet format
Packets in the network layer are called datagrams.
A datagram is a variable length packet consisting of two parts: header and data.
The header is 20 to 60 bytes in length and contains information essential to
routing and delivery.
The various fields in IP header are:
1. Version: It is a 4-bit field that specifies the version of IP currently being used.
Two different versions of protocols are IPV4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) and
IPV6 (Internet Protocol Version 6).
2. IP Header Length (IHL): This 4-bit field indicates the datagram header length
in 32 bit word. The header length i8 not constant in IP. It may vary from 20 to 60
bytes. When there are no options, the header length is 20 bytes, and the value of
this field is 5. When the option field is at its maximum size, the value of this field
is 15.
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3. Services: This 8 hit field was previously called services type but is now called
differentiated services.
The various bits in service type are:
A 3-bit precedence field that defines the priority of datagram in issues such as
congestion. This 3-bit subfield ranges from 0 (000 in binary) to 7 (111 in binary).

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After 3-bit precedence there are four flag bits. These bits can be either 0 or 1 and
only one of the bits can have value of 1 in each datagram.
The various flag bits are:
D : Minimize delay
T : Maximize throughout
R : Maximize reliability
C : Minimize Cost
The various bits in differentiated services are:
The first 6 bits defined a codepoint and last two bits are not used. If the 3
rightmost bits are 0s, the 3 leftmost bits are interpreted the same as the precedence
bits in the service type interpretation.
4. Total length: This 16 bit field specifies the total length of entire IP datagram
including data and header in bytes. As there are 16 bits, the total length of IP
datagram is limited to 65,535 (2
16
- 1) bytes.
5. Identification: This 16 bit field is used in fragmentation. A datagram when
passing through different networks may be divided into fragments to match the
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network frame size. Therefore, this field contains an integer that identifies the
current datagram. This field is used to help piece together datagram fragments.
6. Flags: Consists' of a 3 bit field of which the two low order bit DF, MF control
fragmentation. DF stands for Don't Fragment. DF specifies whether the packet
can be fragmented MF stands for more fragments. MF specifies whether the
packet is the last fragment in a series of fragmented packets. The third or high
order but is not used.
7. Fragment Offset: This 13 bit field indicates the position of the fragment's data
relative to the beginning of the data in the original datagram, which allows the
destination IP process to properly reconstruct the original datagram.
8. Time to Live: It is 8 bit field that maintain a counter that gradually decrements
down to zero, at which point the datagram is discarded. This keeps the packet
from looping endlessly.
9. Protocol: This 8 bit field indicates which upper layer protocol receives
incoming packets after IP processing is complete.
10. Header Checksum: This 16 bit field contains a checksum that covers only the
header and not the data.
11. Source IP address: These 32-bit field contains the IP address of source
machine.
12. Destination IP address: This 32-bit field contains the IP address of
destination machine.
13. Options: This field allows IP to support various options such as security,
routing, timing management and alignment.
14. Data: It contains upper layer information.

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TCP/IP Services And Application
Protocols
This section presents an overview of the most common protocols used for TCP/IP
communication. The discussion focuses on the nature of these applications and
the purpose they serve.
The Client/Server Model
TC/IP applications operate at the application or process layer of the TCP/IP
hierarchy as discussed in the preceding sections. TCP/IP protocol splits an
application into server and client components. The server component is a service
provider that controls commonly shared resources pertaining to a particular
application on the network. The server normally runs on a remote, high-
powered, computer to which only authorized users have access. The client
component is the service user. That piece of software engages with the server in a
sequence of request-response data grams fulfilling certain user-specified demands
or requirements.
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The client/server computing model has the following attributes;
Flexible deployment This can be easily customized.
Low computer cost Reduced processing requirement at the client end. In
most cases, the client has to deal with lesser details of the application
compared to the Server. This, in turn,. Means cheaper hardware on the
client machine (less CPU power, memory, disk space, and so on). On .the
other hand, the server must be powerful enough and well-outfitted to make
it respond satisfactorily to the user demands on its services.
Increased network management costs Reduced loss of bandwidth from
unnecessary data traffic, due to the exchange of data on an as-needed
basis. In the case of an Ethernet LAN, this also contributes to reduced
collisions and therefore, better networks availability.
Lower transmission facility costs.
Telnet
Telnet is a program that allows a user with remote login capabilities to use the
computing resources and services available on the host. Telnet can also be used to
connect other ports serving user defined as well as well-known services. The
telnet program requires two arguments that is the name of a computer on which
the server runs and the protocol port number of the server. Telnet service is
unique in that it is not platform-specific like other TCP/IP services. A DOS user
running Telnet, for example, can connect to a UNIX host or a mainframe
computer. The 90wn side of using Telnet, however, is that unless the user is
familiar with the operating system running on the remote platform, he or she
cannot use the desired resources easily.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

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File Transfer protocol is among the oldest protocols still used in the internet. ITP
is widely available on almost all-computing platforms, including DOS, OS/2,
UNIX, and up to the mainframe level. ITP is a file server access protocol that
enables a user to transfer files between two hosts across the network or Internet.
This is also established through TCP. Accessing ITP sites over the internet
requires that the user must have the knowledge of the location and the name of the
desired files.
Unlike Telnet, ITP does not require any familiarity with the remote operating
system. The user is still required, however, to be familiar with the ITP command
set built into the protocol itself so that he or she can productively manage the
session.
Modem FTP servers known as ftpd support two modes, the classic normal mode
and more security conscious passive mode or PASV mode.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
TITP, like ITP, is also an internet service intended for the transfer of files between
hosts. Unlike ITP, however, TITP does not rely on TCP for transport services.
Instead, TITP uses UDP to shuttle the requested file to the TITP client.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is an electronic mail (e-mail) service provider.
It is intended for the Transfer of e-mail messages across the network. SMTP uses
TCP transport for the reliable delivery of mail messages. When there is an
outgoing mail, the SMTP client will connect to the SMTP server and sends the
mail to the remote server.
Network File System (NFS)
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Network File System service enables hosts across the network to share file system
resources transparently among themselves. Although it all started on UNIX
platforms, NFS can be implemented on any platform, including DOS, NetWare,
and Windows NT.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
Using the Simple Network Management Protocol, LAN administrators can
monitor and tune the performance of TCP/IP (as well as non-TCP/IP) networks.
Using SNMP, all kinds of information about network performance can be
gathered, including statistics, routing tables, and configuration-related parameters.
The information and configuration gathering capabilities of SNMP make it an
ideal tool for network troubleshooting and performance tuning.
Domain Name System (DNS)
Due to Internet explosion, it is not practical to keep an exhaustive hosts file for
every host because of the sheer volume of listing as well as addition, deletion and
updating of new, old and current hosts. Therefore, DNS is used to provide host-to-
IP address mapping of remote hosts to the local hosts and vice versa. As we know
that each device connected directly to the network must have an IP address that is
uniquely assigned to it. The address takes the form of a dotted decimal notation
such as 128.45.6.89

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Internet Threats and Vulnerabilities
We are going to discuss about the threats and vulnerabilities of information
systems from both insiders and outsiders and the ways of managing such threats
and vulnerabilities.
Information Security Attacks from Insiders
It is now an acknowledged fact within the information security community that
insiders(people with access to information systems of organizations) within the
organization represents one of the biggest2 (estimates vary from half- to three-
fourths of all security incidents) information security threats (Dillon 1999,
Whitman 2003). Considering that a large number of such incidents go undetected
(Hoffer and Straub 1989) it is most likely that these numbers are actually much
higher. Specialists therefore prescribe a cocktail of measures to prevent security
incidents. These measures fall under two broad categories:
1. Procedural or business control measures-those that define access and other
security policies, usage guidelines, security education, training and
awareness (SETA) programs.
2. Technical measures-includes authentication measures, monitoring
techniques, tools and filtering mechanisms.
Types of Information Security Attacks from Outsiders
Information security attacks can be of various types. Modern attacks and
techniques are difficult to detect and stop as it requires continuous monitoring of
the system. Perimeter security is therefore of vital importance as the objective of a
security system is to halt an attacker from gaining access into the system. The
following are the major forms of attack:
Hacking
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It is the activity of getting into a computer system without authorization to have
an access for a look around and see what is possible to do in the system. Hackers
are mainly of three different types.
1. Ethical hackers: Ethical hacking and hacking etiquette demands that the
hacker after having penetrated the system notifies the system administrator
of his entry to let him know about the vulnerability of the system. This
kind of hacking actually helps the organization to improve its security
apparatus.
2. Crackers: These are malicious hackers. Once they get inside a system,
they destroy valuable assets. Their objective is to cause as much damage
to the system as possible. These attacks are to be feared as they have the
potential to cause large-scale damage to the organization's information
assets.
3. Phreaks: These are people who hack into the phone systems of
organizations so that they can then make calls at the expense of the
organization. Each hacking incident however, may be different from the
other as each hacker in each incident tries a different trick to exploit a
different vulnerability of a system. Since nowadays most systems are
connected to the Internet, most hacking incidents occur from net-based
hackers who gain access into the organizations computer systems and then
cause damage to the system. Most hacking incidents follow a typical
pattern or method, which are:
Reconnaissance-The hacker before embarking on a full-scale attack tries to find
out the counter measures that are protecting a system. He tests the waters before
jumping into the action. In this stage, he typically tries to gather information
about the system (and/or network), its vulnerabilities, critical information stored
in the system, key employee information, public information about the system and
the organization, information about customers of the organization. This is passive
reconnaissance. After this stage, the hacker moves on to active reconnaissance in

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which he acquires DNS information, IP addresses, performs ping sweeps, SNMP
network scans and other attacks like banner grabbing, etc.
Vulnerability canning-After the reconnaissance stage, the hacker moves to the
scanning stage in which he looks for vulnerabilities in the perimeter security of
the system. He also scans the routers and firewalls of the organization to check for
vulnerabilities.
Securing/getting access-After the scanning stage, he moves to the stage of gaining
access, here he accesses the organization's system after capitalizing on any
vulnerability in the organization's security system. This can happen through
the operating system of the organization's server or networked computer, an
application (either planted within the system or suitable file corrupted/modified
by the hacker to work on his commands), or through any network devices in the
organization's network.
Maintaining access-After getting access to the organization's system, the hacker
would normally like to continue to maintain access. This he manages by planting
a custom-built application on the already compromised server of the organization.
This strategy helps the hacker to enter and exit the system at will. Thus, the
hacker can have complete control over the organization's system. He can upload
applications, modify applications, modify data without anyone's knowledge, steal
data and cause widespread damage to the system. At this stage, the hacker
evaluates the information assets of the organization and based on his intentions
goes ahead with a plan to profit from his efforts. He can wish to just maintain
access without causing any damage, steal information and sell it outside, profit
from altering the data of the organization or simply blackmail the organization
Covering tracks-Once the hacker has enabled his access into the organization's
system, he would like to remove any trace of his entry and exit from the system.
This he manages by suitably deleting the evidence of his access from the audit
files and log files. Thus, the system administrators remain oblivious to the access
of the hacker.
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Denial of service (DoS)
This is another form-security attack in which the attacker overwhelms the
organization's server (or other hardware resources) or the telecommunication lines
from the ISP. Normally, DoS attacks are one-to-one meaning that the attackers
launches an attack from his machine and attacks one organization with the
objective of overwhelming its resources (hardware or telecom) thereby denying
the system's services to legitimate users. Since February 2000 the trend for such
attacks has changed. Now attackers use a many-to-one mode of attack for DoS.
This is known as distributed denial of service (DDoS). The attacker creates
zombies (these are compromised machines on the Internet that run application
codes which are controlled by the attacker). At his instructions DoS attacks are
launched simultaneously on a single target from all the zombies (sometimes as
many as tens of thousands). The only way to control DDoS attacks is to control
the number of zombies on the network. It is one of the most difficult forms of
attack against which an organization is to be secured.
Malicious code
"This is another form of security threat, being pieces of code that reach vital areas
of a system and renders great damage to it. The easiest form of distributing
malicious codes is through e-mails. It is therefore a good idea to check the
attachment files in e-mails before opening them. There are many different types
of malicious code:
1. Virus: This is the most common type of malicious code. Viruses are also
of various types. File viruses are viruses that infect files of a system and
then keep on multiplying themselves whenever a user opens a file or
access a file and therefore spread to all parts of a system and damage all
files in a system. Such file viruses are the most common form of virus
applications. Most file viruses are executable files. Other types of viruses
attack the master boot record of the operating system thereby rendering

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the as useless. Some viruses are application specific like macro viruses
that affect office applications.
2. Worm: A form of malicious code that affects networks. They have the
capability to replicate themselves over a network and spreads very quickly
from one machine to another in a network. Several highly publicized
attacks have been reported.
3. Trojan: It is a stealth version of a malicious code. It seems like a good
and trustworthy code on the surface but is actually a malicious code in
reality? The easiest way to stop Trojans is to stop opening untrustworthy
attachments and stop downloading and running freeware.
4. Logic bomb: This type of malicious code waits in a system for a trigger,
like a particular date and time, to unleash damage. The code waits
patiently and does not act malevolently until a particular data and time and
after that due date and time, it would work in a malevolent manner by
damaging the system and data.
Social engineering
This is another way of attacking a system. Social engineering is a set of
techniques used to trick gullible users into parting with their critical information
like username and password. The social engineering attacker uses the following
human attributes to get access to critical data:
1. Most people trust others unless they are found untrustworthy. The attacker
exploits this trait of human nature. For example, simple calls made
ostensibly on behalf of a trustworthy organization like a bank would make
us divulge a lot of critical information about our bank accounts.
2. The fear of getting into trouble is also another human trait that the attacker
exploits. For example, a simple mail requesting you to give your password
for better maintenance of your bank account may actually cause fear in
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your mind that if you do not divulge your password, maintenance will not
be proper and hence some indeed do give away their password.
3. Preference for short cuts is another human trait that attackers exploit. Most
people give passwords as nicknames or birth dates or name of their pets
which can be easily cracked.
Thus, we can see that a skilled social engineer may be able to get critical data that
will enable him to access the system without much trouble. Thus, this type of
attack is a very serious threat that all must be careful about.

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