Module Module 1: 1: WHAT IS CURRICULUM? WHAT IS CURRICULUM?

1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you have completed this module you ill !e a!le to"
Define what is a curriculum
Compare the various definitions of curriculum proposed by different scholars
Explain what is the hidden curriculum
Differentiate between the three approaches to curriculum
Identify the foundations of curriculum
Discuss the connection between curriculum and instruction
Briefly describe the curriculum development process
Argue whether curriculum is a discipline
O#ER#IEW
1. Introduction
1.1 Definitions of curriculum
1.! "he hidden curriculum
1.# Curriculum approaches
1.#.1 Curriculum as content
1.#.! Curriculum as product
1.#.! Curriculum as process

1.$ %oundations of curriculum
1.& Curriculum development
1.' Curriculum and instruction
1.( Curriculum as a discipline
Discussion )uestions
*eadings
Homework should be made more meaningful
Students cant read properly after 11 years of schooling
Students are bored with studying the same thing each
year
Teachers are unable to complete the syllabuses because
too much time is spent on co-curricular activities
Teachers are reluctant to teach beyond what is in the
curriculum, considering it a waste of time
Thinking skills of students need to be developed
Parents passing the responsibility of educating their
children to teachers
Sports is being neglected in schools
Environmental education should be taught
NEWSP APER HEADLINES



+ou would have probably come across these
headlines in newspapers and maga,ines. "hese
headlines are an indication of society-s concern with
what is going on in schools and in particular the
curriculum. It should be remembered that a
curriculum is contract between society and those in
power stating how its next generation of young
people will be educated. .ence the general public
have a right to /uestion how schools are preparing its
next generation of citi,ens.
As society becomes more educated0 more of its members are 1een in expressing
their views

on various issues regarding what are schools doing and what is taught in schools.
2ometimes it is tempting to as1 whether society ever come to a consensus on what it
wants schools to do.
2ome sectors of the population are demanding that schools teach for the mastery
of the facts0 concepts and principles of a discipline0 while others are calling for reducing
!
1.0 INTRODUCTION
content and placing more emphasis on the development of critical and creative thin1ing.
2till others feel that schools are not paying enough attention towards developing the
character of students. It appears that society is in a state of confusion not 1nowing what it
wants of its schools. .owever0 what may be defined as confusion is in reality dynamism
because curriculum is a reflection of our values0 choices and perspectives in differing
contexts. As society changes so will the curriculum because it is a reflection of society at
a particular point in time. %or example0 during colonial times0 education in 3alaysia was
confined to producing cler1s and office assistants for the English administrative system.
4hether we consider curriculum narrowly as a listing of sub5ects to be taught in
schools or broadly as all learning experiences that individuals ac/uire while in school0
there is no denying that curriculum affects us all. Curriculum is the concern of everyone0
whether they are teachers0 academics0 students0 parents0 politicians0 businessmen0
professionals0 government officials or the person on the street.
6ust li1e most things in education0 there is no agreed
upon definition of 7curriculum-. "he word
originates from the 8atin word currere referring to
the oval trac1 upon which *oman chariots raced
9see picture:. "he ;ew International Dictionary
defines curriculum as the whole body of a course in
an educational institution or by a department while
"he <xford English Dictionary defines curriculum
as courses taught in schools or universities.
Curriculum means different things to different
people. 3ost people0 including educators e/uate
curriculum with the syllabus 9Do you agree?: while
a few regard curriculum as all the teaching=learning experiences a student encounters
while in school. 2ince the early !
th
century when %ran1lin Bobbitt dubbed the Father of
Curriculum wrote his boo1 The Curriculum in 1>1?0 various theoreticians and
practitioners have proposed definitions of curriculum.
#
1.1 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM
ACTIVITY 1.1
Discuss any # headlines listed above that you agree with. 4hy@
8ocate and report other concerns about the curriculum that you have you
come across@
ACTIVITY 1.1
Discuss any # headlines listed above that you agree with. 4hy@
8ocate and report other concerns about the curriculum that you have you
come across@

Summa$y o% #a$ious
Inte$p$etations o%
Cu$$iculum
Curriculum is:
that which is taught in school
a set of sub5ects
content
a programme of studies
a set of materials
se/uence of courses
a set of performance ob5ectives
a course of study
everything that goes on within a
school
everything that is planned by
school personnel
that which is taught both inside
and outside of school directed
by the school
a series of experiences
undergone by learners in school
that which an individual learner
experiences as a result of
schooling
A2ourceB Ceter %. <liva0 Developing the
Curriculum. BostonB 8ittle0 Brown D
Company. 1>?!. p. &E
"anner 91>?: defined curriculum as Fthe
planned and guided learning experiences
and intended outcomes0 formulated
through the systematic reconstruction of
1nowledge and experiences under the
auspices of the school0 for the learners-
continuous and wilful growth in personal
social competenceG 9p.1#:.
2chubert 91>?(: defines curriculum as the
contents of a sub5ect0 concepts and tas1s to
be ac/uired0 planned activities0 the desired
learning outcomes and experiences0
product of culture and an agenda to reform
society.
Cratt 91>?: defines curriculum as a
written document that systematically
describes goals planned0 ob5ectives0
content0 learning activities0 evaluation
procedures and so forth.
Hoodlad and 2u 91>>!: define curriculum
as a plan that consists of learning
opportunities for a specific time frame and
place0 a tool that aims to bring about
behaviour changes in students as a result
of planned activities and includes all
learning experiences received by students
with the guidance of the school.
Cronbleth 91>>!: defines curriculum as answering three /uestionsB what 1nowledge0
s1ills and values are most worthwhile@ 4hy are they most worthwhile@ .ow should
the young ac/uire them@
Hrundy 91>?(: defines curriculum as a programme of activities 9by teachers and
pupils: designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and
other schooling ends or ob5ectives.
$
.ass 91>?(: provides a broader definition0 stating that a curriculum includes Fall of
the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education whose
purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific ob5ectives0 which is planned in
terms of a framewor1 of theory and research or past and present professional
practiceG 9p.&:.
Are you confused with the different definitions@ 4ell0 don-t beI It is not
necessarily a bad thing having numerous definitions of curriculum. "he variety of
definitions demonstrates the dynamism of the field because it reflects the philosophical
beliefs0 conceptions of human learning0 pedagogical strategies0 political experiences and
cultural bac1ground of the society the curriculum is planned for 9<rnstein and .un1ins0
1>>?:. "hough much time may be spent on defining curriculum0 it may be time well spent
because it encourages exploration of many possibilities. <ne should be aware that if a
curriculum is too narrowly defined there is the tendency and li1elihood to omit0 ignore or
miss relevant factors related to teaching and learning because they are not part of the
written plan. <n the other hand0 if they are too broadly defined0 it would difficult to
implement because it may be open to different interpretations. "his will ma1e the tas1 of
evaluating achievement of the goals and ob5ectives of the programme more difficult.
Despite varying definitions of curriculum0 there seems to be a consensus that it is
a statement
of what students should 1now 91nowledge or content:0
be able to do 9s1ills:0
how it is taught 9instruction:0
how it is measured 9assessment:0
and how the educational system is organi,ed 9context:.
It is a structured plan of intended learning outcomes0 involving 1nowledge0 s1ills0
behaviour and associated learning experiences organised as a se/uence of events that a
student ac/uires through education and training. .ow we conceive of the curriculum is
important because our conceptions and ways of reasoning about curriculum reflect how
&
SELF-TEST 1.1
a: Identify the %IJE common features of a curriculum mentioned in
most of the definitions given by scholars in the field 9exclude
Ceter <liva:
b: 2elect 2IK interpretations of the curriculum summarised by Ceter
<liva which you thin1 gives a comprehensive definition of
curriculum.
SELF-TEST 1.1
Identify the %IJE common features of a curriculum mentioned in
most of the definitions given by scholars in the field 9exclude Ceter
<liva:
2elect 2IK interpretations of the curriculum summarised by Ceter
<liva which you thin1 provides a comprehensive definition of
curriculum.
SELF-TEST 1.1
Identify the %IJE common features of a curriculum mentioned in
most of the definitions given by scholars in the field 9exclude Ceter
<liva:
2elect 2IK interpretations of the curriculum summarised by Ceter
<liva which you thin1 provides a comprehensive definition of
curriculum.
we thin10 study and act on the education made available to students. In short0 how we
define the curriculum reflects our assumptions about the world 9Cornbleth0 1>>:.
+ou may have heard of the phrase 7hidden curriculum-. 4hat is it@ "he phrase
hidden curriculum was coined by the sociologist Chilip 6ac1son in his boo1 Life in
Classrooms written in 1>'?. .e drew attention to the idea that schools did more than
simply transmit 1nowledge from one generation to another. 2tudents learn things that are
not actually taught in the formal curriculum. It could be viewed as the entire range of
educational experiences promoted by schools and teachers through practices that are not
necessarily written down.
As pointed out by Doll 91>>!:0 Fevery school has a planned0 formal ac1nowledged
curriculum0 but there is also has an unplanned informal and hidden one that must be
consideredG 9p.&:. "he planned0 formal curriculum focuses on goals0 ob5ectives0 sub5ect
matter and organisation of instruction. "he unplanned0 informal curriculum deals with
socio=psychological interaction among students0 teachers and administrators0 especially in
relation to their feelings0 attitudes and behaviours
If we only consider the planned curriculum0 the official curriculum stated in a
written document0 we ignore both the numerous positive and negative conse/uences that
can result from the planned curriculum. <ftentimes0 we fail to realise the power of the
hidden curriculum0 which may not be written but will certainly be learned by students.
%or example0 they learn even without being formally taughtB
about 7the rules of the game- in the school canteen0 in the playground0 in the
corridors of the school and so forth.
the specific relationships between senior and 5unior students0 between male and
female students0 cli/ues of students
how order is created and maintained in the classroom0 the way individual teachers
interpret the behaviour of students
the way teachers and principals or headmaster have different expectations of
students based on interpretations of behaviour in class
"he hidden curriculum involves learning such things as how to respond to and cope with
authority0 how to get on with others0 how to pass the time0 how deal with boredom0 how
to establish priorities and how to conform to the expectations of teachers and their peers.
'
1.2 THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM
If you examine the definitions provided by the experts in the field0 there are three
ways of approaching a curriculum 9see %igure 1.1:. %irst is to approach it as content or a
body of 1nowledge to be transmitted. 2econd is to approach it as a product or the learning
outcomes desired of learners. "hird0 is to approach it as a process or what actually
happens in the classroom when the curriculum is practiced.
&'('& Cu$$iculum as Content
It is /uite common for people to e/uate a curriculum with the syllabus which is a
concise document listing the topics of a sub5ect. If you have experience in preparing
students for national examinations0 you will be familiar with such documents. 4hat do
they contain@ Cerhaps0 a list of topics0 the concepts to be mastered and some suggestions
on how the topics are to be taught. %or example0 a primary school mathematics
curriculum will consist of topics on addition0 multiplication0 subtraction0 division0
distance0 weight and so forth. A syllabus will not generally indicate the relative
importance of the topics or the order in which they are to be studied. But0 there is
tendency for teachers to follow the se/uence prescribed in the syllabus. In most cases
teachers follow the logical structure of selected textboo1s simply because the textboo1s
have been written to match closely the syllabus. %or example0 in secondary school
geography involving the study of countries or regions0 textboo1s tend to begin with
physical geography such as relief0 climate0 vegetation followed by economic activities
such as agriculture0 mining0 industries0 urbani,ation and so forth.
It has been suggested that if one adopts the content approach to curriculum0 focus
will be on the syllabus and the body of 1nowledge to be transmitted or LdeliveredL to
students using appropriate teaching methods. 4hen curriculum is e/uated with content0
there is the li1elihood to limit instruction to the ac/uisition of facts0 concepts and
principles of the sub5ect matter transmitted.
(
1.3 CURRICULUM AROACHES
SELF-TEST 1.2
4hat is the hidden curriculum@
4hy is the hidden curriculum important in education@
Hive examples of the hidden curriculum other than those stated in the
text
SELF-TEST 1.2
4hat is the hidden curriculum@
4hy is the hidden curriculum important in education@
Hive examples of the hidden curriculum other than those stated in the
text
CURRICULUM as"
CURRICULUM as"
Content
Content
)$ocess
)$ocess
)$oduct
)$oduct
*i+u$e &'& App$oaches to Cu$$iculum
&'(', Cu$$iculum as )$oduct
Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted0 it has also been
viewed as a product. In other words0 what is it that is desired of students having been
taught using a curriculum. %ran1lin Bobbitt 91>1?: in his boo1 The Curriculum0 stated
thatM
.uman life0 however varied0 consists in the performance of specific
activities. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares
definitely and ade/uately for these specific activities. .owever
numerous and diverse they may be for any social class they can be
discovered. "his re/uires only that one go out into the world of affairs
and discover the particulars of which their affairs consist. "hese will
show the abilities0 attitudes0 habits0 appreciations and forms of
1nowledge that men need. "hese will be the ob5ectives of the
curriculum. "hey will be numerous0 definite and particularised. "he
curriculum will then be that series of experiences which children and
youth must have by way of obtaining those ob5ectives. 9pB $!:.
According to Bobbitt0 education should prepare people for life with detailed
attention to what people need to 1now in order to wor1 and live their lives. Ho out into
the world and see for yourselves what society needs (the abilities attitudes habits
?
SELF-TEST 1.3
1. 4hat do you mean when curriculum is approached as content@
4hy is it a common approach of viewing curriculum@
SELF-TEST 1.3
1. 4hat do you mean when curriculum is approached as content@
4hy is it a common approach of viewing curriculum@
SELF-TEST 1.4
.ow is curriculum as product different from curriculum as
content@
4hat should be the overall purpose of a curriculum according to
Bobbitt and "yler@
.ow are these ob5ectives to be derived@
SELF-TEST 1.4
.ow is curriculum as product different from curriculum as
content@
4hat should be the overall purpose of a curriculum according to
Bobbitt and "yler@
.ow are these ob5ectives to be derived@
appreciations and forms of !nowledge that men "women# need$ according to Bobbitt:.
Curriculum should not to be the result of Larmchair speculationL but the result of
systematic study of society. "he product from the curriculum is a student e/uipped with
the 1nowledge0 s1ills and values to function effectively and efficiently. *alph "yler
91>$>: shares Bobbitt-s approach to curriculum when he said that the real purpose of
education is to bring about significant changes in studentsL pattern of behaviour A%e will
e&amine Tyler's view in more detail in Chapter (E. It is important that any statement of
ob5ectives of the school should be a statement of changes to ta1e place in the students.
"he attraction of this way of approaching curriculum is that it is systematic and has
considerable organising power. Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioural
ob5ectives which provide a clear notion of outcomes or desired products so that content
and teaching methods may be organised and the results evaluated.
In order to measure0 things have to be bro1en down into smaller and smaller units
9numerous definite and particularise)series of e&periences which children and youth
must have G according to Bobbitt:. "he result0 as many of you will have experienced0 can
be long lists of often trivial s1ills or competencies. "his can lead to a focus on the parts
rather than the wholeM on the trivial0 rather than the significant. It can lead to an approach
to education and assessment which resembles a shopping list. 4hen all the items are
tic1ed0 the person has passed the course or has learnt something. "he role of overall
5udgment is somehow sidelined.
>
ACTIVITY 1.2
C!"#"$"%&% o' #(e )Cu!!"$ulu& *% !odu$#+ A,,!o*$(
"here are a number of disagreements with the Curriculum as product
approach. "he first is that the curriculum can become too technical and
se/uential. "he tendency is for the curriculum to exist prior to and outside the
learning experiences which ta1es much away from learners and end up with
little or no voice. "hey are told what they must learn and how they will do
it. "he success or failure of a curriculum is 5udged on the basis of whether
pre=specified changes occur in the behaviour of learners. If the curriculum is
closely followed it might limit creativity and turn educators into technicians.
Also0 since the approach emphasises measurability0 it implies that
behaviour can be ob5ectively0 mechanistically measured. "here are obvious
dangers hereM there always has to be some uncertainty about what is being
measured. It is often very difficult to 5udge what the impact of particular
experiences has been. 2ometimes it is years after the event that we come to
appreciate something of what has happened.
A*ourceB 2mith0 3. N. 91>>'0 !: Curriculum theory and practice0 The
+ncyclopaedia of Informal Education. www.infed.org,biblio,b-curric.htm'E
"o what extent do you agree with the criticisms of the curriculum as
product approach@
4hat are some advantages of this approach@
ACTIVITY 1.2
C!"#"$"%&% o' #(e )Cu!!"$ulu& *% !odu$#+ A,,!o*$(
"here are a number of disagreements with the Curriculum as product
approach. "he first is that the curriculum can become too technical and
se/uential. "he tendency is for the curriculum to exist prior to and outside the
learning experiences which ta1es much away from learners and end up with
little or no voice. "hey are told what they must learn and how they will do
it. "he success or failure of a curriculum is 5udged on the basis of whether
pre=specified changes occur in the behaviour of learners. If the curriculum is
closely followed it might limit creativity and turn educators into technicians.
Also0 since the approach emphasises measurability0 it implies that
behaviour can be ob5ectively0 mechanistically measured. "here are obvious
dangers hereM there always has to be some uncertainty about what is being
measured. It is often very difficult to 5udge what the impact of particular
experiences has been. 2ometimes it is years after the event that we come to
appreciate something of what has happened.
A*ourceB 2mith0 3. N. 91>>'0 !: Curriculum theory and practice0 The
+ncyclopaedia of Informal Education. www.infed.org,biblio,b-curric.htm'E
"o what extent do you agree with the criticisms of the curriculum as
product approach@
4hat are some advantages of this approach@
&'('( Cu$$iculum as )$ocess
4e have seen that the curriculum as content approach emphasises the content to
be transmitted while curriculum as product approach is focussed on the setting of
instructional or behavioural ob5ectives. Another way of loo1ing at curriculum is via
process. .ere0 curriculum is not seen as a physical thing0 but rather the interaction of
teachers0 students and 1nowledge. It is what actually happens in the classroom such as
the /uestions as1ed by the teacher0 the learning activities students engage in and so forth.
It is an active process with emphasis on the context in which the processes occurs.
2tenhouse 91>(&:0 used the analogy of the a recipe in a coo1boo1 which teachers translate
into practice in the classroom. 8i1e a recipe it can be varied according to taste. 2o can a
curriculum.
According to the process approach curriculum is seen as a scheme about the
practice of teaching. It is not a pac1age of materials or a syllabus of content to be
covered. "he classroom is seen as a laboratory in which the teacher is li1e a scientist
who tests the ideas stated in the curriculum. "he teacher translates an educational idea
into a hypothesis that is tested in the classroom. It involves critical testing rather than
acceptance. "he focus is on finding out those processes which enhance 9if it is successful:
or hinder 9if it goes wrong: a person-s learning. 2o0 the curriculum is not a finished
product but rather the proposed educational ideas that have to been verified in the
classroom by teachers. 2o0 you may not 1now what you are going to get and may differ
from what has been specified in the curriculum document ".Life is li!e a bo& of
chocolates you never !now what you're gonna to get' / Forest 0umpE. "his differs from
the product approach where the desired behaviours have been pre=determined or more or
less fixed and applies to all learners.
"he process approach to curriculum treats the learners are not as ob5ects to be
acted upon. "hey have a say in what is going on in the teaching=learning sessions. "he
focus is on interaction and attention shifts from teaching to learning. <n the other hand0
the product model0 by having a pre=specified plan or programme0 tends to direct attention
to teaching. A process approach to curriculum theory and practice0 as argued by Hrundy
91>?(:0 tends towards ma1ing the process of learning the central concern of the teacher
with emphasis on thin1ing and meaning=ma1ing.
Debate is still continuing as to the definition of curriculum. Despite this lac1 of
consensus0 it has not hindered institutions0 school districts0 states and nations continually
developing and improving curriculum in schools0 colleges0 universities and training
organisations. Imagine what would have happened if we had to wait for an agreed upon
definition of curriculum. "he design and development of curriculum is a team effort
involving curriculum planners0 curriculum developers0 teachers0 academicians0 education
1
1.- FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
ACTIVITY 1.3
!o.le&% /"#( #(e )Cu!!"$ulu& *% !o$e%% A,,!o*$(+
"eachers who want uniformity in what is taught will find this approach
problematic because the focus is on the learner. 2o there will be
different content and methods of delivery to cater to individual needs.
Examinations would be difficult to conduct because learners would be
learning different things and at a different pace. It would not be fair to
have one examination as you might not be assessing the real ability of
a learner.
Examinations do not pay attention to the context in which learning
ta1es place and so some students might be disadvantaged.
"eachers implementing a curriculum using the process approach have
to believe that learning is the ma1ing of meaning and construction of
1nowledge. If teachers are not convinced this should be the aim of
education0 then the process approach will not succeed.
"o what extent do you agree with the problems with the 7Curriculum
as Crocess Approach-@
Do you thin1 the curriculum as process approach would be easier to
implement if there were no centrally controlled or national
examinations@
4hat is the main difference between the curriculum as product and
curriculum as process approach-@
A*ourceB 2mith0 3. N. 91>>'0 !: Curriculum theory and practice0 The
+ncyclopaedia of 1nformal +ducation. www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.E
ACTIVITY 1.3
!o.le&% /"#( #(e )Cu!!"$ulu& *% !o$e%% A,,!o*$(+
"eachers who want uniformity in what is taught will find this approach
problematic because the focus is on the learner. 2o there will be
different content and methods of delivery to cater to individual needs.
Examinations would be difficult to conduct because learners would be
learning different things and at a different pace. It would not be fair to
have one examination as you might not be assessing the real ability of
a learner.
Examinations do not pay attention to the context in which learning
ta1es place and so some students might be disadvantaged.
"eachers implementing a curriculum using the process approach have
to believe that learning is the ma1ing of meaning and construction of
1nowledge. If teachers are not convinced this should be the aim of
education0 then the process approach will not succeed.
"o what extent do you agree with the problems with the 7Curriculum
as Crocess Approach-@
Do you thin1 the curriculum as process approach would be easier to
implement if there were no centrally controlled or national
examinations@
4hat is the main difference between the curriculum as product and
curriculum as process approach-@
A*ourceB 2mith0 3. N. 91>>'0 !: Curriculum theory and practice0 The
+ncyclopaedia of 1nformal +ducation. www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.E
officers0 administrators0 community members and may others. "hey decide the goals of
the curriculum0 what content to include0 how it should be organised0 suggest how it
should be taught and how to determine whether efforts have been successful. "o help
them ma1e these decisions0 they have turned to philosophy0 psychology0 sociology and
history. "hese have been accepted as the foundations of a curriculum A4e shall discuss
the influence of these disciplines in detail in Chapters 2 3 and 4 respectivelyE.
"hese disciplines have produced a vast amount of 1nowledge that provide
guidelines for people interested in developing curriculum. %or example0 from philosophy
has evolved numerous beliefs as on how people should be educated and what 1nowledge
11
is worthwhile. "hese beliefs have provided curriculum developers with guidelines on
how they should go about designing curriculum. %rom psychology0 various perspectives
on how humans learn have been proposed. "his 1nowledge is of great significance since a
curriculum is a plan on what individuals are supposed to learn. Decades of research have
provided insight into the human psyche which curriculum developers have tapped into to
guide decisions on how a body of content is to be taught and ac/uired at different levels
of human development. "he disciplines of sociology0 economics0 culture0 and politics
provide an insight into society. A curriculum is a reflection of societal values and
beliefs it serves. It is usually a response to what society wants and desires. A5efer to the
newspaper headlines listed at the beginning of the chapterE. "he community plays an
important role in influencing what is taught in the classroom. %inally0 many curriculum
plans are an evolution from earlier times and curriculum developers refer to historical
events to better understand the decisions made at different points of time. It provides a
bac1ground for better understanding present day curriculum development efforts A%e will
e&amine the curriculum of early 6merican and 7apan in Chapter 4 to understand how
and why curriculum changes with the evolution of societyE.
Curriculum development is a process involving many different people and
procedures. "hus0 it is usually linear and follows a logical step=by=step fashion involving
the following phasesB curriculum planning0 curriculum design0 curriculum
implementation and curriculum evaluation. A%e will discuss each phase in detail in
Chapter ( 8 9 and :. 1f you were to specialise in curriculum then each of these phases
would be taught as a separate course by itselfE. "he phases of the process provide us with
guideposts and structure to clarify our thin1ing. "he phases can be graphically or
pictorially illustrated and are conceived in technical terms O with the assumption that one
must be 1nowledgeable of the process to fully appreciate and understand. Don-t worryI
By the end of Chapter ?0 you will fully understand the technical terms associated with
each of these phases of curriculum development.
3any curriculum development models have been proposed. Henerally0 most
models involve four phases. %irst is0 curriculum planning which involves decisions about
the philosophy of education and the aims of education. .aving decided on the
philosophical beliefs0 curriculum goals and ob5ectives are derived which are later
translated into the classroom as desired learning outcomes among students taught. "he
second phase is curriculum design which refers to the way curriculum is conceptualised
and involves the selection and organisation of content0 and the selection and organisation
of learning experiences or activities. Among the issues that have to be resolved is
deciding 7what 1nowledge is of most worth-0 7how should the content be organised to
maximise learning-. "he third phase is curriculum implementation in the classroom
1!
1.0 CURRICULUM DEVELOMENT
setting. It involves getting people to practice the ideas in the curriculum0 providing them
with the necessary resources0 training and encouragement. "he fourth phase is
curriculum evaluation which is determining the extent to which the efforts in
implementing the ideas of the curriculum have been successful. It involves identification
of factors that have hindered implementation as well as success storiesM and most
important whether students have benefited from the programme.
Can curriculum be considered a discipline 5ust li1e sociology0 economics0 biology
or political science@ Hraduate students have been ta1ing courses in curriculum planning0
curriculum evaluation0 primary school curriculum and so forth in various universities.
3any graduate schools of education offer doctoral specialisations in curriculum and
instruction0 better 1nown as 7CDI-. "o arrive at a decision as to whether an area of study
is a discipline0 one must first as1 the /uestion0 74hat are the characteristics of a
discipline@- If we 1now the characteristics of a discipline0 than maybe we can decide if
7curriculum- is a discipline. According to <liva 91>?!:0 a discipline has the following
characteristicsB
A discipline should have an organised set of theoretical principles
A discipline encompasses a body of 1nowledge and s1ills pertinent to that
discipline
A discipline has its theoreticians and its practitioners
"he field of curriculum has its set of principles. %or example the term
7curriculum- itself is a concept describing very complex ideas. In curriculum planning
there are principles such as educational philosophy0 curriculum goals and learning
ob5ectives which are applied in developing programmes for school0 universities and
training centres. In curriculum design0 the principles of scope0 se/uence and balance are
used in the organisation of content to be taught. "he field of curriculum has its own body
of !nowledge and s!ills0 though much of it has been borrowed from a number of pure
disciplines. %or example0 in the selection of content 94hat to teach@:0 curriculum has
relied on the principles0 1nowledge and s1ills from psychology0 philosophy and
sociology. In the organisation of content0 curriculum has drawn from the fields of
management and organisational theory. In the implementation of curriculum0 various
ideas from systems theory0 organisational behaviour and communication theory have
been used to enhance effectiveness. %or example0 research in organisational behaviour
has been used to bring about change among teachers0 educational administrators and the
community. .as the field of curriculum its own body of 1nowledge and s1ills@ Applying
the ideas drawn from the different disciplines and through experimentation it has
1#
1.1 CURRICULUM AS A DISCILINE
generated its own body of 1nowledge and s1ills0 or at least0 new interpretations of
principles as applied in the educational setting.
"he field of curriculum has its list of theoreticians and practitioners and they
include curriculum planners0 professors of curriculum0 curriculum developers and so
forth who are termed as curriculum specialists. "hese specialists are well=versed in areas
relating to curriculum0 such as the history and origin of a curriculum 9to 1now of earlier
successes or failure:0 curriculum planning and how a particular curriculum is to be
implemented in schools successfully. "he specialist is well=informed about how students
learn0 how teachers react to change and obstacles to improvement. "he curriculum
specialist generates new 1nowledge by recombining existing programmes0 adapting
approaches and constructing new curriculum. A;erhaps after completing this course you
might be more convinced that curriculum meets the re<uirement of a discipline or maybe
not=#
;ow that you have an idea of what is a curriculumM what is the relationship
between curriculum and instruction@ 2imply put0 curriculum is what to be taught while
instruction is how it is taught. "he relationship between curriculum and instruction is a
partnership. 4e may thin1 of the curriculum as a plan stipulating the content to be taught
along with the learning experiences to be included. Instruction may be thought of as
methodology0 the teaching act and assessing of achievement. In other words0 it is putting
into practice what has been planned.
<liva 91>?!: described curriculum and instruction as two entities. +ou could have
a situation in which the two entities are apart0 called the dualistic model 9see %igure 1.!a:.
4hat ta1es place in the classroom under the direction of the teacher has little relationship
to what is stated in the curriculum plan. Clanners ignore what teachers are doing and vice=
versa. "he curriculum or the instructional process may change without affecting one
another. "his separation will do serious harm to each other. <n other occasions0
curriculum and instruction are mutually interdependent as shown in the concentric model
9see %igure 1.!b:. In this model curriculum assumes the superordinate position while
1$
SELF-TEST 1.5
4hy do curriculum developers rely on the 1nowledge and s1ills of
other discipline@
.ow would you 5ustify the field of curriculum to be a discipline@
SELF-TEST 1.5
4hy do curriculum developers rely on the 1nowledge and s1ills of
other discipline@
.ow would you 5ustify the field of curriculum to be a discipline@
1.2 CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
Cu$$iculum
Inst$uction
instruction is subordinateM that is0 instruction is a subsystem of curriculum which is itself
a subsystem of the whole system of education. "his model implies a system that is
hierarchical0 with curriculum dominating instruction. Instruction is not a separate entity
but a very dependent portion of the curriculum entity. In other situations0 curriculum and
instruction may be separate entities with a continuing circular relationship0 called the
circular model 9see %igure 1.!c:. Curriculum ma1es a continuous impact on instruction
and similarly instruction impacts on curriculum. "his model assumes that instructional
decisions are made after curriculum decisions are made. But0 these curriculum decisions
are later modified when they have been implemented and evaluated in the classroom.
"his process is continues0 repeated and never=ending.
-a. /ualistic model

Cu$$iculum Inst$uction
-!. Concent$ic model


9c. Cyclical model
Cu$$iculum Inst$uction
*i+u$e &', Cu$$iculum and Inst$uction Relationship
1&
A*ourceB Ceter <liva0 Developing the curriculum. 1>?!. BostonB 8ittle Brown D Co. pp.1!=1#E
<f all the models0 the cyclical model seems to the best alternative as it emphasises
the need for a close wor1ing relationship between implementers and planners. "hough
curriculum and instruction may be different entities they are interdependent and cannot
function in isolation. It is impossible to plan everything that happens in the classroom in
the curriculum document. It should be accepted that what is planned on paper may not
wor1 exactly because the numerous factors operating in the classroom are impossible to
predetermine. "he constant feedbac1 from the classroom as to what wor1s and what does
not wor1 has to be recycled to curriculum developers so necessary ad5ustments and
modifications can be made to the curriculum plan. "his may explain the need for pilot=
testing a curriculum before it is widely implemented.
RE*ERENCES
Alistair0 *. 9!:. CurriculumB Construction and Criti/ue. 8ondonB %almer Cress.
Chapter >? %hat is the curriculum? Aavailable at eBraryE.
1'
/ISCUSSION 0UESTIONS"
4rite down your definition of curriculum.
a: 4hat does your definition of curriculum include@ Does it include a
process@ . . a product@ . . materials for teaching@ . . . an approach to
education and methods of instruction that fosters certain values and
attitudes@
b: Compare your definition with the definitions given by scholars in the
field. .ow similar or different is yours@
F"he curriculum on paper and the curriculum in actionG. 4hat do you understand
by this statement@
F"he curriculum is too examination=oriented and children are deprived of their
childhoodG. Discuss
FAn over=loaded curriculum is a concern of many teachers. Increasingly0 teachers
are feeling that there is not enough time to cover all the traditional material being
put into the curriculumG.
"o what extent do you agree@
2uggest solutions to overcome the problem.

/ISCUSSION 0UESTIONS"
4rite down your definition of curriculum.
a: 4hat does your definition of curriculum include@ Does it include a
process@ . . a product@ . . materials for teaching@ . . . an approach to
education and methods of instruction that fosters certain values and
attitudes@
b: Compare your definition with the definitions given by scholars in the
field. .ow similar or different is yours@
F"he curriculum on paper and the curriculum in actionG. 4hat do you understand
by this statement@
F"he curriculum is too examination=oriented and children are deprived of their
childhoodG. Discuss
FAn over=loaded curriculum is a concern of many teachers. Increasingly0 teachers
are feeling that there is not enough time to cover all the traditional material being
put into the curriculumG.
"o what extent do you agree@
2uggest solutions to overcome the problem.

4oods0 *.;. 91>?>:. Introduction to philosophy of education. 8ondonB outledge.
Chapter 3? Curriculum theory Aavailable at eBraryE
<rnstein0 A. and .un1ins0 %. CurriculumB %oundations0 principle and issues.
91>>?:. Boston0 3AB Allyn D Bacon. Chapter >? The field of curriculum.
2owell0 E. 9!:. CurriculumB An integrative introduction. Ppper 2addle *iver0
;6B Crentice=.all. Chapter >? @verview of curriculum processes and products.
1(