Seeing and Touching

Structural Concepts
Tianjian Ji and Adrian Bell
Taylor &. Francis
Taylor & Francis Croup
LONDON AND NEW YORK
Contents
Preface xii
Acknowledgements xvi
PARTI
Statics 1
1 Equilibrium 3
1.1 Definitions and concepts 3
1.2 Theoretical background 3
1.3 Model demonstrations 5
1.3.1 Action and reaction forces 5
1.3.2 Stable and unstable equilibrium 6
1.3.3 A plate-bottle system 7
1.3.4 A magnetic 'float' model 7
1.4 Practical examples 8
1.4.1 A barrier 8
1.4.2 A footbridge 9
1.4.3 An equilibrium kitchen scale 10
1.4.4 Stage performance 10
1.4.5 Magnetic float train 11
1.4.6 A dust tray 11
2 Centre of mass 13
2.1 Definitions and concepts 13
2.2 Theoretical background 13
2.3 Model demonstration 18
2.3.1 Centre of mass of a piece of cardboard of arbitrary shape 18
2.3.2 Centre of mass and centroid of a body 19
2.3.3 Centre of mass of a body in a horizontal plane 19
2.3.4 Centre of mass of a body in a vertical plane 21
2.3.5 Centre of mass and stability 22
2.3.6 Centre of mass and motion 24
vi Contents
2.4 Practical examples 24
2.4.1 Cranes on construction sites 24
2.4.2 The Eiffel Tower 25
2.4.3 A display unit 26
2.4.4 The Kio Towers 26
3 Effect of different cross-sections 28
3.1 Definitions and concepts 28
3.2 Theoretical background 28
3.3 Model demonstrations 33
3.3.1 Two rectangular beams and an I-section beam 33
3.3.2 Lifting a book using a bookmark 34
3.4 Practical examples 35
3.4.1 A steel-framed building 35
3.4.2 A railway bridge 36
3.4.3 I-section members with holes (cellular beams and
columns) 36
4 Bending 38
4.1 Definitions and concepts 38
4.2 Theoretical background 38
4.3 Model demonstration 42
4.3.1 Assumptions in beam bending 42
4.4 Practical examples 43
4.4.1 Profiles of girders 43
4.4.2 Reducing bending moments using overhangs 43
4.4.3 Failure due to bending 44
4.4.4 Deformation of a staple due to bending 45
5 Shear and torsion 47
5.1 Definitions and concepts 47
5.2 Theoretical background 47
5.2.1 Shear stresses due to bending 47
5.2.2 Shear stresses due to torsion 49
5.3 Model demonstrations 53
5.3.1 Effect of torsion 53
5.3.2 Effect of shear stress 53
5.3.3 Effect of shear force 55
5.3.4 Open and closed sections subject to torsion with warping 56
5.3.5 Open and closed sections subject to torsion without warping 57
5.4 Practical examples 58
5.4.1 Composite section of a beam 58
5.4.2 Shear walls in a building 58
5.4.3 Opening a drinks bottle 59
Contents vii
6 Stress distribution 61
6.1 Concept 61
6.2 Theoretical background 61
6.3 Model demonstrations 62
6.3.1 Balloons on nails 62
6.3.2 Uniform and non-uniform stress distributions 63
6.4 Practical examples 64
6.4.1 Flat shoes vs. high-heel shoes 64
6.4.2 The Leaning Tower of Pisa 65
7 Span and deflection 67
7.1 Concepts 67
7.2 Theoretical background 67
7.3 Model demonstrations 71
7.3.1 Effect of spans 71
7.3.2 Effect of boundary conditions 72
7.3.3 The bending moment at one fixed end of a beam 73
7.4 Practical examples 74
7.4.1 Column supports 74
7.4.2 The phenomenon of prop roots 75
7.4.3 Metal props used in structures 75
8 Direct force paths 77
8.1 Definitions, concepts and criteria 77
8.2 Theoretical background 77
8.2.1 Introduction 77
8.2.2 Concepts for achieving a stiffer structure 78
8.2.3 Implementation 82
8.2.4 Discussion 87
8.3 Model demonstrations 90
8.3.1 Experimental verification 90
8.3.2 Direct and zigzag force paths 92
8.4 Practical examples 92
8.4.1 Bracing systems of tall buildings 92
8.4.2 Bracing systems of scaffolding structures 93
9 Smaller internal forces 96
9.1 Concepts 96
9.2 Theoretical background 96
9.2.1 Introduction 96
9.2.2 A ring and a tied ring 97
9.3 Model demonstrations 105
viii Contents
9.3.1 A pair of rubber rings 105
9.3.2 Post-tensioned plastic beams 106
9.4 Practical examples 107
9.4.1 Raleigh Arena 107
9.4.2 Zhejiang Dragon Sports Centre 108
9.4.3 A cable-stayed bridge 111
9.4.4 A floor structure experiencing excessive vibration 111
10 Buckling 113
10.1 Definitions and concepts 113
10.2 Theoretical background 113
10.2.1 Buckling of a column with different boundary conditions 113
10.2.2 Lateral torsional buckling of beams 116
10.3 Model demonstrations 119
10.3.1 Buckling shapes of plastic columns 119
10.3.2 Buckling loads and boundary conditions 120
10.3.3 Lateral buckling of beams 122
10.3.4 Buckling of an empty aluminium can 123
10.4 Practical examples 124
10.4.1 Buckling of bracing members 124
10.4.2 Buckling of a box girder 125
10.4.3 Prevention of lateral buckling of beams 125
11 Prestress 127
11.1 Definitions and concepts 127
11.2 Theoretical background 127
11.3 Model demonstrations 133
11.3.1 Prestressed wooden blocks forming a beam and a column 133
11.3.2 A toy using prestressing 134
11.4 Practical examples 134
11.4.1 A "centrally post-tensioned column 134
11.4.2 An eccentrically post-tensioned beam 135
11.4.3 Spider's web 135
11.4.4 A cable-net roof 137
12 Horizontal movements of structures induced by vertical loads 139
12.1 Concepts 139
12.2 Theoretical background 139
12.2.1 Static response 140
12.2.2 Dynamic response 149
12.3 Model demonstrations 151
12.3.1 A symmetric frame 151
12.3.2 An anti-symmetric frame 152
Contents ix
12.3.3 An asymmetric frame 152
12.4 Practical examples 153
12.4.1 A grandstand 153
12.4.2 A building floor 153
12.4.3 Rail bridges 156
PART II
Dynamics 157
13 Energy exchange 159
13.1 Definitions and concepts 159
13.2 Theoretical background 159
13.3 Model demonstrations 164
13.3.1 A moving wheel 164
13.3.2 Collision balls 165
13.3.3 Dropping a series of balls 167
13.4 Practical examples 168
13.4.1 Roller coasters 168
13.4.2 A torch without a battery 169
14 Pendulums 170
14.1 Definitions and concepts 170
14.2 Theoretical background 170
14.2.1 A simple pendulum 170
14.2.2 A generalised suspended system 172
14.2.3 Translational and rotational systems 176
14.3 Model demonstrations 176
14.3.1 Natural frequency of suspended systems 176
14.3.2 Effect of added masses 178
14.3.3 Static behaviour of an outward inclined suspended system
180
14.4 Practical examples 182
14.4.1 An inclined suspended wooden bridge in a playground 182
14.4.2 Seismic isolation of a floor 182
14.4.3 The Foucault pendulum 182
15 Free vibration 185
15.1 Definitions and concepts 185
15.2 Theoretical background 186
15.2.1 A single-degree-of-freedom system 186
15.2.2 A generalised single-degree-of-freedom system 191
15.2.3 A multi-degrees-of-freedom (MDOF) system 195
15.2.4 Relationship between the fundamental natural frequency
and the maximum displacement of a beam 196
x Contents
15.2.5 Relationship between the fundamental natural frequency
and the tension force in a straight string 198
15.3 Model demonstrations 199
15.3.1 Free vibration of a pendulum system 199
15.3.2 Vibration decay and natural frequency 200
15.3.3 An overcritically-damped system 201
15.3.4 Mode shapes of a discrete model 202
15.3.5 Mode shapes of a continuous model 202
15.3.6 Tension force and natural frequency of a straight tension
bar 203
15.4 Practical examples 204
15.4.1 A musical box 204
15.4.2 Measurement of the fundamental natural frequency of a
building through free vibration generated using vibrators 206
15.4.3 Measurement of the natural frequencies of a stack through
vibration generated by the environment 207
15.4.4 The tension forces in the cables in the London Eye 208
16 Resonance 210
16.1 Definitions and concepts 210
16.2 Theoretical background 210
16.2.1 A SDOF system subjected to a harmonic load 211
16.2.2 A SDOF system subject to a harmonic support movement
217
16.2.3 Resonance frequency 219
16.3 Model demonstrations 221
16.3.1 Dynamic response of a SDOF system subject to harmonic
support movements 221
16.3.2 Effect of resonance 222
16.4 Practical examples 222
16.4.1 The London Millennium Footbridge 223
16.4.2 Avoidance of resonance: design of structures used for pop
concerts 225
16.4.3 Measurement of the resonance frequency of a building 227
16.4.4 An entertaining resonance phenomenon 228
17 Damping in structures 231
17.1 Concepts 231
17.2 Theoretical background 231
17.2.1 Evaluation of viscous-damping ratio from free vibration
tests 231
17.2.2 Evaluation of viscous-damping ratio from forced vibration
tests 233
Contents xi
17.3 Model demonstrations 234
17.3.1 Observing the effect of damping in free vibrations 234
17.3.2 Hearing the effect of damping in free vibrations 234
17.4 Practical examples 235
17.4.1 Damping ratio obtained from free vibration tests 235
17.4.2 Damping ratio obtained from forced vibration tests 237
17.4.3 Reducing footbridge vibrations induced by walking 237
17.4.4 Reducing floor vibration induced by walking 238
18 Vibration reduction 241
18.1 Definitions and concepts 241
18.2 Theoretical background 241
18.2.1 Change of dynamic properties of systems 242
18.2.2 Tuned mass dampers 244
18.3 Model demonstrations 246
18.3.1 A tuned mass damper (TMD) 246
18.3.2 A tuned liquid damper (TLD) 247
18.3.3 Vibration isolation 248
18.4 Practical examples 248
18.4.1 Tyres used for vibration isolation 248
18.4.2 The London Eye 249
18.4.3 The London Millennium Footbridge 249
19 Human body models in structural vibration 252
19.1 Concepts 252
19.2 Theoretical background 252
19.2.1 Introduction 252
19.2.2 Identification of human body models in structural vibration
254
19.3 Demonstration tests 257
19.3.1 The body model of a standing person in the vertical
direction 257
19.3.2 The body model of a standing person in the lateral
direction 259
19.4 Practical examples 261
19.4.1 The effect of stationary spectators on a grandstand 261
19.4.2 Calculation of the natural frequencies of a grandstand 263
19.4.3 Dynamic response of a structure used at pop concerts 263
19.4.4 Indirect measurement of the fundamental natural frequency
of a standing person 263
19.4.5 Indirect measurement of the fundamental natural frequency
of a chicken 264
Index 266