Yeditepe University

Department of Computer Engineering

CSE 232
Systems Programming
LECTURE NOTES !
INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS
1. " ntrodu#tion
A computer system can be !"!e !nto # components$
- t%e hardware &CPU' memory' !nput(output e"!ces' etc.)'
- t%e operating system'
- t%e system programs &*or processors' sprea s%eets' account!n+ so,t*ares'
comp!-ers'.)
- t%e application programs.
App-!cat!on Pro+rams
System Pro+rams
Operat!n+
System
/ar*are
$igure %. Hierarchy of computer components
1
2& Computer System Stru#ture
pr!nter
!s0 !s0
!s0 pr!nter tape1r!"e
CPU contro--er contro--er contro--er
system bus
memory
contro--er
memory
$igure 2. Hardware of a computer system
2&%& Run'time Environment
- Conta!ns a set o, ser"!ce rout!nes t%at are a"a!-ab-e ,or use ur!n+ pro+ram e2ecut!on &e+. I(O
,unct!ons$
Pro+ram !n"o0es a ser"!ce rout!ne' OS ta0es care o, status test!n+' count!n+ o, bytes
trans,erre' error c%ec0!n+)
- Pro"!es ,ac!-!t!es ,or mana+!n+ t%e resources
&e+. CPU !s s*!tc%e amon+ user 3obs accor!n+ to some pree,!ne po-!cy)
2&2& "nput and Output (")O*
I(O e"!ces$
b-oc0 e"!ces
c%aracter e"!ces
I(O types$
Pro+ramme I(O
Interrupt r!"en I(O &Interrupt ser"!ce rout!ne)
4
D!rect memory access &DMA)
Example 1: Keyboard
5eyboar !nter,ace &contro--er)
6us
Port 7
&Status) 5eyboar
CPU e-ectron!cs
Port 1
&Data)
$igure 3& Keyboard controller
Port$ an aressab-e re+!ster
- input only ports$ CPU on-y reas ,rom !t
- output only ports$ CPU on-y *r!tes to !t
- ports for both input and output
E"ery port %as a number. A port can be re,erre to !n an assemb-y -an+ua+e pro+ram by !ts
number' suc% as$ IN 1
Status port$ c%ec0e by t%e CPU to see !, a 0ey %as been presse an ata !s reay to be sent to
CPU
Data port$ *%en a 0ey !s presse' !ts ASCII coe !s ,oun !n t%e ata port
Po++ing$ CPU cont!nua--y e2am!nes t%e status port unt!- a 0ey !s presse &Pro+ramme I(O)
Ex: Rea!n+ a c%aracter ,rom 0eyboar
5EYIN$ IN 7 8 rea status port !nto A
ANA A 8 test A &17/ 9 0ey !s presse' 77/ 9 ot%er*!se)
:; 5EYIN 8 3ump !, 77/
IN 1 8 ta0e ata !nto A
RET
<
Example 2: Printer
Pr!nter !nter,ace &contro--er)
6us
Port 4
&Contro-) Pr!nter
CPU !nter,ace
e-ectron!cs
Port <
&Data)
$igure ,& Printer controller
Data port$ c%aracter to be pr!nte !s put !n t%!s port
Contro+ port$ *%en t%e c%aracter !s reay !n t%e ata port' strobe s!+na- &t%at te--s t%e pr!nter t%at
!t can ta0e t%e c%aracter !n ata port) !s sent.
A t!m!n+ -oop must be use !n t%e CPU so t%at t%e c%aracters are ne"er passe to t%e pr!nter at a
rate ,aster t%an !t can accept.
Spec!a- c%aracters$
- carriage return$ causes t%e pr!nter %ea to mo"e to t%e -e,t s!e o, t%e paper
- line feed$ causes t%e pr!nter to a"ance t%e paper by one -!ne
Ex: =r!t!n+ a c%aracter to pr!nter
C/AROUT$ OUT < 8 put c%ar. !n accumu-ator !nto output port
CA>> DE>AY 8 ma0e sure pr!nter !s reay
M?I A' 17/ 8 set up strobe *or &17/ 9 c%ar. !n ata port !s a"a!-ab-e ,or pr!nt!n+)
OUT 4 8 put !t !nto contro- port to start strobe s!+na- to pr!nter
M?I A' 77/ 8 reset strobe &77/ 9 c%ar. !n ata port !s not a"a!-ab-e ,or pr!nt!n+)
OUT 4 8 put !t !nto contro- port to ,!n!s% strobe s!+na-
RET
#
"nterrupt Pro#essing
An !nterrupt !s a s!+na- t%at causes t%e computer to a-ter !ts norma- ,-o* o, !nstruct!on e2ecut!on.
eg& !"!e by @ero' t!me out' I(O operat!on
T%e !nterrupt automat!ca--y trans,ers contro- to an !nterrupt process!n+ rout!ne *%!c% ta0es some
act!on !n response to t%e con!t!on t%at cause t%e !nterrupt' an t%en contro- !s returne to t%e
pro+ram at *%!c% !ts e2ecut!on *as !nterrupte.
pro+ram
!nterrupt rout!ne
!nterrupt occurs

Some !nterrupt types$
- I! interrupt: Generate by an I(O c%anne- or e"!ce.
- Program interrupt: Generate by some con!t!on t%at occurs ur!n+ pro+ram e2ecut!on &e+.
!"!e by @ero' !--e+a- mac%!ne !nstruct!on' etc.)
- "imer interrupt: Generate by an !nterna- t!mer *!t%!n t%e CPU
- #uper$isor call interrupt %#&'($ A S?C !nstruct!on +enerates an !nterrupt t%at trans,ers contro-
to an OS ser"!ce rout!ne. T%e CPU s*!tc%es ,rom user moe to super"!sor moe.
=%en an !nterrupt occurs' t%e status o, t%e CPU !s sa"e &re+!sters' pro+ram counter etc.) an t%e
!nterrupt ser"!ce rout!ne !s e2ecute. A,ter t%e !nterrupt !s processe' t%ey are restore by t%e
!nterrupt rout!ne an contro- !s trans,erre to t%e pro+ram. Sa"!n+ an restor!n+ t%e processor
status !s ca--e context switching)
Interrupt priority: Dur!n+ t%e process!n+ o, an !nterrupt' a-- !nterrupts o, eAua- or -o*er pr!or!ty
are !n%!b!te' %!+%er pr!or!ty !nterrupts are a--o*e. At t%e en o, an !nterrupt' !, t%ere are more
t%an one !nterrupt pen!n+' one *!t% t%e %!+%est pr!or!ty !s e2ecute.
Interrupt mas*ing' !s use to pre"ent certa!n !nterrupts ,rom occurr!n+ *%!-e t%e ,!rst one !s be!n+
processe.
B
Example +: ,is*
6us reAuest -!ne D!s0 contro--er


CPU RAM DMA ot%er !nter,ace
R(= -!ne De"!ce e-ectron!cs re+!sters
Aress bus
Data bus
Contro- bus
$igure -& ,is* controller
Inter,ace re+!sters
Status port
Contro- port
DMA aress
re+!sters
D./ (Dire#t .emory /##ess*0 !s a proceure ,or trans,err!n+ ata !rect-y bet*een contro--er
an memory *!t%out t%e %e-p o, CPU.
D./ devi#e$ !s -!0e a separate CPU *!t% ,unct!ons re-ate to ata trans,er' suc% as$
- s%uts t%e CPU o*n ,or s%ort per!os
- se!@es contro- o, t%e system bus
- trans,ers ata bet*een memory an e2terna- e"!ce *!t%out t%e !nterme!at!on o, CPU
Dis1 #ontro++er$ accepts commans ,rom CPU suc% as$
- se-ect !s0 r!"e
- set up DMA re+!sters
- return current sector aress
- return current trac0 aress
- mo"e %ea !n(out one trac0
- mo"e %ea to trac0 7
- rea(*r!te current sector
Status port$ conta!ns t%e resu-t o, a Auery ,rom CPU or status
Contro+ port$ commans ,or t%e contro--er are p-ace
D./ address registers$ t%ey rece!"e aresses ,rom CPU
C
3& Operating Systems
An operating system !s a pro+ram t%at acts as an !nterme!ary bet*een a user o, a computer an
t%e computer %ar*are.
Ma!n ,unct!ons o, an operat!n+ system are$
1. T%e operat!n+ system !s an !nter,ace bet*een t%e user an t%e computer
pro"!es access to t%e to t%e ut!-!ty pro+rams suc% as e!tors' ebu++ers' etc.
starts t%e e2ecut!on o, t%e pro+rams
pro"!es -o* -e"e- I(O rout!nes to t%e user
contro-s access to t%e ,!-es
pro"!es access ,unct!ons ,or t%e protect!on o, t%e resources an ata ,rom unaut%or!@e
users
etects errors suc% as memory error' e"!ce ,a!-ure' ar!t%met!c o"er,-o*' etc. an pro"!es
error %an-!n+ rout!nes
co--ects per,ormance stat!st!cs
4. T%e operat!n+ system mana+es t%e resources o, t%e system
contro-s an a--ocates resources
System resources are memory' CPU' I(O e"!ces' etc.
3&%& 2istori#a+ Revie3 of Operating Systems
.onitors
- Mon!tors are t%e s!mp-est operat!n+ systems.
- S!n+-e user systems
- A--o* user !nteract!on
Simp+e 4at#5 Systems
T%e user prepares a 3ob &*%!c% cons!sts o, pro+ram' ata an some contro- !n,ormat!on)' subm!ts
!t to t%e computer operator an rece!"es t%e output a,ter t%e pro+ram !s e2ecute. T%e 3ob !s
usua--y punc%e on cars an t%e output !s usua--y pr!nte. To spee up process!n+' 3obs *!t%
s!m!-ar nees can be batc%e to+et%er an run as a +roup. T%us' t%e operator sorts t%e pro+rams
*!t% s!m!-ar reAu!rements !nto batc%es' runs eac% batc% an sens t%e output to t%e pro+rammer.
T%ere,ore !n a batc% operat!n+ system t%ere !s a -ac0 o, !nteract!on bet*een t%e user an t%e 3ob
*%!-e t%at 3ob !s e2ecut!n+.
T%e operat!n+ system !s a-*ays !n memory an !ts 3ob !s to trans,er contro- automat!ca--y ,rom
one 3ob to t%e ne2t.
D
As t%e I(O e"!ces are s-o*er t%an t%e spee o, t%e CPU &t%e !,,erence may be t%ree orers o,
ma+n!tue or more)' t%e CPU !s o,ten !-e. Eor us!n+ t%e system more e,,!c!ent-y' cars can be
rea ,rom t%e car reaer onto t%e !s0. T%e operat!n+ system recors t%e!r -ocat!on on !s0 !n a
tab-e. =%en a 3ob reAuests t%e pr!nter' t%e output !s cop!e !nto a system bu,,er an !s *r!tten to
t%e !s0. =%en t%e 3ob !s comp-ete' t%e output !s pr!nte. T%!s ,orm o, process!n+ !s ca--e
spooling &s!mu-taneous per!p%era- operat!on on +!ne). Spoo-!n+ !s a-so use ,or process!n+ ata at
remote s!tes. T%e CPU sen t%e ata "!a commun!cat!on pat%s to a remote s!te an t%e process!n+
!s one *!t% no CPU !nter"ent!on. T%e CPU 3ust nees to be not!,!e *%en t%e process!n+ !s
comp-ete' so t%at !t can spoo- t%e ne2t batc% o, ata.
Spoo-!n+ o"er-aps t%e I(O o, one 3ob *!t% t%e computat!on o, ot%er 3obs. Dur!n+ t%e e2ecut!on o,
one 3ob' t%e spoo-er may be rea!n+ t%e !nput o, anot%er 3ob *%!-e pr!nt!n+ t%e output o, a
!,,erent 3ob.
!s0
car reaer I(O -!ne pr!nter
CPU
$igure !. Spoo-!n+
.u+tiprogrammed 4at#5 Systems
Spoo-!n+ pro"!es a -ob pool on !s0. In orer to !ncrease CPU ut!-!@at!on' 3obs !n t%e poo- may
be sc%eu-e !n !,,erent *ays' suc% as' ,!rst1come ,!rst1ser"e' s%ortest 3ob ,!rst' pr!or!ty bas!s'
etc.
T%e most !mportant aspect o, 3ob sc%eu-!n+ !s t%e ab!-!ty to multiprogram. T%e operat!n+ system
0eeps se"era- 3obs &a subset o, 3obs !n t%e 3ob poo-) !n memory at a t!me. Dur!n+ t%e e2ecut!on o,
one 3ob' !, !t *a!ts ,or an I(O operat!on to comp-ete' t%e operat!n+ system s*!tc%es to an
e2ecutes anot%er 3ob. In t%!s *ay' as -on+ as t%ere !s a-*ays some 3ob to e2ecute' t%e CPU *!--
ne"er be !-e.
Time'S5aring Systems
In mu-t!pro+ramme batc% systems' t%e user cannot !nteract *!t% t%e pro+ram ur!n+ !ts
e2ecut!on. In t!me1s%ar!n+ or mu-t!tas0!n+ systems' mu-t!p-e 3obs are e2ecute by t%e CPU
s*!tc%!n+ bet*een t%em' but t%e s*!tc%!n+ occurs so ,reAuent-y t%at t%e user may !nteract *!t%
eac% pro+ram *%!-e !t !s runn!n+. T!me1s%ar!n+ operat!n+ systems$
- uses CPU sc%eu-!n+ an mu-t!pro+ramm!n+'
- uses t!me1s-!ce mec%an!sm'
- a--o*s !nteract!"e I(O'
F
- a--o*s many users to s%are t%e computer s!mu-taneous-y.
2&6& Persona+ Computer (PC* Systems
A computer system e!cate to a s!n+-e user !s re,erre to as a PC. In t%e ,!rst PCs' t%e operat!n+
system *as ne!t%er mu-t!user nor mu-t!tas0!n+ &e+. MS1DOS). T%e operat!n+ system concepts
use !n ma!n,rames an m!n!computers' toay' are a-so use !n PCs &e+. UNIG' M!croso,t
=!no*s NT' Mac!ntos% OS).
2&7& Para++e+ Systems
Para--e- systems %a"e more t%an one processor. In mu-t!processor systems &t!+%t-y coup-e)'
processors are !n c-ose commun!cat!on' suc% as t%ey s%are computer bus' c-oc0' memory or
per!p%era-s.
2&-& Distri8uted Systems
D!str!bute systems a-so %a"e more t%an one processor. Eac% processor %as !ts -oca- memory.
Processors commun!cate t%rou+% commun!cat!on -!nes &e+. Te-ep%one -!nes' %!+%1spee bus'
etc.). Processors are re,erre to as s!tes' noes' computers epen!n+ on t%e conte2t !n *%!c% t%ey
are ment!one. Mu-t!computer systems are -oose-y coup-e. E2amp-e app-!cat!ons are e1ma!-'
*eb ser"er' etc.
2&!& Rea+'time Systems
Rea-1t!me systems are spec!a- purpose operat!n+ systems. T%ey are use *%en t%ere are r!+! t!me
reAu!rements on t%e operat!on o, a processor or t%e ,-o* o, ata' an t%us !t !s o,ten use
as a contro- e"!ce !n a e!cate app-!cat!on &e+. ,ue- !n3ect!on systems' *eapon
systems' !nustr!a- contro- systems' .). It %as *e-- e,!ne' ,!2e t!me constra!nts. T%e
process!n+ must be one *!t%!n t%e e,!ne constra!nts' or t%e system ,a!-s.
T*o types$
- Hard real-time systems +uarantee t%at cr!t!ca- tas0s comp-ete on t!me.
- In #oft real-time systems' a cr!t!ca- rea-1t!me tas0 +ets pr!or!ty o"er ot%er tas0s' an t%e
tas0 reta!ns t%at pr!or!ty unt!- !t comp-etes.
3&2& User "nterfa#es for Operating Systems
Inc-ue$
- s!mp-e comman -an+ua+e
- a menu
- +rap%!ca- representat!on o, pro+rams an ata
- I(O rout!nes &ser"!ce rout!nes)
H
Operating System $eatures
6ootstrap pro+ram$ !n!t!a-!@es CPU' -oas OS 0erne- !nto memory
OS *a!ts ,or e"ent' s!+na-e by an interrupt e!t%er ,rom a %ar*are or so,t*are &system
call. monitor call)' !nterrupt "ector
Dua- moe o, operat!on$ user mode' *ernel mode &super"!sor moe)
/ar*are Protect!on &base' -!m!t re+!sters)
user pro+ram 1 User pro+rams
run !n user moe
user pro+ram 4
5erne- ca--
,
3 ser"!ce Operat!n+
% proceure system
runs !n
!spatc% tab-e 0erne- moe
2
$igure 9& How a system call can be made
4"OS &6as!c Input Output System)
It !s an !nter,ace bet*een t%e operat!n+ system an %ar*are. C%an+es ,rom one computer to
anot%er.
E:0 1 trans,ers a s!n+-e c%aracter to pr!nter
1 reas a sector ,rom !s0
/I!# routines of 'P0:
6OOT READER
=6OOT SE>DS5
CONST SE>TR5
CONIN SETSEC
CONOUT SETDMA
>IST READ
PUNC/ =RITE
/OME
17
"o call a /I!# routine:
:ump Tab-e$ &,oun at t%e be+!nn!n+ o, 6IOS rout!nes)
1 byte 4 bytes
66ASE :MP 6OOT
:MP =6OOT
:MP CONST
:MP CONIN
.
.
"o call 1/!!": CA>> 66ASEI<
11
,& Some Operating System $un#tions
,&%& Pro#ess S#5edu+ing
CPU !s ass!+ne to processes &tas0s) by t%e operat!n+ system. In a mu-t!pro+ramm!n+ system'
process scheduling !s t%e mana+ement o, t%e CPU by s*!tc%!n+ contro- amon+ t%e "ar!ous
processes accor!n+ to some sc%eu-!n+ po-!cy.
b-oc0e
*a!t!n+ ,or a*a!te e"ent
some e"ent %as occurre
t!me s-!ce e2p!re
runn!n+ reay
!spatc%
<.4. .emory .anagement
2eal 0emory
Rea- memory !s !"!e !nto part!t!ons' eac% process !s ass!+ne to a !,,erent part!t!on$
- E!2e part!t!ons
- ?ar!ab-e part!t!ons
- Re-ocatab-e part!t!ons
&irtual 0emory
In a "!rtua- memory system' user pro+rams are a--o*e to use a -ar+e cont!nuous "!rtua- aress
space &"!rtua- memory)' *%!c% may be e"en -ar+er t%an t%e tota- amount o, t%e rea- memory
a"a!-ab-e. Port!ons o, t%e "!rtua- memory are mappe to t%e rea- memory as t%ey are neee by
t%e pro+ram. ,emand paging !s one o, t%e mapp!n+ met%os. T%!s mapp!n+ process !s
comp-ete-y !n"!s!b-e to t%e user.
14
?!rtua- memory
Rea- memory
mapp!n+
!s0
"!rtua- aress mapp!n+ rea- aress
<.<. $i+e .anagement
E!-e mana+ement ,unct!on o, an operat!n+ system !s an !nterme!ate sta+e bet*een t%e user
pro+ram an t%e I(O super"!s!on.
user pro+.
recor -o+!ca- reAuest
,!-e ,!-e
!n,ormat!on mana+er
b-oc0 p%ys!ca- reAuest
I(O
super"!sor
I(O !nterrupt super"!sor I(O
I(O
c%anne-
1<
<.#. ;o8 S#5edu+ing
:ob sc%eu-!n+ !s t%e tas0 o, se-ect!n+ t%e ne2t user 3ob to be+!n e2ecut!on. In a
mu-t!pro+ramm!n+ en"!ronment' 3ob sc%eu-er spec!,!es t%e orer o, 3ob e2ecut!on.
!nput Aueue 3ob act!"e !spatc%er CPU
sc%eu-er 3obs
<.B. Resour#e /++o#ation
T%e resources suc% as CPU' memory' I(O c%anne-s are neee by a-- user 3obs' an t%e!r
a--ocat!on !s %an-e automat!ca--y by t%e operat!n+ system. Some prob-ems to be %an-e by t%e
operat!n+ system are$
- mutua- e2c-us!on
- process sync%ron!@at!on'
- ea-oc0 a"o!ance
- secur!ty an protect!on

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