A project report submitted

In partial fulfillment for the Degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
(ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION)
By:
SANKET 1OSHI (EC1704)
DEVAL PAREKH (EC2304)
Internal Guide: External Guide:
Ms. Purvi Zaveri Mr. Rajesh Deolalikar
Lect. !enior "ngineer
" # $ Dept. %&in 'ntennas
BI%()arnama. )a*o*ara.

Electronics & Communication Engineering Department.
Ba+aria Institute of %echnology )arnama. ,-. /01
2'ffiliate* to 3ujarat 4niversity 'hme*a+a*5
MAY 2008

Babaria Institute of Technology
Electronics & Communication Engineering
Department.
CERTIFICATE
This is to Certify that Mr. Sanket
Joshi of Semester VIII Roll No. EC1704 has
satisfactorily comlete! his ro"ect #ork
entitle! $2.4 GHz & 5.8 GHz Omni
Microstrip Antenna% in artial
f&l'llment of the re(&irement for the
a#ar! of )achelor of En*ineerin* +e*ree
in Electronics , Comm&nication -y
.&"arat /ni0ersity1 2hme!a-a!. !&rin*
the aca!emic year 3007405. The #ork has
-een carrie! o&t -y him &n!er o&r
s&er0ision an! *&i!ance. To the -est of
o&r kno#le!*e1 the matter em-o!ie! in
this reort has not -een s&-mitte! for
a#ar! of any e(&i0alent !e*ree.
Date: May 8, 2008
Project Guide: Head of the Department:

Ms Purvi averi Prof!M!D!"mipara
Lecturer, H.O.D.
E & C Dept. E & C Dept.

B!. B!.
Babaria Institute of Technology
Electronics & Communication Engineering
Department.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. +e0al
6arekh of Semester VIII Roll No. EC3704
has satisfactorily comlete! his ro"ect
#ork entitle! $2.4 GHz & 5.8 GHz Omni
Microstrip Antenna% in artial
f&l'llment of the re(&irement for the
a#ar! of )achelor of En*ineerin* +e*ree
in Electronics , Comm&nication -y
.&"arat /ni0ersity1 2hme!a-a!. !&rin*
the aca!emic year 3007405. The #ork has
-een carrie! o&t -y him &n!er o&r
s&er0ision an! *&i!ance. To the -est of
o&r kno#le!*e1 the matter em-o!ie! in
this reort has not -een s&-mitte! for
a#ar! of any e(&i0alent !e*ree.
Date: May 8, 2008
Project Guide: Head of the Department:


Ms Purvi averi Prof!M!D!"mipara
Lecturer, H.O.D.
E & C Dept. E & C Dept.
B!. B!.
COMPANY PROFILE
Twin Antennas is a professional antenna manufacturing company
promoted, by experienced engineers. They manufacture antennas and
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They can design any specific antenna as per customers request. For
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Quality and Production System
The design and production process adopted is for flexible and quality
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upply chain management
trategic customer!supplier partnerships
"rocess management via "#
#losed!loop corrective action system
Focus on $ero defect manufacturing
%nhouse &F testing
Products & Services
Product Range

Their product range covers 'F, ('F, )'F and microwave frequency for
%ndoor * +utdoor environment.
Applications
,roadcast, #ommunication, #ellular, -arine, ."/.- and 0123
application including %n!building/hadow area olutions.
Services
Their services include %nbuilding/hadow area &F survey and
recommendation of optimum solution for cellular * 0123 application.

The company is an expert manufacturer of the following products:
#ommunication 2ntenna,
T( ,roadcast 2ntenna,
,42,
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5agi 2ntenna,
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1og "eriodic 2ntenna,
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F- Transmitting 2ntenna,
"42!Television &eceive +nly ! ,and,
# ,and 2ccessories : tandard and custom built hadow 2rea
olution 6repeater7! .-, #4-2,
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01an, ('F, )'F, "#,
#ombiners!.-, #4-2, 0123, ('F, )'F, "#,
&adio urvey,
"anel 2ntenna,
-icrostrip 2ntenna,
%ndoor 2ntenna,
+utdoor 2ntenna,
."!.- 2ntenna,
-arine 2ntenna.

CONTACT:
Twin Antennas
#or$s
89:, ..%.4.# ;state, -akarpura,
(adodara!8<, .u=arat 6%ndia7
Phone
>98 ?@: ?@AB9CB
Telefa%
>98 ?@: ?@DDC9A
eMail
infoEtwinantennas.com
#eb
www.twinantennas.com

INDEX
CHAPTER-1:PRO1ECT OVERVEIW
...( INTRODUCTION...................
2
../( MOTIVATION.....................
3
..,( REPORT OUT
LINE....................5
CHAPTER-2:BASIC FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA
2.1- ANTENNA DEFINITION
.................7
2.2- ANTENNA
LAWS.....................8

2.3- ANTENNA
PARAMETERS.................10
2.4- BASIC ANTENNA MODELS..............
14
CHAPTER 3: OMNI DIRECTIONAL MICROSTRIP
ANTENNA

3.1-DIRECTION OF RADIATION.............17
3.2-MICROSTRIP NTENNA.................19
3.3-BASIC CHARACTERISTICS...............19
3.4-REQUIREMENT OF NEW DESIGN............21
3.5-SOLUTION-OMNI MICROSTRIP ANTENNA.......25
3.6-FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROSTRIP............28
3.7-PROPERTIES OF MICROSTRIP..............31
3.8-LOSSES IN MICROSTRIP.................35
3.9-FEEDING METHOD..................38
3.10-ARRAYS.....................41
3.11-OPERATINAL BAND AND STANDARDS........44
3.12-ADVANTAGES AND DRAWBACKS...........46
3.13-OUR ANTENNA SUPIRIORITY.............48
3.14-APPLICATIONS...................49
CHAPTER-4: PCB MANUFACTURING MATERIALS
4.1- TWO MA1OR MATERIAL CLASSES..........51
4.2- LAMINATED PROPERTIES IMP. TO USE.......51

4.3- DIELECTRIC MATERIALS.............57
CHAPTER-5: CABLE AND CONNECTORS
5.1- COAXIAL CABLE.................65
5.2- DIFFERENT TYPES OF COAXIAL CONNECTORS...69
5.3- REASON TO USE SMA
CONNECTORS...................75
5.4- ADVANTAGES OF SMA CONNECTORS............................78
CHAPTER-6: DESIGN, TESTS AND RESULTS
6.1- RECTANGULAR PATCH ANTENNA DESIGN STEPS..80
6.2- IMPORTANT FORMULA
FOR ELEMENTS DESIGN...............81
6.3- DESIGN CALCULATIONS...............82
6.4- TESTING OF AN ANTENNA...............83
6.5- TEST RESULTS...................90
CHAPTER-7: CONCLUSION...............97
CHAPTER-1
PRO1ECT OVERVEIW

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years the current tren* in commercial an* government communication
systems have +een to *evelop lo& cost minimal &eight lo& profile antennas that are
capa+le of maintaining high performance over a large spectrum of fre6uencies. %his
technological tren* has focuse* much effort into the *esign of micro strip 2patch5
antennas. 7ith a simple geometry patch antennas offer many a*vantages not commonly
e8hi+ite* in other antenna configurations. 9or e8ample they are e8tremely lo& profile
light&eight simple an* ine8pensive to fa+ricate using mo*ern *ay printe* circuit +oar*
technology compati+le &ith micro&ave an* millimeter(&ave integrate* circuits 2MMI$5
an* have the a+ility to conform to planar an* non(planar surfaces. In a**ition once the

shape an* operating mo*e of the patch are selecte* *esigns +ecome very versatile in
terms of operating fre6uency polari:ation pattern an* impe*ance. %he variety in *esign
that is possi+le &ith micro strip antennas pro+a+ly e8cee*s that of any other type of
antenna element.
1.2 MOTIVATION
Despite the many a*vantages of patch antennas they *o have some consi*era+le
*ra&+acks. ;ne of the main limitations &ith patch antennas is their inherently
narro&+an* performance *ue to its resonant nature. 7ith +an*&i*ths as lo& as a fe&
percent/ +roa*+an* applications using conventional patch *esigns are limite*. ;ther
characteristics of patch antennas inclu*e lo& efficiencies limite* po&er capacity
spurious fee* ra*iation poor polari:ation purity an* manufacturing tolerance pro+lems.
9or over t&o *eca*es research scientists have *evelope* several metho*s to
increase the +an*&i*th of a patch antenna. Many of these techni6ues involve a*justing
the placement an*<or type of element use* to fee* 2or e8cite5 the antenna. %he simplest
an* most *irect approach is to increase the thickness of the su+strate &hile using a lo&
*ielectric su+strate,. %his can e8ten* efficiency 2as much as -1= if the surface &aves are
not inclu*e*5 an* +an*&i*th 2up to ,>=5. ?o&ever surface &aves must +e inclu*e*
since surface &aves e8tract po&er from the *irect ra*iation pattern resulting in increase*
si*e lo+e levels antenna loss an* a *ecrease in efficiency. Moreover as &ill +e
e8plaine* the pro+a+ility of surface &ave formation increases as the thickness of the
su+strate increases.
's a patch antenna ra*iates a portion of the total availa+le po&er for *irect
ra*iation +ecomes trappe* along the surface of the su+strate. %his trappe*
electromagnetic energy lea*s to the *evelopment of surface &aves>. In fact the ratio of
po&er that ra*iates into the su+strate compare* to the po&er that ra*iates into air is
appro8imately 2e,</:.5>. %his is governe* +y the rules of total internal reflection &hich
state that any fiel* line ra*iate* into the su+strate at angles greater than the critical angle
2 sin 2 / 5q @ (. e ( . c 5 are totally internally reflecte* at the top an* +ottom surfaces.
%his is illustrate* in 9igure .. %herefore for a su+strate &ith *ielectric constant e @ .1./

nearly .<, of the total ra*iate* po&er is trappe* in the su+strate &ith a critical angle of
roughly .A./ *egrees.
!urface &ave effects can +e eliminate* +y using cavities or stacke* su+strate
techni6ues. ?o&ever this has the fun*amental *ra&+ack of increasing the &eight
thickness an* comple8ity of the micro strip antenna thus negating many of the
a*vantages of using micro strip antennas. %hese complications an* others prevent micro
strip antennas from +ecoming the stan*ar* in the micro&ave telecommunications
community.

FIGURE-1 FORMATION OF SURFACE WAVE
;ne more point is that recently use* omni *irectional antennas are not so much
efficient an* having *isa*vantage of phase shifting an* not effective in micro&ave
applications. 7e can solve these types of pro+lems +y proper *esigning an* selecting
proper *ielectric material. ?ere in this project &e use 9R0 as *ielectric material an* +y
giving +oth si*e short &e trie* to solve pro+lem of phase shifting in antennas.
1.3 REPORT OUTLINE
%he outline of project is organi:e* as follo&s
$?(/ provi*es fun*amental kno&le*ge of antenna so that a person not familiar
&ith antenna theories can also un*erstan* each an* every term use* in ne8t chapters.
%hen after the $?(, provi*es a +rief technical *escription of omni directional microstrip
antennas focusing on +asis characteristics an* typical e8citation 2fee*ing5 metho*s an*

conclu*es &ith an analytical mo*el of a microstrip. %his chapter gives you &hole i*ea
a+out the omni microstrip antenna an* gives you +asic kno&le*ge a+out this *esign an*
you fin* ho& +etter this *esign from others as it solve many of pro+lems of antenna
*esigner. %his chapter *escri+es a*vantages limitations an* applications of the ;M'.
$?(0 *escri+es the *ifferent types of P$B manufacturing materials their characteristics
properties an* applications. P$B materials are very important +ecause the *ielectric
constant *epen*s on it &hich is very important property for *esigning purpose. $?(>
provi*es +rief intro*uction a+out ca+les an* connectors &hich are use* fee* po&er in
strip line an* are *ifferent for *ifferent fre6uencies an* *ifferent applications.$h(B
*escri+es the calculations for *esign e8perimental analysis an* results of evaluation
using the measurement e6uipment at the %&in 'ntenna La+ summaries the results an*
*iscusses possi+le applications an* tra*eoffs &hen using microstrip antennas.

CHAPTER-2
BASIC FUNDAMENTALS OF
ANTENNA

2.1 ANTENNA DEFINITION
'n antenna or aerial is an electronic component *esigne* to transceive ra*io
signals. 'ntennas are for transmission of ra*io &ave energy through the natural me*ia for
point(to(point communication or for the reception of such transmitte* ra*io &ave energy.
'ntennas are primarily *esigne* for transmission of ra*io &ave energy through free space
or any space &here the movement of energy in any *irection is su+stantially unimpe*e*
such as interplanetary space the atmosphere the ocean or the "arth. 'ntennas are use*
for communicating an* conveying information specifically in larger systems such as the
ra*io telephone an* the telegraph.

Physically an antenna is an arrangement of con*uctors *esigne* to ra*iate an
electromagnetic fiel* in response to an applie* alternating voltage an* the associate*
alternating electric current or to +e place* into an electromagnetic fiel* so that the fiel*
&ill in*uce an alternating current in the antenna an* a voltage +et&een its terminals.
'n antenna is an electrical con*uctor use* in the transmission an* reception of
electromagnetic energy +y converting ra*io &aves into electrical signals an* vice(versa.
In normal circuits electric energy either remains &ithin the circuit an* performs useful
&ork or is converte* into heat. 7hen a resonant element 2an antenna5 is a**e* to a R9
circuit it &ill re*irect some of it po&er along the antenna &hich &ill create an
electromagnetic fiel*. %his energy is then ra*iate* into space. %his is +asis for ra*io
communications.
2.2 ANTENNA LAWS

2.2.1 LAW OF RECIPROCITY
%he la& of reciprocity says that an antenna &orks the same for transmitting or for
receiving. !o a transmitting antenna that transmits a goo* signal in a certain *irection &ill
most certainly receive a goo* signal from that *irection too. %hatCs *ue to the la& of
reciprocity. If it also receives a lot of noise from another *irection then it may not +e a
goo* receiving antenna.
2.2.3 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
In essence conservation of energy says that energy is not lost nor create*. 9or our
purposes that means that the energy fe* to an antenna &ill +e either converte* to heat *ue
to resistance in the antenna itself or it &ill +e ra*iate*. %here is no other place for the
energy to go.
2.3 ANTENNA PARAMETERS

%here are several critical parameters that affect an antennaDs performance an* can
+e a*juste* *uring the *esign process. %hese are resonant fre6uency impe*ance gain
aperture or ra*iation pattern polari:ation efficiency an* +an*&i*th. %ransmit antennas
may also have a ma8imum po&er rating an* receive antennas *iffer in their noise
rejection properties.
2.3.1 RESONANT FREQUENCY
%he Eresonant frequencyE an* Eelectrical resonanceE is relate* to the electrical
length of the antenna. %he electrical length is usually the physical length of the &ire
multiplie* +y the ratio of the spee* of &ave propagation in the &ire. %ypically an antenna
is tune* for a specific fre6uency an* is effective for a range of fre6uencies usually
centere* on that resonant fre6uency. ?o&ever the other properties of the antenna
2especially ra*iation pattern an* impe*ance5 change &ith fre6uency so the antennaDs
resonant fre6uency may merely +e close to the center fre6uency of these other more
important properties.
2.3.2 GAIN
In antenna *esign EgainE is the logarithm of the ratio of the intensity of an
antennaDs ra*iation pattern in the *irection of strongest ra*iation to that of a reference
antenna. If the reference antenna is an isotropic antenna the gain is often e8presse* in
units of *Bi. ;ften the *ipole antenna is use* as the reference in &hich case the gain of
the antenna in 6uestion is measure* in *B*.
!pecifically the Gain Directive gain or Power gain of an antenna is *efine* as
the ratio of the intensity 2po&er per unit surface5 ra*iate* +y the antenna in a given
*irection at an ar+itrary *istance *ivi*e* +y the intensity ra*iate* at the same *istance +y
a hypothetical isotropic antenna:

2.3.3 BANDWIDTH

%he EbandwidthE of an antenna is the range of fre6uencies over &hich it is
effective usually centere* on the resonant fre6uency. %he +an*&i*th of an antenna may
+e increase* +y several techni6ues inclu*ing using thicker &ires replacing &ires &ith
cages to simulate a thicker &ire tapering antenna components an* com+ining multiple
antennas into a single assem+ly an* allo&ing the natural impe*ance to select the correct
antenna.
B.W. Operating range ` 100
Centre frequency
2.3.4 IMPEDANCE
EImpedanceE is analogous to refractive in*e8 in optics. 's the electric &ave
travels through the *ifferent parts of the antenna system it may encounter *ifferences in
impe*ance. Impe*ance of an antenna is relate* to the electrical length of the antenna at
the &avelength in use. %he impe*ance of an antenna can +e matche* to the fee* line an*
ra*io +y a*justing the impe*ance of the fee* line using the fee* line as an impe*ance
transformer. More commonly the impe*ance is a*juste* at the loa* &ith an antenna
tuner a +alun a matching transformer matching net&orks compose* of in*uctors an*
capacitors or matching sections such as the gamma match.

Z
in
R
in
+ j X
in
2.3.5 VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO
EImpedanceE is analogous to refractive in*e8 in optics. 's the electric &ave
travels through the *ifferent parts of the antenna system 2ra*io fee* line antenna free
space5 it may encounter *ifferences in impe*ance. 't each interface *epen*ing on the
impe*ance match some fraction of the &aveDs energy &ill reflect +ack to the source
forming a stan*ing &ave in the fee* line. %he ratio of ma8imum po&er to minimum
po&er in the &ave can +e measure* an* is calle* the stan*ing &ave ratio 2SWR5. ' !7R
of .:. is i*eal. ' !7R of ..>:. is consi*ere* to +e marginally accepta+le in lo& po&er
applications &here po&er loss is more critical although an !7R as high as B:. may still
+e usa+le &ith the right e6uipment. Minimi:ing impe*ance *ifferences at each interface

2impe*ance matching5 &ill re*uce !7R an* ma8imi:e po&er transfer through each part
of the antenna system.
)!7R is a measure of impe*ance mismatch +et&een the transmission line an* its
loa*. %he higher the )!7R the greater the mismatch. %he minimum )!7R i.e. that
&hich correspon*s to a perfect impe*ance match is unity.
2.3.6 POLARISATION
%he EpolarizationE of an antenna is the orientation of the electric fiel* 2"(plane5 of
the ra*io &ave &ith respect to the "arthDs surface an* is *etermine* +y the physical
structure of the antenna an* +y its orientation.
Polari:ation is the sum of the "(plane orientations over time projecte* onto an
imaginary plane perpen*icular to the *irection of motion of the ra*io &ave. In the most
general case polari:ation is elliptical 2the projection is o+long5 meaning that the antenna
varies over time in the polari:ation of the ra*io &aves it is emitting. %&o special cases are
linear polari:ation 2the ellipse collapses into a line5 an* circular polari:ation 2in &hich the
ellipse varies ma8imally5.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF POLARIZATION
2.3.7 EFFICIENCY
EEfficiencyE is the ratio of po&er actually ra*iate* to the po&er put into the
antenna terminals. ' *ummy loa* may have a !7R of .:. +ut an efficiency of 1 as it

a+sor+s all po&er an* ra*iates heat +ut not R9 energy sho&ing that !7R alone is not an
effective measure of an antennaDs efficiency. Ra*iation in an antenna is cause* +y
ra*iation resistance &hich can only +e measure* as part of total resistance inclu*ing loss
resistance. Loss resistance usually results in heat generation rather than ra*iation an*
therefore re*uces efficiency.
2.3.8 RADIATION PATTERN
%he ra*iation pattern is a graphical *epiction of the relative fiel* strength
transmitte* from or receive* +y the antenna. 's antennas ra*iate in space often several
curves are necessary to *escri+e the antenna. If the ra*iation of the antenna is
symmetrical a+out an a8is a uni6ue graph is sufficient. Ra*iation pattern of an antenna
can +e *efine* as the locus of all points &here the emitte* po&er per unit surface is the
same. 's the ra*iate* po&er per unit surface is proportional to the s6uare* electrical fiel*
of the electromagnetic &ave. %he ra*iation pattern is the locus of points &ith the same
electrical fiel*. In this representation the reference is usually the +est angle of emission.
2.3.9 DIRECTIVITY
D Maximum radiation intensity of test antenna
Average radiation intensity of test antenna

2.4 BASIC ANTENNA MODELS WITH THEIR
SHAPE, GAIN, B.W, AND RADIATION PATTERN
Name Shape Gain
(over
isotropic)
Beamwidth
-3 dB
Radiation Pattern
Isotropic 1 *B ,B1
Dipole
/..0 *B >>
Folded Dipole
Cylindrical

>.B0 *B 0>
Turnstile (1.AB *B >1
*ue to cusps

Full wave loop ,..0 *B /11
Yagi F..0 *B />
Helical .1.. *B ,1
Parabolic Dipole

.0.F *B /1

Horn .> *B .>
Biconical Horn .0 *B ,B18/11

3.1 DIRECTION OF RADIATION
%here are t&o fun*amental types of antennas &hich &ith reference to a specific
three *imensional 2usually hori:ontal or vertical5 plane are:
CHAPTER 3
OMNI DIRECTIONAL
MICROSTRIP ANTENNA

i. Omni directional antenna
ii. Directional antenna
'll antennas ra*iate 2or emanate5 some energy in all *irections in free space +ut
careful construction results in large *irectivity in certain *irections an* negligi+le energy
ra*iate* in other *irections.
3.1.1 Omni directional antenna
%he omni *irectional antenna ra*iates or receives e6ually &ell in all *irections. It
is also calle* the Enon(*irectionalE antenna +ecause it *oes not favor any particular
*irection. 9igure sho&s the pattern for an omni *irectional antenna &ith the four car*inal
signals. %his type of pattern is commonly associate* &ith verticals groun* planes an*
other antenna types in &hich the ra*iator is vertical &ith respect to the "arthDs surface.
Figure-3.1
%he key factor to note is that for receivers all four signals 2or signals from any
*irection for that matter5 are receive* e6ually &ell. 9or transmitters the ra*iate* signal
has the same strength in all *irections. %his pattern is useful for +roa*casting a signal to
ANTENNA
SIGNAL A SIGNAL C
SIGNAL B
SIGNAL D

all points of the compass 2as &hen calling E$GE5 or &hen listening for signals from all
points.
3.1.2 Directional antenna
%he *irectivity of an antenna is a statement of ho& R9 energy is focuse* in one or
t&o *irections. Because of antenna of R9 energy remains same +ut is *istri+ute* over
less area the apparent signal strength is higher. !o *irectional antenna is ra*iate* more
effectively in *esire* *irection.
3.2 MICROSTRIP ANTENNA
%he microstrip antenna &as first intro*uce* in the .->1Cs +ut it &as not until the
.-F1Cs an* the *evelopment of printe*(circuit technology that serious a*vancements in
this research area ha* +egun. %hrough *eca*es of research it &as i*entifie* that the
performance an* operation of a microstrip antenna is *riven mainly +y the geometry of
the printe* patch an* the material characteristics of the su+strate onto &hich the antenna
is printe*. %herefore it is conceiva+le that &ith proper manipulations to the su+strate
improve* antenna performance can result. 's state* +y R.$. ?ansen 2I""" 9ello& .A
!ept -A5 Hthere is little improvement to +e reali:e* in the arrangement of &ires in the
antennaI a significant improvement &ill come from the use of ne& materials.J %he
follo&ing sections *iscuss the fun*amental parameters an* manufacturing re6uirements
associate* &ith the *esign of microstrip antennas.
3.3 BASIC CHARACTERSTICS
's sho&n in 9igure conventional microstrip antennas consist of a pair of parallel
con*ucting layers separating a *ielectric me*ium referre* to as the su+strate. In this
configuration the upper con*ucting layer or HpatchJ is the source of ra*iation &here
electromagnetic energy fringes off the e*ges of the patch an* into the su+strate. %he lo&er
con*ucting layer acts as a perfectly reflecting groun* plane +ouncing energy +ack
through the su+strate an* into free space. 'lthough similar in operation to a microstrip
transmission line the patch antenna is much larger in volume provi*ing a *istinct contrast
+et&een the t&o. Physically the patch is a thin con*uctor that is an apprecia+le fraction

of a &avelength in e8tent parallel to a groun* plane an* a small fraction of a &avelength
a+ove the groun* plane. In most practical applications patch antennas are rectangular or
circular in shapeI ho&ever in general any geometry is possi+le.

Figure-3.2 Typical geometry of a microstrip antenna
$ommercial su+strate materials are rea*ily availa+le for use at R9 an* micro&ave
fre6uencies specifically for the *esign of microstrip antennas an* printe* circuits.
!election is +ase* on *esire* material characteristics for optimal performance over
specific fre6uency ranges. $ommon manufacturer specifications inclu*e *ielectric
constant *issipation factor 2loss tangent5 thickness an* KoungCs mo*ulus. )alues for
*ielectric constants range from /./ @ "r @ ./ for operation at fre6uencies ranging from .
to .1 3?:.
%he thickness of the su+strate is of consi*era+le importance &hen *esigning
microstrip antennas. %he most *esira+le su+strates for antenna performance are the ones
that are thick &ith a lo& *ielectric constant. %his ten*s to result in an antenna &ith a large
+an*&i*th an* high efficiency *ue to the loosely +oun* fringing fiel*s that emanate from
the patch an* propagate into the su+strate. ?o&ever this comes at the e8pense of a large
volume antenna an* an increase* pro+a+ility of surface &ave formation. ;n the other
han* thin su+strates &ith high *ielectric constants re*uce the overall si:e of the antenna
an* are compati+le &ith MMI$ *evices since the fringing fiel*s are tightly +oun* to the
su+strate. 7ith thin su+strates coupling an* electromagnetic interference 2"MI5 issues
are less pro+a+le. ?o&ever +ecause of the relatively higher loss tangents 2*issipation
factors5 they are less efficient an* have relatively smaller +an*&i*ths. %herefore there is
a fun*amental tra*eoff that must +e evaluate* in the initial stages of the microstrip

antenna *esign ( to o+tain loosely +oun* fiel*s to ra*iate into free space &hile keeping
the fiel*s tightly +oun* for the fee*ing circuitry an* to avoi* "MI.
3.4 REQUIREMENT OF NEW DESIGN
Figure-3.3 Common approaches to the design an omni directional antenna
3ro&ing interest in A1/...+ A1/...g an* A1/...a applications has precipitate*
the nee* for omni *irectional antennas at /.0(/.> 3?: an* >..>(>.,> 3?:. 9igure(,.,
illustrates a num+ers of approaches researchers have taken in the past. %hese *esigns are
calle* collinear *ipole arrays.
%he first antenna *esign 2a5 is kno&n as a 9ranklin array. It uses small 4(shape*
sections of &ire to provi*e a phase shift to maintain in(phase current along vertical
sections of &ire. %he opposing current on each of the phase shifting sections minimi:es
ra*iation. In 2+5 mean*er line phase reversal is use* to create in(phase currents along the
vertical ra*iating sections. %he metho* illustrate* in 2c5 uses half(&avelength sections of
coa8ial transmission line &hich have their inner an* outer con*uctor connections reverse*
at each junction. %his reversal causes the current on the outer con*uctor of each segment

to +e in phase an* ra*iate an omni *irectional pattern. %his type of antenna is often calle*
a $;$; antenna for coa8ial collinear antenna. %he geometry of 2*5 is an alternative form
of 2c5.
Figure-3.4 Radiation pattern of a 5 element COCO antenna
%he 9ranklin antenna *esign of ,./ 2a5 *i* not fit the re6uire* volume constraint
an* &oul* +e *ifficult to implement. %he use of mean*er line sections to pro*uce re6uire*
phase shifts as *one in 2+5 is very fre6uency *epen*ent an* it has proven *ifficult to a**
enough sections to provi*e the re6uire* effective aperture maintain the *esire* phase
relationships an* pro*uce an antenna &hich e8cee*s the re6uire* gain target of L >.1 *Bi
over the re6uire* +an*&i*th.
%he most promising approach &oul* appear to +e: 2c5. ' successful can*i*ate
antenna is fe* from one en* &hich can +e *one in the case of a $;$; antenna. Mu*as:
an* Balsley *evelope* a $;$; antenna that is fe* from one en* an* they analy:e* it
using the Metho* of Moments 2MoM5. %heir MoM analysis &as implemente* an* it &as
*etermine* that a > element $;$; antenna &oul* have a *irectivity of >.B/ *B 29igure(
,./5 using pattern integration. %his *irectivity &oul* allo& for 1.> *B loss in the *esign
an* still achieve the *esire* L >.1 *Bi gain target. 's a check a graph compute* +y Polar
&hich relates the *irectivity of an omni *irectional pattern to its , *B +eam &i*th &as

use* to estimate the $;$; *irectivity from the compute* pattern. %he pattern *irectivity
o+taine* I appro8imately >.> *B.
%he pre*icte* pattern as presente* in 9igure(,., is plotte* on a rectangular graph
in 9igure(,.0. %he half po&er +eam &i*th is ,1 *egrees.
Figure-3.5 Rectangular plot of Figure-3.3
%he $;$; antenna *oes not have >1 N *riving point impe*ance an* re6uires a
6uarter &ave matching section. %his a**s to the comple8ity of the *esign an* *ecrease
manufactura+ility.
' $;$; antenna &as fa+ricate* matche* an* measure*. ' typical result for the
ra*iation pattern of a /.0> 3?: $;$; antenna is foun* in 9igure(,.>. %he gain of the
antenna &as lo&er than e8pecte* at /.- *Bi. %he average , *B +eam &i*th is ,. *egrees
&hich is close to the +eam &i*th 2,>O5 e8pecte* for a *irectivity of at least >.1 *Bi. %he
moment metho* pre*icte* >.B/ *Bi if the $;$; antenna has an efficiency of .11=. %he
antenna &as losing at least /.F/ *B +ecause of its efficiency. $;$; prototypes &ere
ma*e from very lo& loss coa8ial transmission lines of *ifferent *iameters.

Figure-3.6 Radiation Pattern of Coco(2.45GHz)
%he unaccepta+le efficiency losses &ere not from the matching net&ork an* &ere only
&eakly affecte* 2P 1.> *B5 +y using the lo&est loss coa8ial ca+le o+taina+le. 7hen a
$;$; antenna is use* at lo& fre6uencies it has a high efficiency +ut &hen use* in
micro&ave applications its efficiency *egra*es. %he origin of these losses is not
un*erstoo*. %his ina+ility to meet gain re6uirements cause* us to reject the $;$; as a
practical omni *irectional *esign in the micro&ave region. %hus all of the *esigns
presente* in 9igure(,./ &ere rejecte* as can*i*ates for an omni *irectional antenna
solution.
,.> SOLUTION-OMNI DIRECTIONAL MICROSTRIP
ANTENNA
%he i*eal antenna solution &oul* have several properties: .5 >1 N *riving point
impe*ance 2I.e. no +alun or matching transformer5 /5 >.1 *Bi or greater gain over the
*esire* +an*&i*th. ,5 Be compact lo& cost an* rea*ily manufactura+le.

Figure-3.7 Geometry of an omni directional microstrip antenna (OMA).
Planar micro strip antennas are generally lo& cost. ' geometry for a planar
microstrip omni *irectional antenna intro*uce* +y Bancroft an* Bateman is presente* in
9igure(,.F
%he i*ea in a nutshell is to create alternating sets of >1 N microstrip transmission lines.
"ach section is one(half &avelength long at the fre6uency of operation. "ach
groun* plane section &as initially set to +e a+out > times the con*uctor &i*th of the
microstrip transmission line an* later optimi:e* for *riving point impe*ance. 'n
electrical short I place* on either en* of the antenna in the center of a section. %he shorts
are one(6uarter &avelength from a *ivi*ing section. 7hen a &ave travels from the
*riving point to the short it has a phase shift of -1 *egrees. %he short then shifts the phase
of the current +y an a**itional .A1 *egrees. %he reflecte* &ave has another -1 *egree
phase shift &hen it arrives at the *riving point 2for a total of ,B1 *egrees5 an* matches the
phase at the *riving point of the outgoing &ave.
' more in(*epth e8planation of the theory +ehin* this planar antenna is illustrate*
in 9igure(,.F. %he top figure is a si*e vie& of a microstrip transmission line. %he electric

fiel* sho&n is for an electromagnetic &ave traveling to the right. ' snapshot is taken just
as the
Figure-3.8 The upper figure is of the electric fields and currents on a microstrip
transmission line (viewed from the side). The lower figure is the transmission line
with half-wavelength.
&ave reaches the open en* of the transmission line. 7e note the current ma8ima occur at
the electric fiel* minima an* are reverse* every half(cycle.
%he +ottom figure of 9igure(,.F sho&s the microstrip transmission line as if it
&ere cut into half(&ave sections each section flippe* &ith respect to one another an*
connecte* +ack together. ;nly the currents on the &i*e sections 2microstrip %(line groun*
planes5 are sho&n &hich are all in phase &ith one another.
%he fiel* structure at each microstrip section reversal interface *oesnCt match the
*ominant 6uasi(%"M mo*e of a microstrip line an* so a *iscontinuity is encountere*. %he
electric fiel* is ma8imi:e* at each *iscontinuity &hich encourages ra*iation. ' pair of
shorts one 6uarter &avelength from each en* allo&s the *esire* fiel* configuration to
e8ist as a resonant structure.
In the limit as the ra*iating elements 2groun* plane &i*ths5 are *ecrease* they
approach the microstrip con*uctor &i*th the antenna then +ecome a non(ra*iating t&in
lea* transmission line. %his provi*es a &ay to mo*ify the *riving point impe*ance +y

changing the &i*th of each ra*iating element. %his &as *one to match the antenna to a >1
N *riving point impe*ance.
%he lo&er illustration of 9igure(,.F sho&s a short at each en* place* Q<0 from the
open en*s of the upper illustration +ut the antenna as conceive* in 9igure(,.B continues
to have an e8tra &i*e half(section &ithout a secon* con*uctor. %his e8tra section helps to
shiel* the antenna from the attache* coa8 at the *riving point. %he secon* open section at
the top maintains the symmetry of the antenna. %he outer con*uctor of a coa8ial
transmission line is sol*ere* a+ove the short an* terminates at a relief &hich has a hole
for the center con*uctor. %he center con*uctor protru*es through an* connects to the
upper trace to fee* the antenna at the plane of the first transmission line flip from the
+ottom. %he currents on the t&o terminating 6uarter &ave sections remain in phase &ith
the half &ave sections.
%he /:. )!7R impe*ance +an*&i*th of the ;M' element is .-.1= &hich is
very goo* for an omni *irectional antenna. %he pattern +an*&i*th is narro&er at aroun*
>(B=. %he ra*iation patterns of an ;M' for A1/...+ 2/.0> 3?:5 are sho&n in 9igure(,.A.
%he measure* ma8imum gain is >.B. *Bi. %he antenna is seen to +e very efficient. %he
ma8imum *irectivity compute* using 9D%D is B.1, *B.

Figure-3.9 Measured radiation patterns of a seven section Omnidirectional Microstrip
Antenna A) y-z plane, B) x-z plane, C) x-y plane
3.6 FUNDAMENTALS OF STRIP LINE
Figure-3.10
STRIP LINE CONCEPT

In a+ove figure sho&s schematic of strip line. It is just consi*er as t&o layer P$B
&here
W width of the strip line.
h height of the top layer from ground plane.
t thickness of the copper layer.
Micro&ave integrate* circuits &ith micro strip lines are commonly use* &ith chip.
Mo*es on microstrip line are 6uasi(transverse electric an* magnetic 2%"M5. %hus the
theory of %"M couple* lines applies appro8imately.
Ra*iation loss in microstrip lines is a pro+lem particularly at such *iscontinuities
as short circuit post corners an* so on. ?o&ever the use of thin high *ielectric material
consi*era+ly re*uce the ra*iation loss of the strip lines. ' microstrip line has a*vantage
over the +alance* strip line +ecause the open strip line has +etter inter connection an*
easier fa+rication.
Characteristic impedance of microstrip lines
Microstrip lines are use* e8tensively to inter connect high spee* logic circuits in
*igital computer +ecause they can +e fa+ricate* +y automate* techni6ues an* they
provi*e the re6uire* uniform signal path.

Figure-3.11 Micro strip line Figure-3.12 A wire over ground line
In a+ove figure &e can see that the characteristic impe*ance of a microstrip line is
a function of the strip line &i*th the strip line thickness the *istance +et&een the line an*
the groun* plane an* the *ielectric constant of the +oar* material. !everal *ifferent
metho*s for *etermining the characteristic impe*ance of the microstrip lines have +een
*evelope*. %he fiel* e6uation metho* &as employe* +y several authors for calculating an

accurate value of the characteristic impe*ance. ?o&ever it re6uires the use of the large
*igital computers an* is e8tremely complicate*. 'nother metho* is to *erive the
characteristic impe*ance e6uation of the microstrip line from &ell kno&n e6uation an*
make some changes. %his metho* is calle* a comparative or an in*irect metho*. %he &ell
kno&n e6uation of characteristic impe*ance of a &ire(over(groun* transmission line as
+elo&
Z0 60/(Er) ^1/2] ln 4h/d] for h>>d
7here "r@*ielectric constant of the am+ient me*ium
h @the height from the center of the &ire to groun* plane
* @*iameter of the &ire.
If the effective values of the relative *ielectric constant "r of the am+ient me*ium
an* *iameter * of the &ire can +e *etermine* for the microstrip line the characteristic
impe*ance of the microstrip line can +e calculate*.
3.7 PROPERTIES OF MICROSTRIP
3.7.1 DIELECRIC CONSTANT
%he relative dielectric constant of a material un*er given con*itions is a measure
of the e8tent to &hich it concentrates electrostatic lines of flu8. It is the ratio of the
amount of store* electrical energy &hen a potential is applie* relative to the permittivity
of a vacuum. It is also calle* relative permittivity.
%he *ielectric constant is represente* as Rr or sometimes S or K. It is *efine* as


7here Rs is the static permittivity of the material
R0 is vacuum permittivity.

)acuum permittivity is *erive* from Ma8&ellDs e6uations +y relating the electric
fiel* intensity " to the electric flu8 *ensity D. In vacuum 2free space5 the permittivity R is
Must R0 so the *ielectric constant is ..
MESUREMENT
%he relative *ielectric constant Rr can +e measure* for static electric fiel*s as
follo&s: first the capacitance of a test capacitor C0 is measure* &ith vacuum +et&een its
plates. %hen using the same capacitor an* *istance +et&een its plates the capacitance Cx
&ith a *ielectric +et&een the plates is measure*. %he relative *ielectric constant can +e
then calculate* as:

9or time(varying electromagnetic fiel*s the *ielectric constant of materials
+ecomes fre6uency *epen*ent an* in general is calle* permittivity.
PRACTICAL RELEVENSE
%he *ielectric constant is an essential piece of information &hen *esigning
capacitors an* I other circumstances &here a material might +e e8pecte* to intro*uce
capacitance into a circuit. If a material &ith a high *ielectric constant is place* in an
electric fiel* the magnitu*e of that fiel* &ill +e measura+ly re*uce* &ithin the volume of
the *ielectric. %his fact is commonly use* to increase the capacitance of a particular
capacitor *esign. %he layers +eneath etche* con*uctors in Printe* $ircuit Boar*s 2P$Bs5
also act as *ielectrics.
Dielectrics are use* in R9 transmission lines. In a coa8ial ca+le polyethylene can
+e use* +et&een the center con*uctor an* outsi*e shiel*. It can also +e place* insi*e
&avegui*es to form filters.

;ptical fi+ers are e8amples of dielectric waveguides. %hey consist of *ielectric
materials that are purposely *ope* &ith impurities so as to control the precise value of Rr
&ithin the cross(section. %his controls the refractive in*e8 of the material an* therefore
also the optical mo*es of transmission. Dope* fi+er can also +e configure* to form an
optical amplifier.
MATERIAL DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
Vacuum 1(by definition)
Air 1.00054
Polyethylene 2.25
Paper 3.5
PTFE 2.1
Fr4 4.8
Polystyrene 2.4-2.7
Pyrex glass 4.7
Rubber 7
Silicon 11.68
Methanol 30
Concrete 4.5
Water (20C)
Barium titanate
80.10
1200
3.7.2 EFFECTIVE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
9or a homogeneous *ielectric me*ium the propagation(*elay time per unit length is
Td (mE) ^1/2
7here m is the permea+ility of the me*ium an*
" is the permittivity of the me*ium.

In free(space the propagation *elay time is
Tdf (m0E0) ^1/2 3.33 ns/m
7here m1@ 0pT.1U(F ?<m
"1@ A.A>0T.1U(./ 9<m
In transmission line use* for inter connection the relative permea+ility is
..conse6uently the propagation *elay time for a line in a nonmagnetic me*ium is
Td 1.106 (Er) ns/ft
%he effective relative *ielectric constant for a micro strip line can +e relate* to the
relative *ielectric constant of the +oar* material. Di3iacomo an* his co&orkers
*iscovere* an empirical e6uation for the effective relative *ielectric of a microstrip line
+y measuring the propagation *elay time an* the relative *ielectric constant of several
+oar* materials such as fi+er glass epo8y an* nylon phenolic.
%he empirical e6uation as sho&n +elo& fig is e8presse* as
Ere 0.475Er +0.67
7here "r is the relative *ielectric constant
"re is the effective relative *ielectric constant

Figure-3.13
3.7.3 Loss Tangent
Loss tangent is a measure of ho& much of the electromagnetic fiel* traveling
through a *ielectric is a+sor+e* or lost in the *ielectric. %his property is one of the least
&ell un*erstoo* of all those that characteri:e laminates. 's a result ultra lo& loss
materials are often use* in *igital application &hen they are not nee*e*. %hese results in
increases P$B cost &ithout a correspon*ing +enefit.
3.7.4 Dielectric Breakdown Voltage
DB) V Dielectric +reak*o&n voltage is a measure of an insulatorCs a+ility to
&ithstan* the stress of high voltages place* across it. 'll of the commonly availa+le
laminates have at least .111 volts per mil of thickness DB). %his means that a / mil thick
laminate can &ithstan* a voltage stress as high as /111 volts.

3.7.5 Moisture Absorption
'll resin systems a+sor+ some moisture or &ater &hen e8pose* to high humi*ity
environments. %his a+sorption affects the P$B in t&o &ays. 7ater has a relative *ielectric
constant of appro8imately F,. If a laminate a+sor+s a significant amount of &ater the
resulting relative *ielectric constant of the com+ination &ill +e higher than the 0.. use* to
calculate impe*ance mismatches. ' more important effect of moisture a+sorption is
increase* leakage current. Materials &ith high moisture a+sorption may e8hi+it leakages
in e8cess of &hat the circuits house* on them can &ithstan*.
3.7.6 Loss Considerations in Microstrip
Micro strip lines also suffer from certain fre6uency *epen*ent losses. %hese losses
can +e appro8imate* &ithout loss of a significant precision at lo&er fre6uencies +ut they
+ecome su+stantial at higher fre6uencies.
3.8 LOSSES IN MICROSTRIP
3.8.1 DIELECTRIC LOSS
Dielectric loss is *ue to effects of loss tangent tan W in &hich the losses raise
proportional over the operating fre6uency. 9or common su+strate materials like glass
reinforce* P%9" &ith a loss tangent less than 1.111- *ielectric loss is only a fraction of
the total loss &ith con*uctor losses +eing significantly larger in value. 9or materials &ith
a higher *ielectric loss such as a ceramic fille* P%9" material &ith a loss tangent of
1.11/> *ielectric loss still might only +e roughly e6uivalent to the con*uctor loss.
Moisture an* solvent Ingression is fre6uently overlooke* in the early choice of
materials. %he nature of the test metho*s utili:e* for testing loss tangent of micro&ave
materials re6uires con*itioning of the sample to remove moisture an* enchants. !ince
&ater is very lossy a laminate &ith higher moisture a+sorption can 6uickly +ecome a
much higher loss laminate after processing in solvent or e8pose* to a *amp or humi*
environment. %esting a circuit representative of the application allo&s a *esigner to

e8pose the circuit +oar* to the solvent chemicals an* thermal cycles use* in the
processing of +oar*s. Moisture a+sorption also +ecomes more critical to *esigns &here
+oar* operating temperatures *o not *rive out moisture or &ere it fre6uently cycles
through &i*e temperature ranges. 's a result the loss seen +y a circuit is not just that of
the virgin laminate +ut rather it sees a *ielectric compose* of the virgin laminate an* any
*ielectric loss an* loss tangent can +e seen in the follo&ing Formula:
od cr . creff-1. n. Tan
creff cr - 1 o
7here X* @ Dielectric loss.
4n*er i*eali:e* con*itions the material un*er test is isolate* from moisture an*
processing chemicals. %his minimi:es the *ielectric loss an* thus the calculate* tanW of
the material. %his typically *oes not represent the material in use.
3.8.2 CONDUCTOR LOSS
%he ne8t consi*eration in un*erstan*ing insertion loss performance is $on*uctor
Loss.?ammersta* an* Mensen *evelope* the follo&ing e6uation for the $on*uctive Loss:
7here RC @ sheet resistance of con*uctor material 2skin resistance5
Y @ specific resistance of the con*uctor
W @ skin *epth
Zi @ current *istri+ution factor
Zr @ correction term *ue to surface roughness
[ @ effective surface roughness of su+strate
Zfo @ &ave impe*ance in vacuum
It is necessary to account for the roughness of the su+strate interface is +ecause of
the asymptotic increase seen in the apparent surface resistance &ith *ecreasing skin
*epth. %his effect is consi*ere* +y the correction factor Zr the current *istri+ution factor
Zi is a very goo* appro8imation provi*e* that the strip thickness e8cee*s three skin
*epths.
%he impact of copper foil roughness on con*uctor loss is *ue to increase in
transmission line resistance as a result of skin effect. %he skin effect is the ten*ency of an

alternating electric current to *istri+ute itself &ithin a con*uctor so that the current
*ensity near the surface of the con*uctor is greater than that at its core. It causes the
effective resistance of the con*uctor to increase &ith the fre6uency of the current &ith the
fre6uency of the current. %his skin *epth re*uces inversely &ith the s6uare root of
fre6uency an* translates into a resistance that increases &ith the s6uare root of fre6uency.
3.8.3 SURFACE ROUGHNESS
!urface of con*uctors can +e HroughJ V sometimes intentionally to ai* in metal
a*hesion to su+strate surface increase in total current travel *istance &ill result in loss
&ith fre6uency
XDc @ attenuation for rough surface
Xc @ attenuation for smooth surface
Ws @ skin *epth
[ @ r.m.s. surface roughness height
,.A.0 MOISTURE INGRESSION AND CHEMICAL ABSORPTION
%he lo&est loss tangent materials *o not al&ays make the i*eal laminate +ecause
processing an* fa+rication can influence the performance of the laminate that &oul* not
+e reflecte* +y loss tangent measurements associate* &ith the stan*ar* IP$ test metho*s.
Moisture an* processing chemical a+sorption &ill play a critical role in insertion loss. '
material that is vie&e* as lo& loss +ecause of a lo& loss tangent may in fact have issues
&ith moisture a+sorption or ingression. Boar* *esigns &ith many thru(holes or route*
areas can 6uickly +ecome high loss +oar*s if the if moisture ingression<a+sorption is an
issue.
It is also not Hfit(for(useJ if the resin has high moisture a+sorption or *oes not
provi*e* a ro+ust resin(to(reinforcement interface that prevents moisture a+sorption.
%he resin to reinforcement interface is critical an* can +e compoun*e* +y the spee* an*
processes associate* &ith application of the resin to the reinforcement.
' common area for the moisture ingression is the through poor 6uality holes that
*istur+s resin to V reinforcement or layer(layer interfaces. !ome laminates have a +roa*er

&in*o& than others &hen it comes to their sensitivity to processing. %he rapi* increase in
laminate temperature &ell a+ove .11 $ causes accelerate* evaporation of em+e**e*
moisture &hich results in e8pansion stresses that cause separation +et&een laminate
layers or in to severe cases cracks in the +oar*. %he integrity of the laminate after
fa+rication also factors in to *esign performance an* impact insertion loss +eyon* the
typical e6uations or reporte* *ata sheets values. Due *iligence or final *esign an*
materials is again &arrante* to achieve a *esire* *esign optimum.
3.9 FEEDING METHODS
There are four major feeding mechanisms:-
(1) Probe fed
(2) Micro Strip line fed
(3) Aperture coupled fed
(4) Coaxial probe
%here are several techni6ues availa+le to fee* or transmit electromagnetic energy
to a micro strip antenna. %he most popular metho*s are the micro strip transmission line
coa8ial pro+e aperture coupling an* pro8imity coupling. 9igure ,..0 illustrates each of
these configurationsI correspon*ing e6uivalent circuits are sho&n in 9igure ,..>.
In each of the e6uivalent circuits an RL$ circuit sym+oli:es the patch illustrating
its resonant nature. %he resistance 2R5 correspon*s to loss associate* &ith the con*uctors
2groun* plane an* patch5 an* su+strate 2loss tangent5.
%he simplest fee*ing metho*s to reali:e are those of the coa8ial pro+e an* micro
strip transmission line illustrate* in 9igures ,a an* ,+ an* sym+oli:e* in 9igures 0a an*
0+.
Both approaches utili:e *irect contact &ith the patch to in*uce e8citation. %he
point of e8citation 2contact point5 is a*justa+le ena+ling the *esigner to control the
impe*ance match +et&een fee* an* antenna polari:ation mo*e of operation an*
e8citation fre6uency. 3enerally for *irect contact fee*s the +est impe*ance match is

o+taine* &hen the contact point is off(centere*. %his pro*uces asymmetries in the patch
e8citation &hich generate higher or*er mo*es.,. %hese higher or*er mo*es in*uce a
cross(polari:e* component in the principal plane antenna patterns &hich *ra& po&er
from the *ominant %M1.1 mo*e an* results in *egra*ation of the antennaCs main +eam.
%herefore oftentimes a trial(an*(error approach is use* to o+tain the optimum match for
the *irect contact fee*s.
'nother *isa*vantage of the *irect contact fee*s is that they are inherently
narro&+an* *evices. %hese fee*s &hether coa8ial or micro strip are Hmatche*J to
specific impe*ances 2in most cases >175 for a select range of fre6uencies. ;peration
outsi*e this range automatically *egra*es antenna performance *ue to the inherent
mismatch +et&een the antenna an* the fee*.
%o overcome some of the shortcomings of the *irect(couple* fee*s a variety of
Hno contacting couple* fee*sJ has +een *evelope*. %he t&o main configurations are the
aperture(couple* 29igures ,c an* 0c5 an* pro8imity(couple* 29igure ,* an* 0*5 fee*s.
%he aperture(couple* configuration consists of t&o parallel su+strates separate*
+y a groun* plane. "8citation of the patch is accomplishe* +y coupling energy from a
micro strip line through a small aperture in the groun* plane. 7ith this arrangement the
micro strip fee* is *esigne* on a thin(high *ielectric constant su+strate &hich tightly
+in*s the fiel* lines &hile the patch is *esigne* on a thick(lo& *ielectric constant
su+strate. %he groun* plane isolates the fee* from the patch an* thus minimi:es spurious
ra*iation from the fee* &hich &oul* interfere &ith the antenna pattern.B. %herefore the
*esign of the patch an* the transmission line are in*epen*ent.
In contrast the pro8imity(couple* techni6ue operates in a manner similar to that
of the aperture(couple* configuration e8cept the groun* plane is remove*. Both no
contacting fee*s have similar a*vantages &ith the e8ception that the thickness changes
&ith removal of the groun* plane.

Figure 3.14 Typical feeding methods used to excite a microstrip patch antenna
Figre !."5 E#i$a%ent circits &or &ee's con(grations s)o*n in
Figre
In +oth non(contacting configurations there is an un*esira+le increase in the
overall thickness of the antenna. %herefore to re*uce the comple8ity an* si:e of the
antennas involve* in this research it &as *eci*e* to design the structures on a thin-
high dielectric constant substrate using a coaxial probe feed. %he micro strip
transmission line fee* &as eliminate* from consi*eration +ecause of the *esign
comple8ities associate* &ith incorporating photonic crystals into the su+strate as &ill +e
*iscusse* in. In*ee* there are significant *ra&+acks to using the coa8ial pro+e approach

+ut as &ill +e *iscusse* a su+stantial +enefit is o+taine* &hen using them to fee* a patch
antenna *esigne* &ith photonic crystals in the su+strate.
3.10 ARRAYS-REQUIRED FOR INCRIES THE GAIN
' single micro strip antenna utili:ing an air *ielectric su+strate is a+le
to provi*e a ma8imum gain of a+out ,*Bi. 7hen larger gains are re6uire* an*
a micro strip antenna solution is the +est choice a num+er of micro strip
elements may +e connecte* together to form an array of antennas. %he arrays
of elements provi*e a much larger effective aperture an* therefore gain
compare* to a single micro strip antenna arrays.
's &e *ou+le the num+er of elements the gain is increase* +y ,*B.i.e
for / elements if it is .1*B then for 0 it shoul* +e .,*B an* for A it shoul* +e
.B*B an* so on.

Figure 3.16 Arrays Arrangement

TYPES OF ARRAYS
Microstrip antennas are not only used as single elements but are very popular in
arrays also.

In some of the cases the re6uire* pattern may not +e achieve* +y using a
single element. !o arrays are use*.
'rrays can +e use* to scan the +eam of an antenna system increase the
*irectivity achieve *esire* high gain re*uce physical si:e an* perform various other
functions &hich are not possi+le &ith a single element.
%here are t&o types of arrays
!eries 9ee* arrays an*
$orporate 9ee* arrays
Figure 3.17 Types of Arrays
We use series feed arrays for our design of microstrip antenna
WHY WE CHOOSE SERIES FEED ARRAYS?
!eries fe* arrays can +e conveniently +eing fa+ricate* using
photolithography for +oth the ra*iating elements an* the fee* net&ork.
?o&ever this techni6ue is limite* to arrays &ith fi8e* +eam or those
&hich are scanne* +y varying the fre6uency +ut it can +e applie* to linear an* phase*
arrays &ith single or *ual polari:ation
'lso if there is any change in even any one of the fee* lines or the
elements &ill affect the performance of the others so here the fault fin*ing is easy.
%herefore in *esign it is important to +e a+le to take into account these
an* other effects such as mutual coupling an* internal reflections.

,... PERATIONAL BAND AND STANDARDS

THE ISM BAND (Industrial, Scientific and Medical
band)
;ur ;M\I MI$R;!%RIP '\%"\\' &orks on the I!M +an*.
2In*ustrial !cientific an* Me*ical +an*5 ' part of the ra*io spectrum that can +e
use* +y any+o*y &ithout a license in most countries. In the 4.!. the -1/(-/A M?: /.0
3?: an* >.F(>.A 3?: +an*s &ere initially use* for machines that emitte* ra*io
fre6uencies such as R9 &el*ers in*ustrial heaters an* micro&ave ovens +ut not for
ra*io communications.
In .-A> the 9$$ Rules 2Part .>./0F5 opene* up the I!M +an*s for &ireless L'\s
an* mo+ile communications. In .--F it a**e* a**itional +an*s in the > 3?: range un*er
Part .>.01F kno&n as the 4nlicense* \ational Information Infrastructure 24(\II5.
"uropeDs ?IP"RL'\ &ireless L'\s use the same > 3?: +an*s &hich are entitle* the
EBroa*+an* Ra*io 'ccess \et&ork.E
\umerous applications use the I!M<4(\II +an*s inclu*ing cor*less phones
&ireless garage *oor openers &ireless microphones vehicle tracking an* amateur ra*io.
%he I!M +an*s *efine* +y the I%4(R are 2+an*s in italics are su+ject to local
acceptance5:
B.FB>(B.F-> M?: 2centre fre6uency B.FA1 M?:5
.,.>>,(.,.>BF M?: 2centre fre6uency .,.>B1 M?:5
/B.->F(/F./A, M?: 2centre fre6uency /F../1 M?:5
01.BB(01.F1 M?: 2centre fre6uency 01.BA M?:5
0,,.1>(0,0.F- M?: 2centre fre6uency 0,,.-/ M?:5
-1/(-/A M?: 2centre fre6uency -.> M?:5
2.400-2.500 GHz (centre frequency 2.450 GHz)
5.725-5.875 GHz (centre frequency 5.800 GHz)
/0(/0./> 3?: 2centre fre6uency /0../> 3?:5
B.(B..> 3?: 2centre fre6uency B../> 3?:5
.//(./, 3?: 2centre fre6uency .//.> 3?:5
/00(/0B 3?: 2centre fre6uency /0> 3?:5
STANDARD-IEEE802.11
IEEE 802.11 is a set of stan*ar*s for &ireless local area net&ork 27L'\5
computer communication *evelope* +y the I""" L'\<M'\ !tan*ar*s $ommittee
2I""" A1/5 in the > 3?: an* /.0 3?: pu+lic spectrum +an*s.

'lthough the terms A1/... an* 7i(9i are often use* interchangea+ly the 7i(9i
'lliance uses the term E7i(9iE to *efine a slightly *ifferent set of overlapping stan*ar*s.
In some cases market *eman* has le* the 7i(9i 'lliance to +egin certifying pro*ucts
+efore amen*ments to the A1/... stan*ar* are complete.
Protocol Release
Date
Op.
Frequency
Throughput
(Typ)
Data
Rate
(Max)
Modulation
Technique
Range
(Radius
Indoor)
Depends,
# and
type of
walls
Range
(Radius
Outdoor)
Loss
includes
one wall
Legacy .--F /.0 3?: 1.- M+it<s /
M+it<s
]/1
Meters
].11
Meters
802.11a 1999 5 GHz 23 Mbit/s 54
Mbit/s
OFDM ~35
Meters
~120
Meters
802.11b 1999 2.4 GHz 4.3 Mbit/s 11
Mbit/s
DSSS ~38
Meters
~140
Meters
802.11g 2003 2.4 GHz 19 Mbit/s 54
Mbit/s
OFDM ~38
Meters
~140
Meters
A1/...n Mune
/11-
2est.5
/.0 3?:
> 3?:
F0 M+it<s /0A
M+it<s
]F1
Meters
]/>1
Meters
A1/...y Mune
/11A
2est.5
,.F 3?: /, M+it<s >0
M+it<s
]>1
Meters
]>111
Meters
PROTOCOL SUMMERY

COMPARISON OF STANDARDS USE IN OUR ANTENNA
AAPLICATIONS
Wireless tandard !0"#$$a
Wireless tandards
!0"#$$b
Wireless tandards
%requency
5.8 GHz
Underused 5.8 GHz band
can coexist with 2.4
GHz networks
without interference
2.4 GHz
Heavily used 2.4 GHz band.
Interference from other 2.4
GHz devices such as
cordless phones,
microwave ovens, etc. may
occur
peed
54 Mbps
5X greater than 802.11b
11 Mbps
Cable modem service typically
averages no more than 4 to
5 Mbps
Range
&'ange will depend on antenna
gain( transmit power
applied to the antenna(
the receive sensitivity of
the radio card and the
obstacles between path
ends#)
Shorter range than 802.11b Good Range. Better range than
802.11a

Compatibility Incompatible with 802.11b Widely adopted
*opularity User base still relatively
small
Currently has the largest user
base. 802.11b is currently
used in most hot spots
including airports, hotels,
campuses, and public
areas.
Cost Expensive for collinear
omni antenna
Expensive for collinear omni
antenna
+enefits Excellent speed, unaffected
by 2.4 GHz devices,
can co-exist with
802.11b and 802.11g
networks
Lowest price, excellent signal
range, coverage penetrate
most walls, works with
public hotspots
3.12 ADVANTAGES AND DRAWBACKS OF OMA
'lthough there are a tremen*ous num+er of a*vantages I &ill only pick
out the(for my opinion (most important ones:
Lightweight, low volume, low profile
Printe* circuits are thin an* thus re6uire less volume than their &avegui*e or coa8ial
counterparts. Due to the fact that printe* antennas consist mainly of nonmetallic materials
an* *ue to the fre6uent use of foam materials as su+strates such antennas have an
e8tremely lo& &eight compare* to conventional antennas.
Polarization
7ith the versatility of patch geometries any polari:ation can +e o+taine*. Kou can even
reali:e antennas &ith multipolari:ation capa+ility &ith single or multiple ports. %hese
features can +e e8ploite* for *ual polari:ation operation or polari:ation *iversity.
Dual frequency antennas possible
Excitation technique

Patches allo& a lot of *ifferent e8citation techni6ues to +e use* compati+le &ith any
technology of the active circuitry an* +eam forming net&orks.
Suitable for integration with MICs (Microwave Integrated Circuits)
%his is important since MI$s are much easier to han*le an* less e8pensive than the
alternative &avegui*es.
Besi*e these numerous technological merits there is also an important
economic reason that makes micro strip antennas attractive: Printe* antenna technology is
suita+le for lo&^cost manufacturing +ecause photo etching an* press machining are the
lo&est cost technologies for large scale fa+rications.
There are a few drawbacks
9irst of all there is a limitation in fre6uency.
't lo& fre6uencies 2.11M?:5 the nee* of a given thickness to achieve a
high efficiency an* +an*&i*th lea*s to +ulky 2+ut not necessarily heavy5 ra*iatorsI at
high fre6uencies once more the 2very small5 thickness an* the manufacturing accuracy
limit the capa+ility for lo& cost pro*uction.
Micro strip antennas are narro&+an* antennas compare* to conventional
micro&ave antennas since the ra*iation is a conse6uence of a resonance. \evertheless
this *ra&+ack can +e overcome +y using thicker su+strates &ith lo& permittivity.
;ne has to care a+out the po&er^han*ling capa+ility of printe* circuits in
the high po&er stages of ra*ar or in in*ustrial e6uipment for micro&ave heating. But
&hen signal amplitu*es remain generally lo& as for e8ample as in mo+ile
communications they are an e8cellent can*i*ate for employment.
'nother fact is that the *esign engineer has al&ays to keep an eye on
losses 2mainly *ielectric an* *ue to surface &ave e8citation5 since this lea*s to a lo&er
gain an* a lo&er efficiency. By selecting lo& loss tangent su+strates the *ielectric losses
&ill not +e a serious issue anymore.
9inally for many practical *esigns the a*vantages of micro strip antennas
far out&eigh their *isa*vantages an* so lea* to many system applications.

3.13 OUR ANTENNA SUPIRIORITY
In market alrea*y there are omni *irectional antennas availa+le as recently use*
9ranklin array antenna an* other is coa8ial collinear antenna again &hich is ma*e in
company the %&in 'ntennas &here &e *one our project successfully.

In 9ranklin array +ecause of the opposite *irection of currents on each of the
phase shifting section minimi:es the ra*iation &here as in the secon* coa8ial collinear
antenna solve the pro+lem +ut antenna is use* at lo& fre6uencies to achieve high
efficiency +ut again &hen use* in micro&ave applications its efficiency *egra*es. In
microstrip antenna it has phase shift +ut it is nullify +y putting short point. It is applica+le
lo& cost high fre6uency # high gain antenna &hich &orks efficiently in micro&ave
fre6uencies.
7hen comparing our antenna &ith company pro*uct coa8ial collinear antenna for
same applications &e foun* that for pro*uction of collinear antenna &e re6uire more man
po&er +ecause of la+orious &ork it is time consuming an* also costly compare* to
;M'.
3.13 APPLICATIONS OF OMA
FOR 2.45 GHz OMA
IEEE 802.11b/g Wireless LAN
Bluetooth
Public Wireless Hotspot
WiFi
Wireless Video Systems
Multipoint and Mobile Applications
FOR 5.8 GHz OMA

Indoor/Outdoor Application
Point to point Applications
Point to Multipoint Applications
WiMAX Application
Mobile WiMAX
SOFDMA
OFD
CHAPTER-4
PCB MANUFACTURING
MATERIALS

4.1 TWO MA1OR MATERIAL CLASSES
P$B *ielectric materials can +e *ivi*e* into t&o major classes +ase* on the type
of reinforcement use*. %hese are &oven glass reinforce* an* non(&oven glass
reinforcements. 7oven glass reinforce* laminates are lo&er in cost than non(&oven
laminates an* are cheaper to pro*uce an* process. Because of the amount of glass in the
&oven glass cloth the *ielectric constants of laminates +ase* on it are higher than
laminates +ase* on other reinforcements. 2%he glass use* in laminates has a relative
*ielectric constant of B.1.5
4.2 LAMINATED PROPERTIES-IMPORTANT TO USE
Relative Dielectric Constant, E r

Relative Dielectric $onstant e
r
( this property is a measure of the effect an
insulating material has on the capacitance of a con*uctor im+e**e* in or surroun*e* +y it.
It is also a measure of the *egree to &hich an electromagnetic &ave is slo&e* *o&n as it
travels through the insulating material. %he higher the relative *ielectric constant the
slo&er a signal travels on a &ire the lo&er the impe*ance of a given trace geometry an*
the larger the stray capacitance along a transmission line. 3iven a choice lo&er *ielectric
constant is nearly al&ays +etter.
%he *ielectric constant of nearly all P$B *ielectrics changes &ith fre6uency an*
usually goes *o&n as fre6uency goes up. %his manifests itself in t&o &ays in
transmission lines. %he velocity of signals increases as the fre6uency goes up resulting in
phase *istortion in +roa*+an* amplifiers. Broa*+an* R9 an* micro&ave amplifiers
usually nee* to +e ma*e from laminates &ith relative *ielectric constants as flat &ith
fre6uency as possi+le to minimi:e this pro+lem
%he impe*ance of a transmission line goes *o&n as fre6uency goes up resulting in
faster e*ges reflecting more than slo&er ones. %he main effect this has is to cause errors
in impe*ance calculations an* measurements. 's an e8ample if the relative *ielectric
constant measure* at . M?: is use* to calculate impe*ance an* a %DR &ith a ./>
picosecon*s rise time is use* to measure the impe*ance there &ill +e *isagreement *ue to
the fact that t&o very *ifferent fre6uencies have +een use*. 9igure(0.. illustrates ho&
relative *ielectric constant varies &ith fre6uency for some typical P$B laminates.

Figure-4.1, Relative Dielectric Constant vs. Frequency for Several Laminate Types
'nother source of relative *ielectric constant variation is the ratio of
reinforcement or glass to resin use* to make a laminate. 9igure(0./ sho&s ho& the
relative *ielectric constant of a stan*ar* 9R(0 laminate changes &ith the ratio of glass to
resin. %his chart is +ase* on measuring relative *ielectric constant at .M?:. Many of the
*isconnects +et&een pre*icte* impe*ance an* measure* impe*ance stem from that fact
that the relative *ielectric constant for one glass to resin ratio is use* to calculate
impe*ance an* the actual glass to resin ratio of the material use* to fa+ricate the P$B is
*ifferent. 's an e8ample the relative *ielectric constant 0.F is for 9R(0 &ith 0/= resin
measure* at . M?:. Most multilayer materials contain a+out >>= resin. %ypically
impe*ance of the finishe* P$B is measure* &ith a %DR of e*ge rate a+out .>1
picosecon*s &hich correspon*s to a+out / 3?:. %he relative *ielectric constant for this
pair of con*itions is appro8imately 0... %hese t&o sets of con*itions &hen use* on the
same P$B one to calculate the other to measure can result in an impe*ance error of as
much as > ohms in a >1 ohm system.

Figure-4.2, Relative Dielectric Constant vs. Glass to Resin Ratio for FR-4
Glass Transition Temperature, T
g
'll common laminate resins e8hi+it changing temperature coefficients of
e8pansion as temperature increases. 9igure(0., sho&s this characteristic for a num+er of
common multilayer laminates. 3lass transition temperature or %g is the temperature at
&hich the temperature coefficient of e8pansion makes a significant change from a lo&
value to a much higher value. %his correspon*s to a phase change in the resin system.
\otice that the temperature coefficient of e8pansion at lo& temperatures is close
to that of copper an* glass the t&o reinforcements in the _ an* K *irections of a P$B.
7hen the temperature of the composite material system in a P$B e8cee*s its %g the resin
part of the package +egins to e8pan* at a much more rapi* rate than either the copper or
the glass. !ince the resin cannot e8pan* in either the _ or K *irections virtually all of the
volume gro&th takes place in the Z(a8is. %he vias an* other plate* through holes are
oriente* in the Z(a8is an* are place* un*er stress as sol*ering takes place. %he
com+ination of thicker P$Bs an* multiple sol*ering operations can pro*uce faile* P$Bs

even +efore they complete the manufacturing process. $are must +e e8ercise* in choosing
the proper %g material for each application.
Figure-4.3 Glass Transition Temperature Curves for Various PCB Laminates
Loss tangent
Loss tangent is a measure of ho& much of the electromagnetic fiel* travelling
through a *ielectric is a+sor+e* or lost in the *ielectric. %his property is one of the least
&ell un*erstoo* of all those that characteri:e laminates. 's a result ultra lo& loss
materials are often use* in *igital applications &hen they are not nee*e*. %his results in
increase* P$B cost &ithout a correspon*ing +enefit. 9igure(0.0 sho&s the classic Heye
*iagramJ use* to measure the performance of an "thernet link. It &as create* +y 'mp
Packaging !ystems as a measure of the performance of four potential laminate materials.
%he test environment is a /.0 3iga+it per secon* +ack plane &ith .AJ long paths. %he
materials e8amine* are high temperature 9R(0 3"%"Z from 3" R; 0,>1 from Rogers
an* $L%" from arlon. %hese materials have loss tangents of .1/ .1.> .11A an* .110
respectively. 9rom this *iagram one can gage the improvement in signal si:e as lo&er loss
materials are use*. "ven at /.0 3iga+its per secon* the 9R(0 material *elivers a

satisfactory logic signal. %his may come as a pleasant surprise to those &ishing to use 9R(
0 +ase* materials for giga+it a higher pro*ucts an* as an unpleasant surprise to those &ho
thought that a lo&er loss more e8pensive material &as nee*e*.

Figure-4.4 Ethernet Eye Diagrams Showing Losses in 18 Long 2.4 Gigabit Links Using
Four Types of Dielectric Materials. Courtesy of AMP Packaging Systems
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage, DBV
Dielectric +reak*o&n voltage is a measure of an insulatorCs a+ility to &ithstan*
the stress of high voltages place* across it. It can +e seen that all of the commonly
availa+le laminates have at least .111 volts per mil of thickness DB). %his means that a /
mil thick laminate can &ithstan* a voltage stress as high as /111 volts more than
a*e6uate to meet the %elco specifications applie* to many net&orking pro*ucts.
Moisture Absorption
'll resin systems a+sor+ some moisture or &ater &hen e8pose* to high humi*ity
environments. %his a+sorption affects the P$B in t&o &ays. 7ater has a relative *ielectric

constant of appro8imately F,. If a laminate a+sor+s a significant amount of &ater the
resulting relative *ielectric constant of the com+ination &ill +e higher than the 0.. use* to
calculate impe*ance an* can cause impe*ance mismatches.
' more important effect of moisture a+sorption is increase* leakage current. Materials
&ith high moisture a+sorption may e8hi+it leakages in e8cess of &hat the circuits house*
on them can &ithstan*. In or*er to use high a+sorption materials in such applications it is
often necessary to seal them &ith a special coating after first +aking them *ry. %his
represents an a**e* cost as &ell as a pro+lem &hen re&ork must +e *one since the
coating must +e remove* to *o the re&ork an* then reapplie*. %&o materials that have
this pro+lem are polyami*e an* cyanate ester.
%he moisture a+sorption levels of the 9R(0 *erivatives are satisfactory for all *igital
applications.
4.! DIELECTRIC MATERIAL
%here are three types of *ielectric material are use* for P$B manufacturing.
.. 9R/
/. 9R0
,. P%9"
4.!." FR-2
FR-2 is an a++reviation for Flame Resistant 2. It is a \"M' *esignation for a
composite material ma*e of paper impregnate* &ith a plastici:e* phenol
formal*ehy*e resin use* in the manufacture of printe* circuit +oar*s. Its properties are
similar to \"M' gra*e ___P 2MIL(P(,..>5 material an* can +e su+stitute* for the
latter in many applications.
APPLICATION
9R(/ sheet &ith copper foil lamination on one or +oth si*es is &i*ely use* to +uil* lo&(
en* consumer electronic e6uipment. 7hile its electrical an* mechanical properties are
inferior to those of epo8y(+on*e* fi+erglass 9R(0 it is significantly cheaper. It is not

suita+le for *evices installe* in vehicles as continuous vi+ration can make cracks
propagate causing hairline fractures in copper circuit traces. 7ithout copper foil
lamination 9R(/ is sometimes use* for simple structural shapes an* electrical insulation.
PROPERTIES
Property Values
Dielectric $onstant 2Permittivity5 0.> `. M?:
Dissipation 9actor 1.1/0(1./B `. M?:
Dielectric !trength F01 )<mil
FABRICATION
9R(/ can +e machine* +y *rilling sa&ing milling an* hot punching. $ol*
punching an* shearing are not recommen*e* as they leave a ragge* e*ge an* ten* to
cause cracking. %ools ma*e of high(spee* steel can +e use* although tungsten car+i*e
tooling is preferre* for high volume pro*uction. '*e6uate ventilation or respiration
protection is man*atory *uring high(spee* machining as it gives off to8ic vapors.
4.!.2 FR-4
9R(0 an a++reviation for 9lame Resistant 0 is a type of material use* for making
a printe* circuit +oar* 2P$B5. It *escri+es the +oar* itself &ith no copper covering. %he
9R(0 use* in P$Bs is typically 4) sta+ili:e* &ith a tetra functional resin system. It is
typically a yello&ish color. 9R(0 manufacture* strictly as an insulator 2&ithout copper
cla**ing5 is typically a *ysfunctional resin system an* a greenish color. 9R(0 is similar to
an ol*er material calle* 3(.1. 3(.1 lacke* 9R(0Ds self e8tinguishing flamma+ility
characteristics. 9R(0 has &i*ely replace* 3(.1 in most applications. !ome military
applications &here *estruction of the circuit +oar* is a *esira+le trait &ill still utili:e 3(
.1.
CONTENTS
Explanation

Description and specifications
Applications
EXPLANATION
' P$B nee*s to +e an insulator to avoi* shorting the circuit physically strong to
protect the copper tracks place* upon it an* to have certain other physical electrical
6ualities 2see +elo&5. 9R(0 is preferre* over cheaper alternatives such as synthetic resin
+on*e* paper 2!RBP5 *ue to several mechanical an* electrical propertiesI it is less lossy
at high fre6uencies a+sor+s less moisture has greater strength an* stiffness an* is highly
flame resistant compare* to its less costly counterpart. 9R(0 is &i*ely use* to +uil* high(
en* consumer in*ustrial an* military electronic e6uipment.
DESCRIPTION AND SPECIFICATION
9R(0 is a composite of a resin epo8y reinforce* &ith a &oven fi+erglass mat. It is
a material from the class of epo8y resin +on*e* glass fa+ric 2"RB395.
Dielectric constant (permittivity) 4.70 max, 4.35 500 MHz, 4.34 1 GHz
Dissipation factor (loss tangent) 0.02 1 MHz, 0.01 1 GHz
Dielectric strength 20 MV/m (500 V/mil)
Surface resistivity (min) 210
5
MO
Volume resistivity (min) 810
7
MOcm
2
/cm
Typical thickness 1.25-2.54 mm (0.049-0.100 inches)
Typical stiffness (Young's modulus) 17 GPa (2.510
6
PSI; for use in PCBs)
Tg (glass transition temperature) 110-200 C by manufacture and resin system
Density 1.91 kg/L
APPLICATIONS
9R(0 is accepta+le for signals up to aroun* .1 3?: although Rogers 011, +oar*
provi*es superior electrical characteristics. 9R(0 is also use* for manufacturing insulating
or structural components.

4.!.! PTFE(TEFLON)
%eflon is the DuPont tra*emark for its polytetrafluoroethylene 2P%9"5 a polymer
of fluorinate* ethylene.
Figure-4.5 3D model of a section of PTFE
Polytetrafluoroethylene 2PTFE5 is a synthetic fluoropolymer &hich fin*s
numerous applications. P%9"Ds most &ell kno&n tra*emark in the in*ustry is the DuPont
+ran* name ,eflon as DuPont initially *iscovere* P%9". P%9" has an e8tremely lo&
coefficient of friction an* is use* as a non(stick coating for pans an* other cook&are.
It is very non(reactive an* so is often use* in containers an* pipe &ork for reactive an*
corrosive chemicals.
PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION
P%9" is a &hite soli* at room temperature &ith a *ensity of a+out /./ g<cm,.
'ccor*ing to DuPont its melting point is ,/F a$ 2B/1.B a95 +ut its properties *egra*e
a+ove /B1 a$ 2>11 a95.
%eflon +ran* P%9" is often use* to coat non(stick frying pans as it has very lo&
friction an* high heat resistance +ut not all pans are coate* &ith DuPont P%9".
%he roof of the ?u+ert ?. ?umphrey Metro*ome is ma*e of /1 acres of %eflon coate*
fi+erglass. %he coefficient of friction of plastics is usually measure* against polishe*
steel. %eflonCs coefficient of friction is 1.. or less &hich is the lo&est of any kno&n soli*
material.
'mong many other in*ustrial applications P%9" is use* to coat certain types of
har*ene* armor(piercing +ullets so as to re*uce the amount of &ear on the firearmDs

rifling. %hese are often mistakenly referre* to as Ecop(killerE +ullets +y virtue of P%9"Ds
suppose* a+ility to ease a +ulletDs passage through +o*y armor. 'ny armor(piercing effect
is ho&ever purely a function of the +ulletDs kinetic energy an* rigi*ity rather than a
property of P%9".
P%9" has e8cellent *ielectric properties. %his is especially true at high ra*io
fre6uencies making it suita+le for use as an insulator in ca+les an* connector assem+lies
an* as a material for printe* circuit +oar*s use* at micro&ave fre6uencies.
$om+ine* &ith its high melting temperature this makes it the material of choice
as a high(performance su+stitute for the &eaker an* lo&er melting point polyethylene that
is commonly use* in lo&(cost applications. Its e8tremely high +ulk resistivity makes it an
i*eal material for fa+ricating long life electrets useful *evices that are the electrostatic
analogues of magnets.
Due to its lo& friction it is use* for applications &here sli*ing action of parts is
nee*e*: +earings +ushings gears sli*e plates etc. In these applications it performs
significantly +etter than nylon an* acetylI it is compara+le to ultra high(molecular &eight
polyethylene 24?M7P"5 although 4?M7P" is more resistant to &ear than %eflon. 9or
these applications versions of %eflon &ith mineral oil or moly+*enum *isulfi*e
em+e**e* as a**itional lu+ricants in its matri8 are +eing manufacture*.
Because of its chemical inertness P%9" cannot +e cross(linke* like an elastomer.
%herefore it has no EmemoryE an* is su+ject to creep 2also kno&n as Ecol* flo&E an*
Ecompression setE5. %his can +e +oth goo* an* +a*. ' little +it of creep allo&s P%9" seals
to conform to mating surfaces +etter than most other plastic seals.
%oo much creep ho&ever an* the seal is compromise*. $ompoun*ing fillers are
use* to control un&ante* creep as &ell as to improve &ear friction an* other properties.
!ometimes metal springs are use* to apply continuous force to P%9" seals to give goo*
contact &hile permitting some creep. 3ore(%e8 is a material incorporating fluoropolymer
mem+rane &ith microspores.

. %he roof of the ?u+ert ?. ?umphrey Metro*ome in Minneapolis is one of the
largest applications of %eflon P%9" coatings on "arth using /1 acres of the material in a
*ou+le(layere* &hite *ome ma*e &ith P%9"(coate* fi+erglass that gives the sta*ium its
*istinctive appearance. %he Millennium Dome in Lon*on is also su+stantially ma*e of
P%9".
Po&*ere* P%9" is use* in pyrotechnic compositions as o8i*i:er together &ith
po&*ere* metals such as aluminum an* magnesium 2see Magnesium<%eflon resin<)iton5.
4pon ignition these mi8tures form car+onaceous soot an* the correspon*ing metal
fluori*e an* release large amounts of heat. ?ence they are use* as infrare* *ecoy flares
an* igniters for soli*(fuel rocket propellants.
In optical ra*iometry sheets ma*e from P%9" are use* as measuring hea*s
spectrora*iometers an* +roa*+an* ra*iometers 2e.g. illuminance meter an* 4)
ra*iometer5 *ue to capa+ility to *iffuse a transmitting light nearly perfectly.
Moreover optical properties of P%9" stay constant at large &avelength region
from 4) up to near infrare* &avelengths. In this region the relation of its regular
transmittance to *iffuse transmittance is negligi+ly small then light transmitte* a *iffuser
2P%9" sheet5 ra*iates like Lam+ertDs cosine la&. %hus P%9" ena+les co sinusoi*al
angular response for *etector measuring the po&er of optical ra*iation at a surface e.g.
in solar irra*iance measurements.

5.1 COAXIAL CABLE
CHAPTER-5
CABLE AND CONNECTORS

Coaxial cable is an electrical ca+le consisting of a roun* con*ucting &ire
surroun*e* +y an insulating spacer surroun*e* +y a cylin*rical con*ucting sheath
usually surroun*e* +y a final insulating layer 2jacket5. It is use* as a high(fre6uency
transmission line to carry a high(fre6uency or +roa*+an* signal. Because the
electromagnetic fiel* carrying the signal e8ists 2i*eally5 only in the space +et&een the
inner an* outer con*uctors it cannot interfere &ith or suffer interference from e8ternal
electromagnetic fiel*s.
Ra*io(gra*e fle8i+le coa8ial ca+le.
': outer plastic sheath
B: copper screen
$: inner *ielectric insulator
D: copper core
Figure-5.1 Coaxial Cable
$oa8ial ca+les may +e rigi* or fle8i+le. Rigi* types have a soli* sheath &hile
fle8i+le types have a +rai*e* sheath usually of thin copper &ire. %he inner insulator also
calle* the *ielectric has a significant effect on the ca+leDs properties such as its
characteristic impe*ance an* its attenuation. %he *ielectric may +e soli* or perforate*
&ith air spaces. $onnections to the en*s of coa8ial ca+les are usually ma*e &ith R9
connectors.
;pen &ire transmission lines have the property that the electromagnetic &ave
propagating *o&n the line e8ten*s into the space surroun*ing the parallel &ires. %hese
lines have lo& loss +ut also have un*esira+le characteristics. %hey cannot +e +ent
t&iste* or other&ise shape* &ithout changing their characteristic impe*ance. %hey also

cannot +e run along or attache* to anything con*uctive as the e8ten*e* fiel*s &ill in*uce
currents in the near+y con*uctors causing un&ante* ra*iation an* *etuning of the line.
$oa8ial lines solve this pro+lem +y confining the electromagnetic &ave to the area
insi*e the ca+le +et&een the center con*uctor an* the shiel*. %he transmission of energy
in the line occurs totally through the *ielectric insi*e the ca+le +et&een the con*uctors.
$oa8ial lines can therefore +e +ent an* mo*erately t&iste* &ithout negative effects an*
they can +e strappe* to con*uctive supports &ithout in*ucing un&ante* currents in them.
%he inner con*uctor can +e ma*e of +rai* an* the outer con*uctor can +e ma*e of
corrugate* tu+e for greater fle8i+ility +ut this comes at the cost of increase* ohmic losses
an* lo&er phase velocity. %he outer con*uctor can also +e ma*e of 2in or*er of increasing
leakage5 *ou+le shiel* &oun* foil &oven tape or +rai*. %he eigenmo*e of a leaky ca+le
lies some&here in +et&een the coa8 ca+le an* the t&iste* pair so a +alun can improve
transition +et&een ca+les of *ifferent leakage. !hiel*e* t&iste* pair may +e +etter if
mains hum is a pro+lem though pair con*uctors are not commercially availa+le in the
same precision.
In ra*io(fre6uency applications up to a fe& gigahert:es the &ave propagates only
in the transverse electric magnetic 2%"M5 mo*e &hich means that the electric an*
magnetic fiel*s are +oth perpen*icular to the *irection of propagation. ?o&ever a+ove a
certain cutoff fre6uency transverse electric 2%"5 an*<or transverse magnetic 2%M5 mo*es
can also propagate as they *o in a &avegui*e. It is usually un*esira+le to transmit signals
a+ove the cutoff fre6uency since it may cause multiple mo*es &ith *ifferent phase
velocities to propagate interfering &ith each other. %he outer *iameter is roughly
inversely proportional to the cutoff fre6uency.
$oa8ial ca+les re6uire an internal structure of an insulating 2*ielectric5 material to
maintain the spacing +et&een the center con*uctor an* shiel*. 4nfortunately all
*ielectrics have loss associate* &ith them &hich causes most coa8ial lines to have more
loss than open &ire lines. In typical applications the loss in polyethylene is compara+le to
the ohmic loss at . 3?: an* the loss in P%9" is compara+le to ohmic losses at .1 3?:.
Most ca+les have a soli* *ielectricI others have a foam *ielectric &hich contains as much
air as possi+le to re*uce the losses. 9oam coa8 &ill have a+out .>= less attenuation +ut
can a+sor+ moisturebespecially at its many surfacesbin humi* environments increasing

the loss. !tars or spokes are even +etter +ut more e8pensive. !till more e8pensive &ere
the air space* coa8ial use* for some inter(city communications in the mi**le /1th
$entury. %he center con*uctor &as suspen*e* +y polyethylene *iscs every fe&
centimeters. In any case the lo&er *ielectric constant of air allo&s for a greater inner
*iameter at the same impe*ance an* a greater outer *iameter at the same cutoff fre6uency
lo&ering ohmic losses. ;hmic losses are minimi:e* +y a jump in con*uctivity +et&een
the *ielectric an* the con*uctor &hich is sharper then the skin *epth.
;8ygen(free copper has a high con*uctivity an* to keep it o8ygen free at the
surface 2skin5 it nee*s a *ielectric coating 2it is enamele*5. ' rough surface prolongs the
path for the current an* concentrates the current at peaks an* thus increases ohmic losses.
We use the coaxial cable-188 for our omni micro strip antenna.
5.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF COAXIAL CONNECTORS
COAXIAL CONNECTOR CHART

Connector
Type
Other
names (or
mates
with)
Female Male Maximum
Frequency
Phone plugs
an* jacks
%! %R! .11 k?: or
less
"ver see those ol* telephone s&itch+oar*s &ith hun*re*s of jacks an* patch
cor*s an* plugsc %hose are phone jacks an* plugs also kno&n as %! 2%ip(
!leeve5 for t&o(con*uctor connections or %R! 2%ip(Ring(!leeve5 for three(
con*uctor connections. %hey are no& use* &i*ely &ith musical instruments an*
au*io e6uipment. %he phone plug is the male connector a phone jack is the
female connector. %he stan*ar* *iameter of the plug is 1./>E +ut many smaller
si:es are availa+le as &ell. %hese are really only suita+le for au*io fre6uencies.
R$'
Phono
plugs
an*
jacks
.1 M?:
' roun* press(on connector commonly use* for consumer(gra*e au*io an*
composite vi*eo connections. In most recent home stereo e6uipment the jacks are
color(co*e* as follo&s: re* 2au*io(Right5 +lack or &hite 2au*io(Left5 an* yello&
2composite vi*eo5. Generally not a constant characteristic impedance connector.
4?9
PL(/>-
2male5
!;(/,-
2female
,11 M?: or
less
%he 4?9 type connector sa& its conception in the early .-,1Ds a time &hen
)?9<4?9 technology &as 6uite ne&. %he forefathers of )?9 &ere in many cases
'mateur ra*io e8perimenters most &ith "ngineering an* technical +ackgroun*s.
%hey +egan e8perimenting an* &orking the )?9 frontier aroun* .-/B. !oon
thereafter research into 9M ra*io an* %elevision +egan an* out of this era came the
then name* 4?9 connector. Manufacturers of 4?9 plugs an* receptors all state that
this type connector are of generally non-constant(characteristic) impedance an* are
suita+le for use up to /11 or ,11 M?: only *epen*ing on pro*uction 6uality. %hey
also state that the 4?9 connector can +e use* up to >11 M?: &ith a cautionary note
of re*uce* performance.
%he so name* 4?9 connector from the past is not really suita+le for use a+ove ,11
M?: at all. Perhaps the e8ception to this &oul* +e &hen a cheap an* rugge* system is

re6uire* &here loss an* goo* signal to noise ratio is of little concern. ?o&ever even
for fre6uencies as lo& as .00 M?: if lo& loss an* goo* signal to noise ratio are very
*esira+le the use of 4?9 type connectors is not recommen*e*. %he 4?9 connector
still has a place in many applications &here a ro+ust +ut economical R9 connector is
re6uire* +ut for serious applications its use shoul* +e limite* to +elo& .11 M?:. %he
\ type is far superior in performance an* it shoul* also +e note* the B\$ type
connector is similar in performance to the \ type +ut has the *isa*vantage of +eing
less rugge*. (characteristic) impedance an* are suita+le for use up to /11 or ,11
M?: only *epen*ing on pro*uction 6uality. %hey also state that the 4?9 connector
can +e use* up to >11 M?: &ith a cautionary note of re*uce* performance.
%he so name* 4?9 connector from the past is not really suita+le for use a+ove
,11 M?: at all. Perhaps the e8ception to this &oul* +e &hen a cheap an* rugge*
system is re6uire* &here loss an* goo* signal to noise ratio is of little concern.
?o&ever even for fre6uencies as lo& as .00 M?: if lo& loss an* goo* signal to
noise ratio are very *esira+le the use of 4?9 type connectors is not recommen*e*.
%he 4?9 connector still has a place in many applications &here a ro+ust +ut
economical R9 connector is re6uire* +ut for serious applications its use shoul* +e
limite* to +elo& .11 M?:. %he \ type is far superior in performance an* it shoul*
also +e note* the B\$ type connector is similar in performance to the \ type +ut has
the *isa*vantage of +eing less rugge*.
9
vi*eo />1 M?: to
. 3?:
%he H9J series connectors are primarily utili:e* in television ca+le an* antenna
applications. \ormally these are use* at F> ohm characteristic impe*ance. ,<A(,/
coupling threa* is stan*ar* +ut push(on *esigns are also availa+le
B\$
/ 3?: or
higher
%he EBayonet Neil(ConcelmanE or EBayonet \avy $onnectorE or EBa+y \eil
$onnectorE *epen*ing on the information source. Zarl 7. $oncelman is +elieve* to
have create* the E$E connector. %he B\$ &as *esigne* for military use an* has
gaine* &i*e acceptance in vi*eo an* R9 applications to / 3?:. %he B\$ uses a
slotte* outer con*uctor an* some plastic *ielectric on each gen*er connector. %his
*ielectric causes increasing losses at higher fre6uencies. '+ove 0 3?: the slots may
ra*iate signals so the connector is usa+le +ut not necessarily mechanically sta+le up

to a+out .1 3?:. Both >1 ohm an* F> ohm versions are availa+le.
%\$
/ 3?: or
higher
' threa*e* version of the B\$ connector. It helps resolve leakage an* geometric
sta+ility pro+lems permitting applications up to ./ 3?:. %he specifications for \
B\$ an* %\$ connectors are foun* in MIL($(,-1./. %here are special Ee8ten*e*
fre6uencyE versions of the %\$ that a*here to the I"$ .B-(.F specification for
operation to .. 3?: or .B 3?: an* the I"$ .B-(/B specification that operate mo*e(
free to .A 3?: 2+ut &ith significant losses5. %he %\$ connector is in &i*e use in
cellular telephone R9<antenna connections. Because the mating geometries are
compati+le &ith the \ connector it is possi+le to temporarily mate some gen*er
com+inations of B\$ an* \. %his is not a recommen*e* use +ecause the connection
is not mechanically sta+le an* there &ill +e significant impe*ance changes at the
interface.
F<.B DI\

F.> 3?:
%his relatively ne& connector is fin*ing popularity as an interconnect in cellular
an* other so calle* E&irelessE applications especially on to&ers. %he primary
a*vantage it has over \ type connectors is that it uses a &rench to tighten. It is rate*
to F.> 3?: uses ru++er gaskets an* silver or gol* plate.
3RAF0
3eneral
Ra*io
2to ol*(
timers
any&ay5
3AF0
same A.> 3?:
3RAF0 connectors are se8less 2hermaphro*itic5 >1(ohm impe*ance connectors
&ith a sli*e(on interface that has +een a stan*ar* for many years on a &i*e variety of
test e6uipment *ue to its goo* electrical characteristics an* ease of mating. %hese
connectors sometimes come &ith a locking interface for a**e* mechanical security
&here nee*e*. Locking an* non(locking interfaces are intermatea+le.

3R-11B% .0 mm
MP$.0
same A.> 3?:
%hese se8less 2hermaphro*itic5 connectors are often use* in highly critical
la+oratory applications at fre6uencies up to A.> 3?:.
$
./ 3?:
$ connectors are me*ium(si:e >1(ohm impe*ance connectors &ith t&o(stu*
+ayonet coupling an* goo* po&er han*ling capa+ility particularly those connectors
note* as high(voltage types. %hese are similar in si:e to type \ connectors ho&ever
they are +ayonet locking. %he $ series uses a %eflon *ielectric for its interface. %he
*ielectric overlap ena+les +etter voltage han*ling capa+ilities. %he +ayonet coupling
*oes not perform &ell electrically *uring vi+ration.
%ype \
./ 3?: or
more
%he %ype \ >1 ohm connector &as *esigne* in the .-01s for military systems
operating +elo& > 3?:. ;ne resource i*entifies the origin of the name as meaning
ENavyE. !everal other sources attri+ute it to Mr. Paul \eil an R9 engineer at Bell
La+s. %he %ype \ uses an internal gasket to seal out the environment an* is han*
tightene*. %here is an air gap +et&een center an* outer con*uctor. In the .-B1s
improvements pushe* performance to ./ 3?: an* later mo*e(free to .A 3?:.
?e&lett Packar* Zings 'm phenol an* others offer some pro*ucts &ith slot less
type(\ outer con*uctors for improve* performance to .A 3?:. %ype(\ connectors
follo& the military stan*ar* MIL($(,-1./. "ven the +est speciali:e* type(\
connectors &ill +egin to mo*e aroun* /1 3?: pro*ucing unpre*icta+le results if use*
at that fre6uency or higher. ' F> ohm version &ith a re*uce* center pin is availa+le
an* in &i*e use +y the ca+le(%) in*ustry.

SMA
3.5 mm
or APC-
3.5,
WSMA,
2.92
mm, K
./ 3?: or
more
The SMA (Subminiature A) connector was designed by Bendix Scintilla
Corporation and is one of the most commonly used RF/microwave connectors. It
is intended for use on semi-rigid cables and in components which are connected
infrequently. It takes the cable dielectric directly to the interface without air
gaps. A few hundred interconnect cycles are possible if performed carefully. Care
should be taken to join connectors straight-on. Prior to making a connection it is
wise to inspect the female end to assure that the center socket is in good
condition (fingers not bent or missing).
A standard SMA connector is designed for interconnects to 12.4 GHz.
Fortunately, a good SMA is usable to 18 GHz in most cables, and if well
constructed with greater loss and lower return loss to 24 GHz. Most SMA
connectors have higher reflection coefficients than other connectors available for
use to 24 GHz because of the difficulty to anchor the dielectric support. Some
manufacturers rate a special high quality version of an SMA that meets SMA
standards as high as 26.5 GHz (The 1ohnson Field Replaceable SMA goes to 26.5
GHz, and the M/A-Com OSM extended frequency series goes to 27 GHz).
Because an SMA with such quality can be repeatably manufactured, you will
often see test equipment and components rated to exactly 26.5 GHz with SMA
connectors as the primary interconnect. "SMA" connectors rated for frequencies
higher than 27 GHz are really following other standards and are made to be
compatible with the SMA geometries to allow mating with SMA. So called
"precision SMA" connectors are available with a variety of designators (e. g., 3.5
& 2.92 mm). When two SMA compatible connectors of different ratings are
coupled, it is very likely that the performance of the lesser connector will
prevail.
Be advised that when mating a male SMA to a female "Precision SMA", to be
sure that the SMA male is of professional manufacture, and to insert the male
straight-on. If there is any doubt, it is wise to invest in an SMA Connector
Gauge, and gauge the SMA male prior to mating. This advice does not apply to
the connection of an SMA female to a 3.5 or 2.9 male. Such connections do need
to be made with care and straight-on.
'P$(F
F mm same .A 3?:

%he 'P$(F 2'm phenol Precision $onnector ( F mm5 offers the lo&est reflection
coefficient an* most repeata+le measurement of all .A 3?: connectors. Development
of this connector &as a joint effort +et&een ?P an* 'm phenol &hich +egan in the
early .-B1s. %his is a se8less 2hermaphro*ite5 *esign an* is the preferre* connector
for the most *eman*ing applications nota+ly metrology an* cali+ration. %hese
connectors are *esigne* to perform repeata+ly for thousan*s of interconnect cycles as
long as the mating surfaces are kept clean. Kou &ill fin* these connectors on the front
of some net&ork analy:ers.
/.0mm

>1 3?:
%he /.0 mm connector &as *evelope* +y ?P 'm phenol an* M<'($;M for use to
>1 3?: 2the first &avegui*e mo*e is reache* at >/ 3?:5. M<'($om refers to it as
;!(/.0 2;!(>15. %his *esign eliminates the fragility of the !M' an* /.-/(mm
connectors +y increasing the outer &all thickness an* strengthening the female
fingers. %he insi*e of the outer con*uctor is /.0 mm in *iameter an* the outsi*e is 0.F
mm. Because they are not mechanically compati+le &ith !M' ,.>(mm an* /.-/(mm
precision a*apters are re6uire* in or*er to mate to those types. 2%his family is not
*irectly matea+le &ith the !M' family.5 %he /.0(mm pro*uct is offere* in three
6uality gra*esI general purpose instrument an* metrology. 3eneral purpose gra*e is
inten*e* for economy use on components ca+les an* microstrip &here limite*
connections an* lo& repeata+ility is accepta+le. %he higher gra*es are appropriate for
their respective applications
Torque for tightening connectors
Connector type Torque lb-inch (N-
cm)
Comment
Precision 7mm 12 (136) Finger tight is acceptable
Precision 3.5 mm & 2.92
mm
8 (90) When connecting SMA to 3.5
use torque for male
connector
SMA 5 (56) When connecting SMA to 3.5
use torque for male connector
Type N 12 (136) Finger tight is acceptable
5.3 WE USE- SMA CONNECTOR

Figure-5.2 Standard male SMA plug connector: SMA-M with male contact
SMA 2ubminiature version -5 connectors are coa8ial R9 connectors *evelope*
in the .-B1s as a minimal connector interface for coa8ial ca+le &ith a scre& type
coupling mechanism. %he connector has a >1 N impe*ance. It offers e8cellent electrical
performance from D$ to .A 3?:.
$onnector Design
)ariations
Reverse polarity !M'
5.3.1 CONNECTOR DESIGN
%he !M' connector consists of a 1./>18,B threa*. %he male is e6uippe* &ith a .
,./ inch he8 nut. It is important that the nut +e properly tor6ue &ith a ><.B inch &rench
,(> indl+f 21., to 1.B \dm5 for +rass an* F(.1 indl+f 21.AV... \dm5 for stainless steel
connectors. 7hen turning the nut it is very important that the remain*er of the connector
*oes not rotateI other&ise premature &ear of the connector &ill result. 9urthermore the
connector shoul* +e carefully inspecte* +efore each use an* any *e+ris cleane* &ith
compresse* air. 7hen properly han*le* a !M' connector shoul* remain &ithin specifie*
performance through >11 mating cycles.
%he !M' connector uses a polytetrafluoroethylene 2P%9"5 *ielectric &hich &ill
contact along the mating plane. )aria+ility in the construction an* the mating of the
connectors limit the repeata+ility of the connector impe*ance. 9or that reason a !M'
connector is not a goo* choice for metrology applications.

%he terms EMaleE an* E9emaleE refer primarily to the type of e8ternal housing of
a connector. %he Male connector is also commonly referre* to as a EPlugE &hereas the
9emale connector is also kno&n as a E!ocketE or EMackE.
5.3.2VARIATIONS
%he !M' connector is typically rate* for mo*e(free operation from D$ to .A
3?: though some proprietary versions are rate* to /B.> 3?:. 9or performance a+ove
this !M'(like connectors are use*. %hese are the ,.> mm connector rate* to ,0 3?:
an* the /.-/ mm goo* up to 0B 3?:. %hese connectors keep the same outsi*e threa* as
the !M' so they can all +e cross(mate* ho&ever they use an air *ielectric &ith the
center con*uctors appropriately scale*. ?o&ever the life of the precision connector &ill
+e re*uce* an* can +e easily *amage* &hen mating &ith lo&(gra*e !M' connectors.
Beyon* 0B 3?: the /.0 mm ..A> mm an* the . mm connector e8ist. %hese are
similar to the !M' connector +ut &ith the geometries incompati+ly scale*. %hese have
mo*e(free operation to >1 B> an* ..1 3?: respectively.
Figure-5.3Proprietary female RP-SMA jack connector: RP-SMA-F with male
contact
5.3.3 REVERSE POLARITY SMA
Reverse polarity !M' 2RP(!M' or R!M'5 is a proprietary variation of the !M'
connector specification &hich reverses the gen*er of the interface as sho&n in 9igures .
an* /. %he male RP(!M' connector has the same e8ternal housing as a stan*ar* male

!M' connectorI ho&ever the internal prong is replace* +y a receptacle. %he female RP(
!M' connector has the same housing as a stan*ar* female !M' connectorI ho&ever the
female receptacle is replace* +y a male prong.
RP(!M' connectors are &i*ely use* +y 7i(9i e6uipment manufacturers to
comply &ith specific local regulations e.g. the 9$$ &hich are *esigne* to prevent
consumers from connecting antennas &ith gain an* therefore +reach compliance.
%he term Ereverse polarityE might appear confusing to some non(7i9i R9
engineers as polarity else&here in R9 literature can refer to the electromagnetic polarity
not to a change of gen*er 2in this case replacing the prong for a receptacle an* vice(
versa5.
5.4 ADVANTAGES OF SMA CONNECTOR
%he characteristic impe*ance in ohms 2N5 is calculate* from the ratio of the inner an*
outer *iameters an* the *ielectric constant. 'ssuming the *ielectric properties of the
material insi*e the ca+le *o not vary apprecia+ly over the operating range of the ca+le
this impe*ance is fre6uency in*epen*ent.
$apacitance in fara*s per meter.
Resistance in ohms per mere.
'ttenuation or loss in *eci+els per mere. %his is *epen*ent on the loss in the
*ielectric material filling the ca+le an* resistive losses in the center con*uctor an* shiel*.
%hese losses are fre6uency *epen*ent the losses +ecoming higher as the fre6uency
increases. In *esigning a system engineers must consi*er not only the loss in the actual
ca+le itself +ut also the insertion loss in the connectors.
;utsi*e *iameter &hich *ictates &hich connectors must +e use* to terminate the
ca+lec
)elocity of propagation &hich *epen*s on the type of *ielectric.
$utoff fre6uency

CHAPTER-6
DESIGN, TESTS AND RESULTS

6.1 MICROSTRIP ANTENNA DESIGN STEPS
3enerally copper is use* for +oth the groun* plane an* the strip.
'ir is use* as the *ielectric material
;ur resonant fre6uency is /.0>3?: # >.A,F>3?:
9irstly the height of the elements from the groun* plane is *etermine* &hich is e6ual
to the su+strata height.
%hereafter &e fin* the length an* &i*th of the elements.
7e get the value of total length so &e have to *ivi*e +y /to gate original value.
7e also nee* to fin* the strip &i*th an* groun* plane &i*th.
%he formulas for the length &i*th effective length an* the length an* &i*th of the
groun* plane are as follo&s.
6.2 IMPORTANT FORMULAS FOR ELEMENT DESIGN:


Step 1
9or an efficient ra*iator a practical &i*th is
W 1 \2 c \2 30 ` \2
2fr\ 0c0 c r +1 2fr c r +1 2 Fr (GHz) c r +1
7here c @ spee* of light in free space
9r @ fre6uency in ?:
Width of ground plane is get by
W
g
5` W
Step 2
Determine the effective *ielectric constant
Ee .cr + 1 + cr + 1 1 + 12 h]-1/2
2 2 W
7here h @ thickness of the su+strate
& @ 7i*th of strip line
Step 3
%he actual length is
L g 0
2 \ Ee
7here "e @ effective *ielectric constant
Q1 @ c< fr

9r @ central fre6uency of antenna
Step 4
%1 calculate length of short
L
s
L/2
Step 5
$alculation of re6uire* num+er of elements
G eD
7here e@ efficiency factor ?ere it is .
D @ *irectivity
D 4nnd
2n
Step 6
%1 calculate length of ca+le
L
w
.7`
B., CALCULATIONS RESULT
i. )

Range of fre6uency 9: /.011 /.>11 3?:
Design fre6uency 9c

/.0>3?:
DIMENSIONS
Length of strip line L ,,.0mm
Length of the groun* Lg ,,.0mm
Length of short strip Ls .B.Fmm
Length of &ire L& A>.BAmm
:
7i*th of the strip 7 ..>-0>mm
7i*th of the groun* plane 7
g
F.-F/>mm
\o. of element re6uire* \ ,1
Dielectric material: 9R0 2"
r
@0.0, "
e
@,.,>5
%hickness of the P$B: h @..>Fmm
ii. )
Range of fre6uency 9: >.A11 ( >.AF>3?:
Design fre6uency 9
c
: >.A,F>3?:
DIMENSIONS
Length of strip line L .0.0Fmm
Length of the groun* L .0.0Fmm
Length of short strip Ls F./,>mm
Length of &ire L& ,>.-F,mm
7i*th of the strip 7 1.BB-.mm
7i*th of the groun* plane 7
g
,.,0>>mm

\o. of element \ ,1
Dielectric material: 9R0 2"
r
@0.0, "
e
@,..>5
%hickness of the P$B: h @ 1.Amm
6.4 TESTING OF AN ANTENNA
6.4.1 TESTING REQUIREMENTS
%here are certain +asic re6uirements that nee* to +e fulfille* +efore &e can start testing an
antenna. %hese are as follo&s:
1. The line of sight (LOS) must be clear.
2. There should be no obstacles between the antennas.
3. The height of the antennas should be appropriate.
4. The distance between the antennas should be greater than 10.
5. The surroundings should be clear so as not to provide any interference.
6.4.2 TYPES OF TEST.
VSWR/Return Loss
Gain
Beam width
Front to back ratio.
6.4.3 INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
1. signal generator
2. spectrum analyzer
3. return loss bridge(Directional Coupler)

4. standard dipoles
5. low loss cables
6. antenna stand
SPECTRUM ANALYZER

RETURN LOSS BRIDGE
6.4.4 VSWR/ RETURN LOSS TEST
SETUP OF RETURN LOSS TESTS
PROCEDURE
$onnect the test e6uipment as sho&n in the figure.
keep the test port open
fee* the specific fre6uency s&eep through the signal generator
select the same fre6uency +an* on the spectrum analy:er
a*just the reference level
connect the test port to antenna un*er test
Measure the reflection &ith reference to reference level it shoul* +e as per specifie*.
6.4.5 GAIN TEST

SET UP FOR GAIN TEST OF ANTENNA.
PROCEDURE
Make set up as sho&n in figure.
Zeep the antenna un*er test as transmitter an* the stan*ar* *ipole as
receiver at the appropriate height. Zeep center of antenna un*er test
Measure the ca+le loss +y joining +oth the ca+les.
transmit 1*B level at re6uire* center fre6uency of +an*
optimi:e the receiving level
note the rea*ing on the spectrum analy:er
$alculating 9ree !pace Loss 29!L5.
FSL 4nR /
7here R is the *istance +et&een the t&o antennas in meters.
e is &avelength of re6uire* fre6uency in meters.
$heck ca+le loss of transmitter antenna an* tfreceiver antenna transmitter
an* receiver ca+le
Put all varia+le formula.
GAIN FSL + cable loss - transmitter level + receiver level - transmitter antenna
R9 ;4% R9 I\
DI!%'\$" B"%7""\ %?" %7; '\%"\\'!
'\%"\\' . '\%"\\' /
%ransmitter
Receiver

6.4.6 BEAM WIDTH
PROCEDURE
Place the antenna un*er test on such a stan* that it can +e move*
hori:ontally i.e. on the hori:ontal plane.
Zeep the antenna un*er test as transmitter an* the stan*ar* *ipole as
receiver at the appropriate height. Zeep center of antenna un*er test
measure the ca+le loss +y joining +oth the ca+les
transmit 1*B level at re6uire* center fre6uency of +an*
optimi:e the receiving level
\ote the optimum rea*ing.
'fter that rotate the antenna on one si*e from the center until a ,*B
*ifference from the optimum rea*ing is o+taine*.
!imilarly repeat this process on the other si*e of the center of the antenna.
%he rotation of the antenna is measure* in *egrees.
%his ,*B *o&n rea*ings of rotation of the antenna is the +eam &i*th of the
antenna in *egrees.
6.4.7 FRONT TO BACK RATIO:
PROCEDURE
Place the antenna un*er test on such a stan* that it can +e move* hori:ontally i.e. on the
hori:ontal plane.
Zeep the antenna un*er test as transmitter an* the stan*ar* *ipole as receiver at the
appropriate height. Zeep center of antenna un*er test
measure the ca+le loss +y joining +oth the ca+les
transmit 1*B level at re6uire* center fre6uency of +an*
optimi:e the receiving level

\ote the optimum rea*ing.
Rotate the antenna to .A1g.
%his rea*ing is the rea*ing of front to +ack ratio of the antenna un*er test.
the front to +ack ratio shoul* +e appro8imately
6.5 TEST RESULTS
Frequency(MHz): 2.400-2.500 5.800-5.875
Center Frequency 2.45GHz 5.8375GHz
Polarization: Linear, Vertical Linear, Vertical
Gain(dBd / dBi):
HPBW
Horizontal- 360
Vertical-8
Horizontal- 360
Vertical-8
Power Handling 100w 100w
Front-to-Back Ratio`(dB):
Connector
VSWR: 1.5:1 max 2:1 max
Impedance (Ohms): 50 50
Lightning Protection: DC Ground DC Ground
FREQUENCY (2.4 to 2.5)&(5.8 to 5.875)GHz
;ur antennas &orks in I!M B'\D on t&o fre6uencies.
/.0(/.> 3?: an* >.A(>.AF> 3?:
$entre fre6enies(/.0> # >.A,F 3?:
POLARIZATION (Linear, Vertical)

In omni micro strip antenna to get Pattern &hich is ,B1 *egree &ith
respect to the hori:ontal reference.
7hen &e &ant ra*iation pattern in vertical. 't that time &e put antenna. In
hori:ontal *irection. !o it is parallel &ith respect to the hori:ontal reference.
%hese fee* points &ill +e put at one of the short.
%he &ire is connecte* at short point .FTQ for impe*ance matching.
Polari:ation *epen*s on orientation of the ra*iating element.
POLARIZATION & RADIATION PATTERNS
HORIZONTAL

VERTICAL
GAIN
3ain is al&ays measure* at the resonant fre6uency.
: elements provi*e , *Bi gain in our case.
In or*er to achieve .B *Bi gain &e re6uire* ,1 elements +ut &hich
re6uire* special machines for process so &e test for .1 an* .0 *Bi an* successive in that
so assuming *esign &ill give *esire* result.
BEAMWIDTH
':imuth @ ,B1 a
"levation @ Aa
7e have to keep the antenna un*er test as transmitter an* the stan*ar* *ipole as receiver
at the appropriate height. Zeep center of antenna un*er test
%hen transmit 1*B level at re6uire* center fre6uency of +an*

%here after that rotate the antenna on one si*e from the center until a ,1hC *egree
*ifference from the optimum rea*ing is o+taine*.
Repeat this process on the other si*e of the center of the antenna.
%his ,1h *egree *o&n rea*ings of rotation of the antenna is the +eam &i*th of the antenna
in *egrees.
FRONT to BACK RATIO
\ormally after measuring the gain of an antenna &ith respect to other
reference antenna the antenna is rotate* at .A1 *egrees &ith respect to its normal
position.
%he rea*ing that is o+taine* at this position is calle* as 9R;\% %;
B'$Z R'%I; 29BR5.
9ront(to(+ack ratio is a measure of the ra*iation intensity at the +ack of
a *irectional 2+ack lo+e5.
%he front(to(+ack ratio of an antenna is *efine* as the ratio of the
po&er transmitte* in 2or receive* from5 the main +eam of the antenna to the po&er
transmitte* in 2or receive* from5 the +ack lo+e.
7hen the principal plane pattern is plotte* on a relative *B scale the
front(to(+ack ratio is the *ifference 2in *B5 +et&een the level of the main +eam an* the
level of the +ack lo+e.
In general the level of the +ack lo+e is taken as the ma8imum level in
a *irection .A1 i<( ,1 *egrees from the *irection of ma8imum ra*iation.
SWR / RETURN LOSS
Return loss is measure* &ithin the fre6uencies in &hich the antenna performs
satisfactorily.
%he start fre6uency is /.0>3?: an* the stop fre6uency is >.A,F>3?:.
%he Return loss shoul* +e a+ove (.>*B in our case an* &e coul* achieve it.
%he main parameter that affects the return loss < )!7R of elements is the height
of the elements &ith respect to the groun* plane on &hich it is +ase*.

7e coul* achieve the *esire* return loss < )!7R +y varying the height of the
elements from the groun*.
In our case &e coul* o+tain the result at the height of *ie electric su+strates is ..>F
mm for /.0>3?: center fre6uency A mm for >.A,F> 3?: center fre6uency
7e got (.A*B return loss &hich is a goo* test result.
IMPEDANCE (50 O)
%he most important parameter in or*er to *esign the matching net&ork or the strip line
net&ork is the input impe*ance.
7i*th of the strip line is the *eci*ing factor to suffice an input impe*ance of >1 ohms.
%he length of the strip line is *eci*e* accor*ing to lam+*a or center fre6uency.
Input impe*ance is applie* through co(a8ial ca+le an* \(female connectors connecte* to
a P$B +eneath the groun* plane of the antenna containing all the eight patches.
INPUT POWER (100 watts)

%he matching net&ork of the antenna as a &hole shoul* +e a+le to &ithstan* input po&er
of .11 &atts.
LIGHTNING PROTECTION (dc ground)
D$ groun* is achieve* +y provi*ing a common groun* to the antenna +y attaching or
mounting it on a high to&er &hich is groun*e* to the earth.
'ntenna manufacturers are often aske* a+out lightning an* &hether their antenna is
lightning proof. %his is not a simple 6uestion to ans&er. In this application note &e &ill
attempt to *escri+e some of the statistical properties of lightning strikes an* give some
recommen*ations on ho& to +est protect your installation from *amage *ue to a lightning
strike.
It is important to point out at the start that lightning protection is primarily a function of
ho& much time an* money you are &illing to spen*. ;+viously the more e8pensive the
ra*io an* the importance of system connectivity the more ro+ust your protection shoul*
+e.
FOR VARIOUS GAIN
7e trie* the *esign of manually ma*e antenna for various gains as A *Bi an* .1 *Bi an*
&e got goo* result for that.
7e got -..0 *Bi gain +y antenna *esign for .1 *Bi an* returnloss is .A *B &hich again
goo* result for any antenna.
9rom the antenna *esign for A *Bi &e got F.> *Bi gain an* return loss .B *B.



CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE
EXPANTION

%his Report intro*uce* an* investigate* a novel concept in the
*evelopment of
;mni microstrip antennas using 9R0. ?ere &e foun* this antenna *esign is
very useful in many applications an* in this the pro+lem of phase shift has
+een solve*. %his antenna is having lo& fa+rication coast less la+orious an*
very less time consuming.
During project &ork &e *one manually *esign for A an* .1 *Bi an* &e
foun* success in that an* then *o the processe* pc+ for .0 *Bi +ecause lack of
machines of process for .B *Bi.
7ith this project &e have conclu*e* that the microstrip *esign can give
accurate result as collinear omni antenna an* mass pro*uction is easy yet if &e
go from the a+ove ./(.0 *Bi gain the *esign &ill +e more complicate*
+ecause on increasing num+er of elements up to certain level &e can not
increase the gain .there it +ecomes stea*y.
In future if &e use other *ielectric materials rather than 9R0 may &e
&ill get the *esire* result &hich is not possi+le &ith 9R0.


BIBLIOGRAPHY
WEBSITES:
www.andrew.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.amccenturion.com/home/pdf/wpFomniFwireless.pd
&&&.rf*esign.com
&&&.arraycom.com
&&&.iee.com
www.howstuffworks.com
www.iec.com
www.electronics!manaufacturers.com
www.antennahouse.com
&&&.&&&.e*a+oar*.com
&&&.&&&.rfcafe.com
&&&.&&&.micro&aves.1..com
&&&.&&&.ec.ucla.e*u
&&&.&&&.rock&ell.com
&&&.&&&.rogerscorporation.com
&&&.&&&.tektrioni8.com
&&&.&&&.ieee.org
&&&.ma8com.com
&&&.synegym&ave.com
&&&.m&office.com
&&&.emtalk.com

BOOKS:
23T;332 for all applications
- G.4.Hrauss, &onald G. -arhefka.
-icrostrip and printed antenna design
- &andy ,ancroft.

APPENDIX
TABLE OF FIGURES
FIGURE-1 FORMATION OF SURFACE WAVE..........3
FIGURE-2.1 THE LAW OF RECIPROCITY...........6
FIGURE-2.2 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.......6
FIGURE-2.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF POLARIZATION .......8
FIGURE-3.1 DIRECTION OF RADIATION.............12
FIGURE-3.2 TYPICAL GEOMETRY OF
A MICROSTRIP ANTENNA....................16
Figure-3.3 COMMON APPROCHES TO THE DESIGN
AN OMNI MICROSTRIP ANTENNA ...............18
Figure-3.4 RADIATION PATTERN OF
5 ELEMENT COCO ANTENNA..................20
Figure-3.5 RECTENGULAR PLOT OF FIG-3.4...........24
Figure-3.6 RADIATION PATTERN OF COCO(2.45GHz).......27
Figure-3.6 GEOMETRY OF OMA..................28
Figure-3.7 ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT IN
OMNI ICRO STRIP LINE.....................30
Figure-3.8 MESURED RADIATION PATTERN OF OMA........32
Figure-3.9 FUNDAMENTALS OF STRIP LINE............34
Figure-3.10 MICRO STRIP LINE................... 36
Figure-3.11 A WIRE OVER GRD LINE...............40
Figure-4.1 Er Vs FREQUENCY ...................43

Figure-4.2 Er Vs GLASS TO RASIN RATIO FOR FR4.........46
Figure-4.3 Glass Transition Temperature Curves for Various PCB Laminates
Figure-4.4, Ethernet Eye Diagrams Showing Losses in 18 Long 2.4 Gigabit Links Using
Four Types of Dielectric Materials. Courtesy of AMP Packaging Systems

FIGURE-5.1 COAXIAL CABLE...................58
FIGURE-5.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF COAXIAL CONNECTORS....59
FIGURE-5.3 TORQUE OF TIGHTENING CONNECTORS......62
FIGURE-5.4 SMA CONNECTORS..................65
FIGURE -6.1 SPECTRUM ANALYZER...............69
FIGURE-6.2 RETURN LOSS BRIDGE................72
FIGURE -6.3 SETUP OF RETURN LOSS TESTS...........78
FIGURE-6.4 SET UP FOR GAIN TEST OF ANTENNA........80
FIGURE-6.5 RESULT TAKEN FROM TESTING...........82
FIGURE-6.6 REDIATION PATTERNS................84
FIGURE-6.7 RETURN LOSS MEASUREMENT............85