2.

9 Pseudotensors, Dual Tensors 149

Irreducible Tensors
For some applications, particularly in the quantumtheory of angular momentum, our Carte-
sian tensors are not particularly convenient. In mathematical language our general second-
rank tensor A
ij
is reducible, which means that it can be decomposed into parts of lower
tensor rank. In fact, we have already done this. From Eq. (2.78),
A=A
i
i
(2.108)
is a scalar quantity, the trace of A
ij
.
19
The antisymmetric portion,
B
ij
=
1
2
(A
ij
A
ji
), (2.109)
has just been shown to be equivalent to a (pseudo) vector, or
B
ij
=C
k
cyclic permutation of i, j, k. (2.110)
By subtracting the scalar A and the vector C
k
from our original tensor, we have an irre-
ducible, symmetric, zero-trace second-rank tensor, S
ij
, in which
S
ij
=
1
2
(A
ij
+A
ji
)
1
3
A
ij
, (2.111)
with ve independent components. Then, nally, our original Cartesian tensor may be writ-
ten
A
ij
=
1
3
A
ij
+C
k
+S
ij
. (2.112)
The three quantities A, C
k
, and S
ij
form spherical tensors of rank 0, 1, and 2, respec-
tively, transforming like the spherical harmonics Y
M
L
(Chapter 12) for L = 0, 1, and 2.
Further details of such spherical tensors and their uses will be found in Chapter 4 and the
books by Rose and Edmonds cited there.
A specic example of the preceding reduction is furnished by the symmetric electric
quadrupole tensor
Q
ij
=

3x
i
x
j
r
2

ij

(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) d
3
x.
The r
2

ij
term represents a subtraction of the scalar trace (the three i = j terms). The
resulting Q
ij
has zero trace.
Exercises
2.9.1 An antisymmetric square array is given by

0 C
3
C
2
C
3
0 C
1
C
2
C
1
0

0 C
12
C
13
C
12
0 C
23
C
13
C
23
0

,
19
An alternate approach, using matrices, is given in Section 3.3 (see Exercise 3.3.9).
150 Chapter 2 Vector Analysis in Curved Coordinates and Tensors
where (C
1
, C
2
, C
3
) form a pseudovector. Assuming that the relation
C
i
=
1
2!

ijk
C
jk
holds in all coordinate systems, prove that C
jk
is a tensor. (This is another form of the
quotient theorem.)
2.9.2 Show that the vector product is unique to three-dimensional space; that is, only in three
dimensions can we establish a one-to-one correspondence between the components of
an antisymmetric tensor (second-rank) and the components of a vector.
2.9.3 Show that in R
3
(a)
ii
=3,
(b)
ij

ijk
=0,
(c)
ipq

jpq
=2
ij
,
(d)
ijk

ijk
=6.
2.9.4 Show that in R
3

ijk

pqk
=
ip

jq

iq

jp
.
2.9.5 (a) Express the components of a cross-product vector C, C=AB, in terms of
ijk
and the components of A and B.
(b) Use the antisymmetry of
ijk
to show that A AB =0.
ANS. (a) C
i
=
ijk
A
j
B
k
.
2.9.6 (a) Show that the inertia tensor (matrix) may be written
I
ij
=m(x
i
x
j

ij
x
i
x
j
)
for a particle of mass m at (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
).
(b) Show that
I
ij
=M
il
M
lj
=m
ilk
x
k

ljm
x
m
,
where M
il
=m
1/2

ilk
x
k
. This is the contraction of two second-rank tensors and is
identical with the matrix product of Section 3.2.
2.9.7 Write A and in tensor (index) notation in R
3
so that it becomes obvious
that each expression vanishes.
ANS. A =
ijk

x
i

x
j
A
k
,
()
i
=
ijk

x
j

x
k
.
2.9.8 Expressing cross products in terms of Levi-Civita symbols (
ijk
), derive the BACCAB
rule, Eq. (1.55).
Hint. The relation of Exercise 2.9.4 is helpful.
2.10 General Tensors 151
2.9.9 Verify that each of the following fourth-rank tensors is isotropic, that is, that it has the
same form independent of any rotation of the coordinate systems.
(a) A
ijkl
=
ij

kl
,
(b) B
ijkl
=
ik

jl
+
il

jk
,
(c) C
ijkl
=
ik

jl

il

jk
.
2.9.10 Show that the two-index Levi-Civita symbol
ij
is a second-rank pseudotensor (in two-
dimensional space). Does this contradict the uniqueness of
ij
(Exercise 2.6.4)?
2.9.11 Represent
ij
by a 2 2 matrix, and using the 2 2 rotation matrix of Section 3.3 show
that
ij
is invariant under orthogonal similarity transformations.
2.9.12 Given A
k
=
1
2

ijk
B
ij
with B
ij
=B
ji
, antisymmetric, show that
B
mn
=
mnk
A
k
.
2.9.13 Show that the vector identity
(AB) (CD) =(A C)(B D) (A D)(B C)
(Exercise 1.5.12) follows directly from the description of a cross product with
ijk
and
the identity of Exercise 2.9.4.
2.9.14 Generalize the cross product of two vectors to n-dimensional space for n = 4, 5, . . . .
Check the consistency of your construction and discuss concrete examples. See Exer-
cise 1.4.17 for the case n =2.
2.10 GENERAL TENSORS
The distinction between contravariant and covariant transformations was established in
Section 2.6. Then, for convenience, we restricted our attention to Cartesian coordinates
(in which the distinction disappears). Now in these two concluding sections we return to
non-Cartesian coordinates and resurrect the contravariant and covariant dependence. As in
Section 2.6, a superscript will be used for an index denoting contravariant and a subscript
for an index denoting covariant dependence. The metric tensor of Section 2.1 will be used
to relate contravariant and covariant indices.
The emphasis in this section is on differentiation, culminating in the construction of
the covariant derivative. We saw in Section 2.7 that the derivative of a vector yields a
second-rank tensor in Cartesian coordinates. In non-Cartesian coordinate systems, it is
the covariant derivative of a vector rather than the ordinary derivative that yields a second-
rank tensor by differentiation of a vector.
Metric Tensor
Let us start with the transformation of vectors from one set of coordinates (q
1
, q
2
, q
3
)
to another r = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
). The new coordinates are (in general nonlinear) functions