3D printing or additive manufacturing[1] (AM) is any of various processes for

making a three-dimensional o!ect of almost any shape from a 3D model or

other electronic data source primarily through additive processes in "hich
successive layers of material are laid do"n under computer control#[$] A 3D
printer is a type of industrial root#
%arly AM e&uipment and materials "ere developed in the 1'()s#[3] *n 1'(+,
-huck .ull of 3D /ystems -orporation,[+] invented a process kno"n as
stereolithography employing 01 lasers to cure photopolymers# .ull also
developed the /23 4le format "idely accepted y 3D printing soft"are, as
"ell as the digital slicing and in4ll strategies common to many processes
today# Also during the 1'()s, the metal sintering forms of AM "ere eing
developed (such as selective laser sintering and direct metal laser sintering),
although they "ere not yet called 3D printing or AM at the time# *n 1''), the
plastic e5trusion technology most "idely associated "ith the term 63D
printing6 "as commerciali7ed y /tratasys under the name fused deposition
modeling (8DM)# *n 1''9, : -orporation commerciali7ed an M*2-developed
additive process under the trademark 3D printing (3D;), referring at that time
to a proprietary process ink!et deposition of li&uid inder on po"der#
AM technologies found applications starting in the 1'()s in product
development, data visuali7ation, rapid prototyping, and speciali7ed
manufacturing# 2heir e5pansion into production (!o production, mass
production, and distriuted manufacturing) has een under development in
the decades since# *ndustrial production roles "ithin the metal"orking
industries[9] achieved signi4cant scale for the 4rst time in the early $)1)s#
/ince the start of the $1st century there has een a large gro"th in the sales
of AM machines, and their price has dropped sustantially#[<] According to
=ohlers Associates, a consultancy, the market for 3D printers and services
"as "orth >$#$ illion "orld"ide in $)1$, up $'? from $)11#[@] Applications
are many, including architecture, construction (A%-), industrial design,
automotive, aerospace, military, engineering, dental and medical industries,
iotech (human tissue replacement), fashion, foot"ear, !e"elry, eye"ear,
education, geographic information systems, food, and many other 4elds#
*n $))9, a rapidly e5panding hoyist and home-use market "as estalished
"ith the inauguration of the open-source AepAap and 8aB.ome pro!ects#
1irtually all home-use 3D printers released to-date have their technical roots
in the on-going AepAap ;ro!ect and associated open-source soft"are
initiatives#[(] *n distriuted manufacturing, one study has found['] 3D
printing could ecome a mass market product enaling consumers to save
money associated "ith purchasing common household o!ects#[1)] 8or
e5ample, instead of going to a store to uy an o!ect made in a factory y
in!ection molding (such as a measuring cup or a funnel), a person might
instead print it at home from a do"nloaded 3D model#2he term 3D printing
originally referred to a process employing standard and custom ink!et print
heads# 2he technology used y most so-called 3D printers to dateCespecially
hoyist and consumer-oriented modelsCis fused deposition modeling, a
special application of plastic e5trusion# 2he term stereolithography "as
de4ned y -harles =# .ull as a 6system for generating three-dimensional
o!ects y creating a cross-sectional pattern of the o!ect to e formed6Cin a
1'(+ patent#[11][1$]
AM processes for metal sintering or melting (such as /3/, DM3/, /3M, and
%DM) usually "ent y their o"n individual names in the 1'()s and 1'')s#
Eearly all metal"orking production at the time "as y casting, farication,
stamping, and machiningF even though plenty of automation "as applied to
those technologies (such as y root "elding and -E-), the paradigm of a
tool or head moving through a 3D "ork envelope transforming a mass of ra"
material into a desired shape layer y layer "as the sole domain of processes
that removed metal (rather than adding it), such as -E- milling, -E- %DM,
and many others# 2he umrella term additive manufacturing gained "ider
currency in the decade of the $)))s[13] as the various additive processes
matured and it ecame clear that soon metal removal "ould no longer e the
sole occupant of the aforementioned paradigm# *t "as during this decade that
the term sutractive manufacturing appeared as a retronym for the large
family of machining processes "ith metal removal as their common theme#
.o"ever, at the time, the term 3D printing still referred only to the polymer
technologies in most minds, and the term AM "as likelier to e used in
metal"orking conte5ts than among polymerGink!etGstereolithography
enthusiasts#
Dy the early $)1)s, the terms 3D printing and additive manufacturing
developed senses in "hich they "ere synonymous umrella terms for all AM
technologies# Although this "as a departure from their earlier technically
narro"er senses, it reHects the simple fact that the technologies all share the
common theme of se&uential-layer material additionG!oining throughout a 3D
"ork envelope under automated control# (Ither terms that have appeared,
"hich are usually used as AM synonyms (although sometimes as hypernyms),
have een desktop manufacturing, rapid manufacturing [as the logical
production-level successor to rapid prototyping], and on-demand
manufacturing ["hich echoes on-demand printing in the $D sense of
printing]#) 2he $)1)s "ere the 4rst decade in "hich metal parts such as
engine rackets[1+] and large nuts[19] "ould e gro"n (either efore or
instead of machining) in !o production rather than oligately eing
machined from ar stock or plate# 2he term sutractive has not replaced the
term machining, instead complementing it "hen a term that covers any
removal method is needed#
Jeneral principles[edit]
3D model slicing
Modeling[edit]
Main articleK 3D modeling
3D printale models may e created "ith a computer aided design package
or via 3D scanner# 2he manual modelling process of preparing geometric data
for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting# 3D
scanning is a process of analysing and collecting digital data on the shape
and appearance of a real o!ect# Dased on this data, three-dimensional
models of the scanned o!ect can then e produced#
Doth manual and automatic creation of 3D printale models is diLcult for
average consumers# 2his is "hy several 3D printing marketplaces have
emerged over the last years# Among the most popular are /hape"ays,
2hingiverse, MyMini8actory and 2hreeding[1<][1@][1(][1'][$)][$1][$$]
;rinting[edit]
Defore printing a 3D model from an /23 4le, it must 4rst e processed y a
piece of soft"are called a 6slicer6 "hich converts the model into a series of
thin layers and produces a J-code 4le containing instructions tailored to a
speci4c printer# /everal open source slicer programs e5ist, including
/keinforge, /lic3r, M*//licer, and -ura#
2he 3D printer follo"s the J-code instructions to lay do"n successive layers
of li&uid, po"der, paper or sheet material to uild the model from a series of
cross sections# 2hese layers, "hich correspond to the virtual cross sections
from the -AD model, are !oined or automatically fused to create the 4nal
shape# 2he primary advantage of this techni&ue is its aility to create almost
any shape or geometric feature#
;rinter resolution descries layer thickness and N-O resolution in dots per inch
(dpi) or micrometres (Pm)# 2ypical layer thickness is around 1)) Pm ($9)
D;*), although some machines such as the I!et -onne5 series and 3D
/ystemsQ ;roRet series can print layers as thin as 1< Pm (1,<)) D;*)#[$3] N-O
resolution is comparale to that of laser printers# 2he particles (3D dots) are
around 9) to 1)) Pm (91) to $9) D;*) in diameter#
-onstruction of a model "ith contemporary methods can take any"here from
several hours to several days, depending on the method used and the si7e
and comple5ity of the model# Additive systems can typically reduce this time
to a fe" hours, although it varies "idely depending on the type of machine
used and the si7e and numer of models eing produced simultaneously#
2raditional techni&ues like in!ection moulding can e less e5pensive for
manufacturing polymer products in high &uantities, ut additive
manufacturing can e faster, more He5ile and less e5pensive "hen
producing relatively small &uantities of parts# 3D printers give designers and
concept development teams the aility to produce parts and concept models
using a desktop si7e printer#
8inishing[edit]
2hough the printer-produced resolution is suLcient for many applications,
printing a slightly oversi7ed version of the desired o!ect in standard
resolution and then removing material[$+] "ith a higher-resolution
sutractive process can achieve greater precision# As "ith the 30M%N Avance-
$9 [3] and other machines slated for *M2/ $)1+ *M2/ ;ress Aelease S
*nternational Manufacturing 2echnology /ho"
/ome additive manufacturing techni&ues are capale of using multiple
materials in the course of constructing parts# /ome are ale to print in
multiple colours and color cominations simultaneously# /ome also utilise
supports "hen uilding# /upports are removale or dissolvale upon
completion of the print, and are used to support overhanging features during
construction#
;rocesses[edit]
Aapid prototyping "orld"ide $))1[$9]
2he Audi A/T "as made "ith rapid prototyping industrial M0MA roots
/everal diUerent 3D printing processes have een invented since the late
1'@)s# 2he printers "ere originally large, e5pensive, and highly limited in
"hat they could produce#[3]
A large numer of additive processes are no" availale# 2hey diUer in the
"ay layers are deposited to create parts and in the materials that can e
used# /ome methods melt or soften material to produce the layers, e#g#
selective laser melting (/3M) or direct metal laser sintering (DM3/), selective
laser sintering (/3/), fused deposition modelling (8DM), "hile others cure
li&uid materials using diUerent sophisticated technologies, e#g#
stereolithography (/3A)# =ith laminated o!ect manufacturing (3IM), thin
layers are cut to shape and !oined together (e#g# paper, polymer, metal)# %ach
method has its o"n advantages and dra"acks, and some companies
conse&uently oUer a choice et"een po"der and polymer for the material
from "hich the o!ect is uilt#[$<] /ome companies use standard, oU-the-
shelf usiness paper as the uild material to produce a durale prototype#
2he main considerations in choosing a machine are generally speed, cost of
the 3D printer, cost of the printed prototype, and cost and choice of materials
and color capailities#[$@]
;rinters that "ork directly "ith metals are e5pensive# *n some cases,
ho"ever, less e5pensive printers can e used to make a mould, "hich is then
used to make metal parts#[$(]
2ype 2echnologiesMaterials
%5trusion 8used deposition modelling (8DM) 2hermoplastics (e#g# ;3A,
AD/), .D;%, eutectic metals, edile materials, Auer (/ugru), Modelling clay,
;lasticine, A21 silicone, ;orcelain, Metal clay (including ;recious Metal -lay)
=ire %lectron Deam 8reeform 8arication (%D83) Almost any metal alloy
Jranular Direct metal laser sintering (DM3/) Almost any metal alloy
%lectron-eam melting (%DM) Almost any metal alloy including 2itanium
alloys
/elective laser melting (/3M) 2itanium alloys, -oalt -hrome alloys,
/tainless /teel, Aluminium
/elective heat sintering (/./) [$'] 2hermoplastic po"der
/elective laser sintering (/3/) 2hermoplastics, metal po"ders, ceramic
po"ders
;o"der ed and ink!et head 3D printing ;laster-ased 3D printing (;;)
;laster
3aminated 3aminated o!ect manufacturing (3IM) ;aper, metal foil,
plastic 4lm
3ight polymerised /tereolithography (/3A) photopolymer
Digital 3ight ;rocessing (D3;) photopolymer
%5trusion deposition[edit]
8used deposition modellingK 1 V no77le e!ecting molten plastic, $ V deposited
material (modeled part), 3 V controlled movale tale
Main articleK 8used deposition modeling
8used deposition modelling (8DM) "as developed y /# /cott -rump in the
late 1'()s and "as commercialised in 1'') y /tratasys#[3)] =ith the
e5piration of the patent on this technology there is no" a large open-source
development community, as "ell as commercial and D*O variants, "hich
utilise this type of 3D printer# 2his has led to a t"o orders of magnitude price
drop since this technologyQs creation#
*n fused deposition modelling the model or part is produced y e5truding
small eads of material "hich harden immediately to form layers# A
thermoplastic 4lament or metal "ire that is "ound on a coil is unreeled to
supply material to an e5trusion no77le head# 2he no77le head heats the
material and turns the Ho" on and oU# 2ypically stepper motors or servo
motors are employed to move the e5trusion head and ad!ust the Ho" and the
head can e moved in oth hori7ontal and vertical directions# -ontrol of this
mechanism is typically done y a computer-aided manufacturing (-AM)
soft"are package running on a microcontroller#
1arious polymers are used, including acrylonitrile utadiene styrene (AD/),
polycaronate (;-), polylactic acid (;3A), high density polyethylene (.D;%),
;-GAD/, and polyphenylsulfone (;;/0)# *n general the polymer is in the form
of a 4lament, faricated from virgin resins# Multiple pro!ects in the open-
source community e5ist that are aimed at processing post-consumer plastic
"aste into 4lament# 2hese involve machines to shred and e5trude the plastic
material into 4lament#
8DM has some restrictions on the shapes that may e faricated# 8or
e5ample, 8DM usually cannot produce stalactite-like structures, since they
"ould e unsupported during the uild# 2hese have to e avoided or a thin
support may e designed into the structure "hich can e roken a"ay during
4nishing#
Jranular materials inding[edit]
2he -andy8a granular printing system uses heated air and granulated sugar
to produce food-grade art o!ects
Another 3D printing approach is the selective fusing of materials in a granular
ed# 2he techni&ue fuses parts of the layer, and then moves the "orking area
do"n"ards, adding another layer of granules and repeating the process until
the piece has uilt up# 2his process uses the unfused media to support
overhangs and thin "alls in the part eing produced, "hich reduces the need
for temporary au5iliary supports for the piece# A laser is typically used to
sinter the media into a solid# %5amples include selective laser sintering (/3/),
"ith oth metals and polymers (e#g# ;A, ;A-J8, Aigid J8, ;%%M, ;/, Alumide,
-aronmide, elastomers), and direct metal laser sintering (DM3/)#[31]
/elective 3aser /intering (/3/) "as developed and patented y Dr# -arl
Deckard and Dr# Roseph Deaman at the 0niversity of 2e5as at Austin in the
mid-1'()s, under sponsorship of DAA;A#[3$] A similar process "as patented
"ithout eing commercialised y A# 8# .ousholder in 1'@'#[33]
/elective 3aser Melting (/3M) does not use sintering for the fusion of po"der
granules ut "ill completely melt the po"der using a high-energy laser to
create fully dense materials in a layer"ise method "ith similar mechanical
properties to conventional manufactured metals#
%lectron eam melting (%DM) is a similar type of additive manufacturing
technology for metal parts (e#g# titanium alloys)# %DM manufactures parts y
melting metal po"der layer y layer "ith an electron eam in a high vacuum#
0nlike metal sintering techni&ues that operate elo" melting point, %DM
parts are fully dense, void-free, and very strong#[3+][39]
Another method consists of an ink!et 3D printing system# 2he printer creates
the model one layer at a time y spreading a layer of po"der (plaster, or
resins) and printing a inder in the cross-section of the part using an ink!et-
like process# 2his is repeated until every layer has een printed# 2his
technology allo"s the printing of full color prototypes, overhangs, and
elastomer parts# 2he strength of onded po"der prints can e enhanced "ith
"a5 or thermoset polymer impregnation#
3amination[edit]
Main articleK 3aminated o!ect manufacturing
*n some printers, paper can e used as the uild material, resulting in a lo"er
cost to print# During the 1'')s some companies marketed printers that cut
cross sections out of special adhesive coated paper using a caron dio5ide
laser, and then laminated them together#
*n $))9, Mcor 2echnologies 3td developed a diUerent process using ordinary
sheets of oLce paper, a 2ungsten caride lade to cut the shape, and
selective deposition of adhesive and pressure to ond the prototype#[3<]
2here are also a numer of companies selling printers that print laminated
o!ects using thin plastic and metal sheets#
;hotopolymeri7ation[edit]
/tereolithography apparatus
Main articleK /tereolithography
/tereolithography "as patented in 1'(< y -huck .ull#[3@]
;hotopolymeri7ation is primarily used in stereolithography (/3A) to produce a
solid part from a li&uid# 2his process dramatically rede4ned previous eUorts,
from the 6photosculpture6 method of 8ranWois =illXme (1(3)V1')9) in 1(<)
("hich consisted of photographing a su!ect from a variety of angles (ut all
at the same distance from the su!ect) and then pro!ecting each photograph
onto a screen, "hence a pantagraph "as used to trace the outline onto
modeling clay[3(][3'][+)]) through the photopolymerisation of MitsuishiQs
Matsuara in 1'@+#[+1]
*n photopolymerisation, a vat of li&uid polymer is e5posed to controlled
lighting under safelight conditions# 2he e5posed li&uid polymer hardens# 2he
uild plate then moves do"n in small increments and the li&uid polymer is
again e5posed to light# 2he process repeats until the model has een uilt#
2he li&uid polymer is then drained from the vat, leaving the solid model# 2he
%nvision2%- ;erfactory[+$] is an e5ample of a D3; rapid prototyping system#
*nk!et printer systems like the I!et ;olyRet system spray photopolymer
materials onto a uild tray in ultra-thin layers (et"een 1< and 3) Pm) until
the part is completed# %ach photopolymer layer is cured "ith 01 light after it
is !etted, producing fully cured models that can e handled and used
immediately, "ithout post-curing# 2he gel-like support material, "hich is
designed to support complicated geometries, is removed y hand and "ater
!etting# *t is also suitale for elastomers#
0ltra-small features can e made "ith the 3D microfarication techni&ue
used in multiphoton photopolymerisation# 2his approach traces the desired
3D o!ect in a lock of gel using a focused laser# Due to the nonlinear nature
of photoe5citation, the gel is cured to a solid only in the places "here the
laser "as focused and the remaining gel is then "ashed a"ay# 8eature si7es
of under 1)) nm are easily produced, as "ell as comple5 structures "ith
moving and interlocked parts#[+3]
Oet another approach uses a synthetic resin that is solidi4ed using 3%Ds#[++]
Mask-image-pro!ection-ased stereolithography[edit]
*n this techni&ue a 3D digital model is sliced y a set of hori7ontal planes#
%ach slice is converted into a t"o-dimensional mask image# 2he mask image
is then pro!ected onto a photocurale li&uid resin surface and light is
pro!ected onto the resin to cure it in the shape of the layer#[+9]
*n research systems, the light is pro!ected from elo", allo"ing the resin to
e &uickly spread into uniform thin layers, reducing production time from
hours to minutes#[+9]
2he techni&ue has een used to create o!ects composed of multiple
materials that cure at diUerent rates#[+9]
-ommercially availale devices such as I!et -onne5 apply the resin via
small no77les#[+9]
Dioprinting[edit]
Main articleK 3D ioprinting
2he medical applications of 3D ioprinting are numerous, and are thus the
su!ect of intensive research at academic institutions such as -ornell
0niversity and companies such as Irganovo# Aesearchers in the Ronathan
Dutcher 3aoratory at -ornell 0niversity have een developing methods to
ioprint living aortic heart valves#[+<] ;oly(ethylene glycol)-diacrylate
(;%JDA) is used as a ase polymer, ecause of its iocompatiility and easily
tunale mechanical properties#[+@] 2"o diUerent solutions of ;%JDA "ere
created "ith diUerent mechanical stiUnesses "hen crosslinked, "ith the
stiUer polymer to e used as the aortic root "all and the compliant polymer
to e used as the valve leaHets# 0sing these solutions, a valve e5hiiting
mechanical heterogeneity and cytocompatiility "as ioprinted, "hich "ill
serve as a ase for future development of the aortic valve printing process#
[+(]
2he 3a"rence Donassar 3aoratory at -ornell 0niversity has een "orking on
3D ioprinting cartilaginous geometries# Ine focus of their research involves
the replacement of interverteral disks "ith 2issue %ngineered-2otal Disk
Aeplacement constructs#[+'] 2issue engineered interverteral disks "ere
ioprinted "ith cell-seeded hydrogel constructs, and implanted into male
rats#
-ommercially, ;rinterinks, a 0M company, and Irganovo, a 0#/# company,
have "orked together to develop human tissue through 3D printing# ;rinter
cartridges are adapted to use stem cells otained from iopsies and gro"n in
cultures# 2he resulting sustance is called Dioink#[9)]
;rinters[edit]
*ndustry use[edit]
As of Ictoer $)1$, /tratasys, the result of a merger of an American and an
*sraeli company, no" sells additive manufacturing systems that range from
>$,))) to >9)),)))F Jeneral %lectric uses the high-end model to uild parts
for turines#[91]
-onsumer use[edit]
AepAap version $#) (Mendel)
MakerDot -upcake -E-
8ileK;rinting in progress in a 3D printer#"em
;rinting in progress in a 0ltimaker 3D printer during Mo7illa Maker party,
Dangalore
Air"olf 3D A=3D v#+ (;rusa)
/everal pro!ects and companies are making eUorts to develop aUordale 3D
printers for home desktop use# Much of this "ork has een driven y and
targeted at D*OGenthusiastGearly adopter communities, "ith additional ties to
the academic and hacker communities#[9$]
AepAap is one of the longest running pro!ects in the desktop category# 2he
AepAap pro!ect aims to produce a free and open source hard"are (8I/.) 3D
printer, "hose full speci4cations are released under the JE0 Jeneral ;ulic
3icense, and "hich is capale of replicating itself y printing many of its o"n
(plastic) parts to create more machines#[93][9+] AepAaps have already een
sho"n to e ale to print circuit oards[99] and metal parts#[9<][9@]
Decause of the 8I/. aims of AepAap, many related pro!ects have used their
design for inspiration, creating an ecosystem of related or derivative 3D
printers, most of "hich are also open source designs# 2he availaility of these
open source designs means that variants of 3D printers are easy to invent#
2he &uality and comple5ity of printer designs, ho"ever, as "ell as the &uality
of kit or 4nished products, varies greatly from pro!ect to pro!ect# 2his rapid
development of open source 3D printers is gaining interest in many spheres
as it enales hyper-customi7ation and the use of pulic domain designs to
faricate open source appropriate technology through conduits such as
2hingiverse and -uify# 2his technology can also assist initiatives in
sustainale development since technologies are easily and economically
made from resources availale to local communities#[9(][9']
2he cost of 3D printers has decreased dramatically since aout $)1), "ith
machines that used to cost >$),))) no" costing less than >1,)))#[<)] 8or
instance, as of $)13, several companies and individuals are selling parts to
uild various AepAap designs, "ith prices starting at aout Y+)) G 0/>9))#
[<1] 2he open source 8aB.ome pro!ect[<$] has developed printers for
general use "ith anything that can e s&uirted through a no77le, from
chocolate to silicone sealant and chemical reactants# ;rinters follo"ing the
pro!ectQs designs have een availale from suppliers in kits or in pre-
assemled form since $)1$ at prices in the 0/>$))) range#[<1] 2he
Mickstarter funded ;eachy ;rinter is designed to cost >1))[<3] and several
other ne" 3D printers are aimed at the small, ine5pensive market including
the m01e3D and 3umifold# Aapide 3D has designed a professional grade
cro"dsourced 3D-printer costing >1+'' "hich has no fumes nor constant
rattle during use#[<+] 2he 3Doodler, 63D printing pen6, raised >$#3 million on
Mickstarter "ith the pens selling at >'',[<9] though the 3D Doodler has een
criticised for eing more of a crafting pen than a 3D printer#[<<]
As the costs of 3D printers have come do"n they are ecoming more
appealing 4nancially to use for self-manufacturing of personal products#[1)]
*n addition, 3D printing products at home may reduce the environmental
impacts of manufacturing y reducing material use and distriution impacts#
[<@]
*n addition, several AecycleDots such as the commercialised 8ilastrucer have
een designed and faricated to convert "aste plastic, such as shampoo
containers and milk !ugs, into ine5pensive AepAap 4lament#[<(] 2here is
some evidence that using this approach of distriuted recycling is etter for
the environment#[<']
2he development and hyper-customi7ation of the AepAap-ased 3D printers
has produced a ne" category of printers suitale for small usiness and
consumer use# Manufacturers such as /olidoodle,[91] AoDo, and AepAap;ro
have introduced models and kits priced at less than >1,))), thousands less
than they "ere in /eptemer $)1$#[91] Depending on the application, the
print resolution and speed of manufacturing lies some"here et"een a
personal printer and an industrial printer# A list of printers "ith pricing and
other information is maintained#[<1] Most recently delta roots, like the
2ripodMaker, have een utilised for 3D printing to increase farication speed
further#[@)] 8or delta 3D printers, due to its geometry and diUerentiation
movements, the accuracy of the print depends on the position of the printer
head#[@1]
/ome companies are also oUering soft"are for 3D printing, as a support for
hard"are manufactured y other companies#[@$]
3arge 3D printers[edit]
3arge delta-style 3D printer
3arge 3D printers have een developed for industrial, education, and
demonstrative uses# A large delta-style 3D printer "as uild in $)1+ y
/eeMe-E-# 2he printer is capale of making an o!ect "ith diameter of up to
+ feet (1#$ m) and up to 1) feet (3#) m) in height# *t also uses plastic pellets
as the ra" material instead of the typical plastic 4laments used in other 3D
printers#[@3]
Another type of large printer is Dig Area Additive Manufacturing (DAAM)# 2he
goal is to develop printers that can produce a large o!ect in high speed# A
DAAM machine of -incinnati *ncorporated can produce an o!ect at the
speeds $))-9)) times faster than typical 3D printers availale in $)1+#
Another DAAM machine is eing developed y 3ockheed Martin "ith an aim
to print long o!ects of up to 1)) feet (3) m) to e used in aerospace
industries#[@+]
%Lciency[edit]
[icon] 2his section re&uires e5pansion# (Eovemer $)1$)
-artesio3DM; mass production 3Dprinter
2he current slo" print speed of 3D printers limits their use for mass
production# 2o reduce this overhead, several fused 4lament machines no"
oUer multiple e5truder heads# 2hese can e used to print in multiple colours,
"ith diUerent polymers, or to make multiple prints simultaneously# 2his
increases their overall print speed during multiple instance production, "hile
re&uiring less capital cost than duplicate machines since they can share a
single controller#
Distinct from the use of multiple machines, multi-material machines are
restricted to making identical copies of the same part, ut can oUer multi-
color and multi-material features "hen needed# 2he print speed increases
proportionately to the numer of heads# 8urthermore, the energy cost is
reduced due to the fact that they share the same heated print volume#
2ogether, these t"o features reduce overhead costs#
Many printers no" oUer t"in print heads# .o"ever, these are used to
manufacture single (sets of) parts in multiple coloursGmaterials#
8e" studies have yet een done in this 4eld to see if conventional sutractive
methods are comparale to additive methods#
Applications[edit]
An e5ample of 3D printed limited edition !e"ellery# 2his necklace is made of
glass4er-4lled dyed nylon# *t has rotating linkages that "ere produced in the
same manufacturing step as the other parts
Juardians of 2ime y Manfred Mielnhofer, 3D printing polished nickel steel y
/hape"ays $)1+
132 component created using 3D printing[@9]
;rinting 3D house pro!ect at Amsterdam
2hree-dimensional printing makes it as cheap to create single items as it is to
produce thousands and thus undermines economies of scale# *t may have as
profound an impact on the "orld as the coming of the factory did####Rust as
noody could have predicted the impact of the steam engine in 1@9)Cor the
printing press in 1+9), or the transistor in 1'9)Cit is impossile to foresee
the long-term impact of 3D printing# Dut the technology is coming, and it is
likely to disrupt every 4eld it touches#
C 2he %conomist, in a 8eruary 1), $)11 leader[@<]
Additive manufacturingQs earliest applications have een on the toolroom end
of the manufacturing spectrum# 8or e5ample, rapid prototyping "as one of
the earliest additive variants, and its mission "as to reduce the lead time and
cost of developing prototypes of ne" parts and devices, "hich "as earlier
only done "ith sutractive toolroom methods (typically slo"ly and
e5pensively)#[@@] =ith technological advances in additive manufacturing,
ho"ever, and the dissemination of those advances into the usiness "orld,
additive methods are moving ever further into the production end of
manufacturing in creative and sometimes une5pected "ays#[@@] ;arts that
"ere formerly the sole province of sutractive methods can no" in some
cases e made more pro4taly via additive ones#
/tandard applications include design visualisation, prototypingG-AD, metal
casting, architecture, education, geospatial, healthcare, and
entertainmentGretail#
Aapid prototyping[edit]
8ull color miniature face models produced on a 3D ;rinter
;rinting going on "ith a 3D printer at Makers ;arty Dangalore $)13,
Dangalore
Main articleK rapid prototyping
*ndustrial 3D printers have e5isted since the early 1'()s and have een used
e5tensively for rapid prototyping and research purposes# 2hese are generally
larger machines that use proprietary po"dered metals, casting media (e#g#
sand), plastics, paper or cartridges, and are used for rapid prototyping y
universities and commercial companies#
Aapid manufacturing[edit]
Advances in A; technology have introduced materials that are appropriate for
4nal manufacture, "hich has in turn introduced the possiility of directly
manufacturing 4nished components# Ine advantage of 3D printing for rapid
manufacturing lies in the relatively ine5pensive production of small numers
of parts#
Aapid manufacturing is a ne" method of manufacturing and many of its
processes remain unproven# 3D printing is no" entering the 4eld of rapid
manufacturing and "as identi4ed as a 6ne5t level6 technology y many
e5perts in a $))' report#[@(] Ine of the most promising processes looks to
e the adaptation of selective laser sintering (/3/), or direct metal laser
sintering (DM3/) some of the etter-estalished rapid prototyping methods#
As of $))<, ho"ever, these techni&ues "ere still very much in their infancy,
"ith many ostacles to e overcome efore AM could e considered a
realistic manufacturing method#[@']
Mass customi7ation[edit]
-ompanies have created services "here consumers can customise o!ects
using simpli4ed "e ased customisation soft"are, and order the resulting
items as 3D printed uni&ue o!ects#[()][(1] 2his no" allo"s consumers to
create custom cases for their moile phones#[($] Eokia has released the 3D
designs for its case so that o"ners can customise their o"n case and have it
3D printed#[(3]
Automoiles[edit]
*n early $)1+, the /"edish supercar manufacturer, Moenigsegg, announced
the IneK1, a supercar that utilises many components that "ere 3D printed# *n
the limited run of vehicles Moenigsegg produces, the IneK1 has side-mirror
internals, air ducts, titanium e5haust components, and even complete
turocharger assemles that have een 3D printed as part of the
manufacturing process#[(+]
An American company, 3ocal Motors is "orking "ith Iak Aidge Eational
3aoratory and -incinnati *ncorporated to develop large scale additive
manufacturing processes suitale for printing an entire car ody#[(9] 2he
company plans to print the vehicle live in front of an audience in /eptemer
$)1+ at the *nternational Manufacturing 2echnology /ho"# 6;roduced from a
ne" 4er-reinforced thermoplastic strong enough for use in an automotive
application, the chassis and ody "ithout drivetrain, "heels and rakes
"eighs a scant +9) pounds and the completed car is comprised of !ust +)
components, a numer that gets smaller "ith every revision#6[(<]
%lectric Motors and Jenerators[edit]
2he magnetic core of electric motors and generators (i#e#, electric machines)
re&uire thin laminations of special preprocessed electrical steel, "hich are
insulated from each other to speci4cally improve electromagnetic
performance# 3D ;rinting of any product that re&uires core materials "ith
special properties or forms that must e preserved during the manufacturing
process, such as the material density, non-crystalline or nano-crystalline
atomic structures, etc#, may only e compatile "ith a hyrid 3D ;rinting
method, "hich do not use core material altering methods, such as sintering,
fusing, deposition, etc# 2o conveniently handle the very thin insulated
laminations of amorphous or nano-crystalline metal rion, "hich can reduce
electric machine core loss y up to ()?, the "ell-kno"n 3aminated I!ect
Manufacturing (3IM) method of 3D ;rinting may sho" some compatiility for
3D-;rinting of electric machines ut only if the method mitigates at least the
alteration of the non-crystalline structure of the amorphous material (for
instance) during the cutting of slot channels that hold the electric machine
"indings, or during post manufacturing processes, such as grinding the air-
gap surface to Hat precision, all "hile enhancing the packing density of the
material# 2he patented 3D ;rinter called Motor;rinter "as speci4cally
conceived and developed as the only 3D ;rinter of a5ial-Hu5 electric
machines of any category or type, such as induction, permanent magnet,
reluctance, /ynchro-/ym, etc#, and "ith any high performance core materials,
such as amorphous materials, y solving the other"ise elusive prolems ofK
1) material alteration as a result of cutting heat stress "ith instead a method
of cutting the slots efore the rion is "rapped into the a5ial-Hu5 formF $)
imprecise alignment of slots channels "hen dynamically calculating the ne5t
slot position y the numer of "raps and varying rion thickness "ith
instead a slot template method that precisely aligns the remotely cut slots
onto the slots of the previous "rap "ithout future calculationsF 3) material
alteration y secondary grinding operations (for instance) for a precision Hat
air-gap surface "ith instead a method that forces the rion to assume the
precision Hatness of the rotary tale of the 3D ;rinter on each "rapF and +)
45ed rectangle shaped slot channels "ith instead a template method that
perfectly aligns slots "ith any cut shape#[(@]
/paceHight[edit]
Main articleK 3D-printed spacecraft
3D printing egan to e used in production versions of spaceHight hard"are
in early $)1+# *n Ranuary, /paceN 4rst He" a 68alcon ' rocket "ith a 3D-
printed Main I5idi7er 1alve (MI1) ody in one of the nine Merlin 1D engines#6
2he valve is used to control Ho" of cryogenic li&uid o5ygen to the engine in a
high-pressure, lo"-temperature, high-viration physical environment#[((]
Ither 3D-printed spacecraft assemlies have een ground-tested, ut have
not yet Ho"n to space, including high-temperature, high-pressure rocket
engine comustion chamers and the entire mechanical spaceframe and
propellant tanks for a small satellite of a fe" hundred kilograms#
As early as $)1), "ork egan on applications of 3D printing in 7ero or lo"
gravity environments#[('] 2he primary concept involves creating asic items
such as hand tools or other more complicated devices 6on demand6 versus
using valuale resources such as fuel or cargo space to carry the items into
space#
Additionally, EA/A is conducting tests "ith company Made in /pace to assess
the potential of 3D printing to make space e5ploration cheaper and more
eLcient#[')] Aocket parts uilt using this technology have passed EA/A 4ring
tests# *n Ruly $)13, t"o rocket engine in!ectors performed as "ell as
traditionally constructed parts during hot-4re tests "hich e5posed them to
temperatures approaching <,))) degrees 8ahrenheit (3,31< degrees -elsius)
and e5treme pressures# EA/A is also preparing to launch a 3D printer into
spaceF the agency hopes to demonstrate that, "ith the printer making spare
parts on the Hy, astronauts need not carry large loads of spares "ith them#
['1]
2he /uperDraco engine that provides launch escape system and propulsive-
landing thrust for the Dragon 1$ passenger-carrying space capsule is fully
printed, and is the 4rst fully printed rocket engine# *n particular, the engine
comustion chamer is printed of *nconel, an alloy of nickel and iron, using a
process of direct metal laser sintering, and operates at a chamer pressure
<,')) kilopascals (1,))) psi) at a very high temperature# 2he engines are
contained in a printed protective nacelle to prevent fault propagation in the
event of an engine failure#['$]['3]['+] 2he /uperDracon engine produces @3
kilone"tons (1<,+)) lf) of thrust#['9] 2he engine completed a full
&uali4cation test in May $)1+, and is slated to make its 4rst orital
spaceHight in $)19 or $)1<#[((]['+]
2he aility to 3D print the comple5 parts "as key to achieving the lo"-mass
o!ective of the engine# *tQs a very comple5 engine, and it "as very diLcult to
form all the cooling channels, the in!ector head, and the throttling
mechanism# ### [2he aility] 6to print very high strength advanced alloys ###
"as crucial to eing ale to create the /uperDraco engine#6['<]
*n Rune $)1+, Aero!et Aocketdyne announced that they had 6manufactured
and successfully tested an engine "hich had een entirely 3D printed#6 2he
Day Danton engine is a $$ kE (9,))) lf) thrust engine that runs on
3INGkerosene propellant#['@]
3D-printed satellite mechanical structure, Arkyd-3)), 8eruary $)1+# 2he
torus holds the propellant and provides the structural frame for the satellite
Dy $)1+, 3D printing had egun to e used to print the entire mechanical
structure and integral propellant tanks of a small spacecraft#['(]
In /eptemer $3, $)1+, the /paceN -A/-+ mission delivered a 3D printer to
the *nternational /pace /tation# 2his "ill allo" the personnel to uild certain
replacement parts "ithout the need to "ait for replacements to e delivered#
[''][full citation needed]
Domestic use[edit]
A MakerDot Aeplicator $
[icon] 2his section re&uires e5pansion# (May $)1$)
As of $)1$, domestic 3D printing had mainly captivated hoyists and
enthusiasts and had not &uite gained recognition for practical household
applications# A "orking clock "as made[1))] and gears "ere printed for
home "ood"orking machines[1)1] among other purposes#[1)$] 3D printing
"as also used for ornamental o!ects# =e sites associated "ith home 3D
printing tended to include ackscratchers, coathooks, doorknos etc#[citation
needed]
2he open source 8aB.ome pro!ect[<$] has developed printers for general
use# 2hey have een used in research environments to produce chemical
compounds "ith 3D printing technology, including ne" ones, initially "ithout
immediate application as proof of principle#[1)3] 2he printer can print "ith
anything that can e dispensed from a syringe as li&uid or paste# 2he
developers of the chemical application envisage that this technology could e
used for oth industrial and domestic use# *ncluding, for e5ample, enaling
users in remote locations to e ale to produce their o"n medicine or
household chemicals#[1)+][1)9]
2he IpenAeHe5 analogue /3A camera "as developed for 3D printing as an
open source student pro!ect#[1)<]
Apparel[edit]
3D printing has spread into the "orld of clothing "ith fashion designers
e5perimenting "ith 3D-printed ikinis, shoes, and dresses#[1)@] *n
commercial production Eike is using 3D printing to prototype and
manufacture the $)1$ 1apor 3aser 2alon footall shoe for players of American
footall, and Ee" Dalance is 3D manufacturing custom-4t shoes for athletes#
[1)@][1)(]
3D printing has come to the point "here companies are printing consumer
grade eye"ear "ith on demand custom 4t and styling (although they cannot
print the lenses)# 2he on demand customi7ation market for glasses is
something that has een deemed possile "ith rapid prototyping#[1)']
Medicine[edit]
3D printing has een used to print patient speci4c implant and device for
medical use# /uccessful operations include a titanium pelvis implanted into a
Dritish patient, titanium lo"er !a" transplanted to a Dutch patient,[11)] and a
plastic tracheal splint for an American infant#[111] 2he hearing aid and dental
industries are e5pected to e the iggest area of future development using
the custom 3D printing technology#[11$] *n March $)1+, surgeons in /"ansea
used 3D printed parts to reuild the face of a motorcyclist "ho had een
seriously in!ured in a road accident#[113] Aesearch is also eing conducted on
methods to io-print replacements for lost tissue due to arthritis and cancer#
[11+]
;rinted prosthetics have een used in rehailitation of crippled animals# *n
$)13, a 3D printed foot let a crippled duckling "alk again#[119] *n $)1+ a
chihuahua orn "ithout front legs "as 4tted "ith a harness and "heels
created "ith a 3D printer#[11<] 3D printed hermit cra shells let hermit cras
inhait a ne" style home#[11@]
As of $)1$, 3D io-printing technology has een studied y iotechnology
4rms and academia for possile use in tissue engineering applications in
"hich organs and ody parts are uilt using ink!et techni&ues# *n this process,
layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel medium or sugar matri5 and
slo"ly uilt up to form three-dimensional structures including vascular
systems#[11(] 2he 4rst production system for 3D tissue printing "as
delivered in $))', ased on EovoJen ioprinting technology#[11'] /everal
terms have een used to refer to this 4eld of researchK organ printing, io-
printing, ody part printing,[1$)] and computer-aided tissue engineering,
among others#[1$1] 2he possiility of using 3D tissue printing to create soft
tissue architectures for reconstructive surgery is also eing e5plored#[1$$]
-hina has committed almost >9)) million to"ards the estalishment of 1)
national 3-D printing development institutes#[1$3] *n $)13, -hinese scientists
egan printing ears, livers and kidneys, "ith living tissue# Aesearchers in
-hina have een ale to successfully print human organs using specialised
3D io printers that use living cells instead of plastic# Aesearchers at
.ang7hou Dian7i 0niversity actually "ent as far as inventing their o"n 3D
printer for the comple5 task, dued the 6Aegenovo6 "hich is a 63D io
printer#6 Nu Mingen, AegenovoQs developer, said that it takes the printer
under an hour to produce either a mini liver sample or a four to 4ve inch ear
cartilage sample# Nu also predicted that fully functional printed organs may
e possile "ithin the ne5t ten to t"enty years#[1$+][1$9] *n the same year,
researchers at the 0niversity of .asselt, in Delgium had successfully printed a
ne" !a"one for an (3-year-old Delgian "oman# 2he "oman is no" ale to
che", speak and reathe normally again after a machine printed her a ne"
!a"one#[1$<]
8irearms[edit]
Main articleK 3D printed 4rearms
*n $)1$, the 0/-ased group Defense Distriuted disclosed plans to 6[design]
a "orking plastic gun that could e do"nloaded and reproduced y anyody
"ith a 3D printer#6[1$@][1$(] Defense Distriuted has also designed a 3D
printale AA-19 type riHe lo"er receiver (capale of lasting more than <9)
rounds) and a 3) round M1< maga7ine#[1$'] 2he AA-19 has multiple
receivers (oth an upper and lo"er receiver), ut the legally-controlled part is
the one that is serialised (the lo"er, in the AA-19Qs case)# /oon after Defense
Distriuted succeeded in designing the 4rst "orking lueprint to produce a
plastic gun "ith a 3D printer in May $)13, the 0nited /tates Department of
/tate demanded that they remove the instructions from their "esite#[13)]
After Defense Distriuted released their plans, &uestions "ere raised
regarding the eUects that 3D printing and "idespread consumer-level -E-
machining[131][13$] may have on gun control eUectiveness#[133][13+][139]
[13<]
-onstruction[edit]
An additional use eing developed is uilding printing, or using 3D printing to
uild uildings#[13@][13(][13'][1+)] 2his could allo" faster construction for
lo"er costs, and has een investigated for construction of oU-%arth haitats#
[1+1][1+$] 8or e5ample, the /interha pro!ect is researching a lunar ase
constructed y 3D printing using lunar regolith as a ase material# *nstead of
adding a inding agent to the regolith, researchers are e5perimenting "ith
micro"ave sintering to create solid locks from the ra" material#[1+3]
%nvironmental use[edit]
*n Dahrain, large-scale 3D printing using a sandstone-like material has een
used to create uni&ue coral-shaped structures, "hich encourage coral polyps
to colonise and regenerate damaged reefs# 2hese structures have a much
more natural shape than other structures used to create arti4cial reefs, and
have a neutral p. "hich concrete does not#[1++]
-hemistry[edit]
A proof of principle pro!ect at the 0niversity of Jlasgo", 0M, in $)1$ sho"ed
that it is possile to use 3D printing techni&ues to create chemical
compounds, including ne" ones# 2hey 4rst printed chemical reaction vessels,
then used the printer to s&uirt reactants into them as 6chemical inks6 "hich
"ould then react#[1)3] 2hey have produced ne" compounds to verify the
validity of the process, ut have not pursued anything "ith a particular
application#[1)3] -ornell -reative Machines 3a has con4rmed that it is
possile to produce customised food "ith 3D .ydrocolloid ;rinting#[1+9]
;rofessor 3eroy -ronin of Jlasgo" 0niversity proposed, in a 2%D 2alk that it
should one day e possile to use chemical inks to print medicine#[1+<] 3D
food printer is currently eing develop y s&uee7ing out food, layer y layer,
for food such as chocolate, candy, and pasta#[1+@]
-ommunication[edit]
%mploying additive layer technology oUered y 3D printing, 2erahert7 devices
"hich act as "aveguides, couplers and ends have een created# 2he
comple5 shape of these devices could not e achieved using conventional
farication techni&ues# -ommercially availale professional grade printer
%D%E $<)1 "as used to create structures "ith minimum feature si7e of 1))
Pm# 2he printed structures "ere later D- sputter coated "ith gold (or any
other metal) to create a 2erahert7 ;lasmonic Device#[1+(]
%ducation and research[edit]
3D printing is the latest technology making inroads into the classroom 3D
printing allo"s students to create prototypes of items "ithout the use of
e5pensive tooling re&uired in sutractive methods# /tudents design and
produce actual models they can hold# 2he classroom environment allo"s
students to learn and employ ne" applications for 3D printing#[1+']
/tudents discover the capailities "ith 3D printing# %ngineering and design
principles are e5plored as "ell as architectural planning# /tudents recreate
duplicates of museum items such as fossils and historical artefacts for study
in the classroom "ithout possily damaging sensitive collections# Ither
students interested in graphic designing can construct models "ith comple5
"orking parts# 3D printing gives students a ne" perspective "ith topographic
maps# /cience students can study cross-sections of internal organs of the
human ody and other iological specimens# And chemistry students can
e5plore 3D models of molecules and the relationship "ithin chemical
compounds#[19)]
According to a recent paper y Mostakis et al#,[191] 3D printing and design
can electrify various literacies and creative capacities of children in
accordance "ith the spirit of the interconnected, information-ased "orld#
8uture applications for 3D printing might include creating open-source
scienti4c e&uipment#[19$][193]
Art[edit]
*n $))9, academic !ournals had egun to report on the possile artistic
applications of 3D printing technology#[19+] Dy $))@ the mass media
follo"ed "ith an article in the =all /treet Rournal[199] and 2ime Maga7ine,
listing a 3D printed design among their 1)) most inHuential designs of the
year#[19<] During the $)11 3ondon Design 8estival, an installation, curated
y Murray Moss and focused on 3D ;rinting, "as held in the 1ictoria and
Alert Museum (the 1ZA)# 2he installation "as called *ndustrial Aevolution
$#)K .o" the Material =orld "ill Ee"ly Materiali7e#[19@]
/ome of the recent developments in 3D printing "ere revealed at the
3D;rintsho" in 3ondon, "hich took place in Eovemer $)13 and $)1+# 2he
art section had in e5position art"orks made "ith 3D printed plastic and
metal# /everal artists such as Roshua .arker, Davide ;rete, /ophie Mahn,
.elena 3ukasova, 8oteini /etaki sho"ed ho" 3D printing can modify aesthetic
and art processes# Ine part of the sho" focused on "ays in "hich 3D printing
can advance the medical 4eld# 2he underlying theme of these advances "as
that these printers can e used to create parts that are printed "ith
speci4cations to meet each individual# 2his makes the process safer and
more eLcient# Ine of these advances is the use of 3D printers to produce
casts that are created to mimic the ones that they are supporting# 2hese
custom-4tted casts are open, "hich allo" the "earer to scratch any itches
and also "ash the damaged area# Deing open also allo"s for open ventilation#
Ine of the est features is that they can e recycled to create more casts#
[19(]
2he use of 3D scanning technologies allo"s the replication of real o!ects
"ithout the use of moulding techni&ues that in many cases can e more
e5pensive, more diLcult, or too invasive to e performed, particularly for
precious or delicate cultural heritage artefacts[19'] "here direct contact "ith
the moulding sustances could harm the original o!ectQs surface#
-ritical making refers to the hands on productive activities that link digital
technologies to society# *t is invented to ridge the gap et"een creative
physical and conceptual e5ploration#[1<)] 2he term "as populari7ed y Matt
Aatto, an Assistant ;rofessor and director of the -ritical Making la in the
8aculty of *nformation at the 0niversity of 2oronto# Aatto descries one of the
main goals of critical as 6to use material forms of engagement "ith
technologies to supplement and e5tend critical reHection and, in doing so, to
reconnect our lived e5periences "ith technologies to social and conceptual
criti&ue6#[1<1] 2he main focus of critical making is open design,[1<$] "hich
includes, in addition to 3D printing technologies, also other digital soft"are
and hard"are# ;eople usually reference spectacular design "hen e5plaining
critical making#[1<3]
*ntellectual property[edit]
3D printing has e5isted for decades "ithin certain manufacturing industries
"here many legal regimes, including patents, industrial design rights,
copyright, and trademark may apply# .o"ever, there is not much
!urisprudence to say ho" these la"s "ill apply if 3D printers ecome
mainstream and individuals and hoyist communities egin manufacturing
items for personal use, for non-pro4t distriution, or for sale#
Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohiit the distriution of the
designs used in 3D printing, or the distriution or sale of the printed item# 2o
e allo"ed to do these things, "here an active intellectual property "as
involved, a person "ould have to contact the o"ner and ask for a licence,
"hich may come "ith conditions and a price#
;atents cover processes, machines, manufactures, and compositions of
matter and have a 4nite duration "hich varies et"een countries# 2herefore,
if a type of "heel is patented, printing, using, or selling such a "heel could e
an infringement of the patent#[1<+]
-opyright covers an e5pression[1<9] in a tangile, 45ed medium and often
lasts for the life of the author plus @) years thereafter#[1<<] *f someone
makes a statue, they may have copyright on the look of that statue, so if
someone sees that statue, they cannot then distriute designs to print an
identical or similar statue#
=hen a feature has oth artistic (copyrightale) and functional (patentale)
merits, "hen the &uestion has appeared in 0/ court, the courts have often
held the feature is not copyrightale unless it can e separated from the
functional aspects of the item#[1<<]
3egislation[edit]
2he 0/ Department of .omeland /ecurity and the Roint Aegional *ntelligence
-enter released a memo stating that 6signi4cant advances in three-
dimensional (3D) printing capailities, availaility of free digital 3D printale
4les for 4rearms components, and diLculty regulating 4le sharing may
present pulic safety risks from un&uali4ed gun seekers "ho otain or
manufacture 3D printed guns,6 and that 6proposed legislation to an 3D
printing of "eapons may deter, ut cannot completely prevent their
production# %ven if the practice is prohiited y ne" legislation, online
distriution of these 3D printale 4les "ill e as diLcult to control as any
other illegally traded music, movie or soft"are 4les#6[1<@]
*nternationally, "here gun controls are generally tighter than in the 0nited
/tates, some commentators have said the impact may e more strongly felt,
as alternative 4rearms are not as easily otainale#[1<(] %uropean oLcials
have noted that producing a 3D printed gun "ould e illegal under their gun
control la"s,[1<'] and that criminals have access to other sources of
"eapons, ut noted that as the technology improved the risks of an eUect
"ould increase#[1@)][1@1] Do"nloads of the plans from the 0M, Jermany,
/pain, and Dra7il "ere heavy#[1@$][1@3]
Attempting to restrict the distriution over the *nternet of gun plans has een
likened to the futility of preventing the "idespread distriution of De-//
"hich enaled D1D ripping#[1@+][1@9][1@<][1@@] After the 0/ government
had Defense Distriuted take do"n the plans, they "ere still "idely availale
via 2he ;irate Day and other 4le sharing sites#[1@(] /ome 0/ legislators have
proposed regulations on 3D printers, to prevent them eing used for printing
guns#[1@'][1()] 3D printing advocates have suggested that such regulations
"ould e futile, could cripple the 3D printing industry, and could infringe on
free speech rights, "ith early pioneer of 3D printing ;rofessor .od 3ipson
suggesting that gunpo"der could e controlled instead#[1(1][1($][1(3][1(+]
[1(9][1(<][1(@]
*mpact[edit]
Additive manufacturing, starting "ith todayQs infancy period, re&uires
manufacturing 4rms to e He5ile, ever-improving users of all availale
technologies to remain competitive# Advocates of additive manufacturing also
predict that this arc of technological development "ill counter gloalisation,
as end users "ill do much of their o"n manufacturing rather than engage in
trade to uy products from other people and corporations#[3] 2he real
integration of the ne"er additive technologies into commercial production,
ho"ever, is more a matter of complementing traditional sutractive methods
rather than displacing them entirely#[1((]
/ocial change[edit]
/ince the 1'9)s, a numer of "riters and social commentators have
speculated in some depth aout the social and cultural changes that might
result from the advent of commercially-aUordale additive manufacturing
technology#[1('] Amongst the more notale ideas to have emerged from
these in&uiries has een the suggestion that, as more and more 3D printers
start to enter peopleQs homes, so the conventional relationship et"een the
home and the "orkplace might get further eroded#[1')] 3ike"ise, it has also
een suggested that, as it ecomes easier for usinesses to transmit designs
for ne" o!ects around the gloe, so the need for high-speed freight services
might also ecome less#[1'1] 8inally, given the ease "ith "hich certain
o!ects can no" e replicated, it remains to e seen "hether changes "ill e
made to current copyright legislation so as to protect intellectual property
rights "ith the ne" technology "idely availale#
As 3D printers ecame more accessile to consumers, online social platforms
have developed to support the community#[1'$] 2his includes "esites that
allo" users to access information such as ho" to uild a 3D printer, as "ell as
social forums that discuss ho" to improve 3D print &uality and discuss 3D
printing ne"s, as "ell as social media "esites that are dedicated to share
3D models#[1'3][1'+][1'9] AepAap is a "iki ased "esite that "as created
to hold all information on 3d printing, and has developed into a community
that aims to ring 3D printing to everyone# 8urthermore, there are other sites
such as 2hingiverse, "hich "as created initially to allo" users to post 3D 4les
for anyone to print, allo"ing for decreased transaction cost of sharing 3D
4les# 2hese "esites have allo"ed for greater social interaction et"een
users, creating communities dedicated around 3D printing#
/ome [1'<][1'@][1'(] call attention to the con!unction of -ommons-ased
peer production "ith 3D printing and other lo"-cost manufacturing
techni&ues# 2he self-reinforced fantasy of a system of eternal gro"th can e
overcome "ith the development of economies of scope, and here, the civil
society can play an important role contriuting to the raising of the "hole
productive structure to a higher plateau of more sustainale and customised
productivity#[1'<] 8urther, it is true that many issues, prolems and threats
rise due to the large democratisation of the means of production, and
especially regarding the physical ones#[1'<] 8or instance, the recyclaility of
advanced nanomaterials is still &uestionedF "eapons manufacturing could
ecome easierF not to mention the implications on counterfeiting [1''] and
on *;#[$))] *t might e maintained that in contrast to the industrial paradigm
"hose competitive dynamics "ere aout economies of scale, -ommons-
ased peer production and 3D printing could develop economies of scope#
=hile the advantages of scale rest on cheap gloal transportation, the
economies of scope share infrastructure costs (intangile and tangile
productive resources), taking advantage of the capailities of the farication
tools#[1'<] And follo"ing Eeil Jershenfeld [$)1] in that 6some of the least
developed parts of the "orld need some of the most advanced technologies6,
-ommons-ased peer production and 3D printing may oUer the necessary
tools for thinking gloally ut act locally in response to certain prolems and
needs#
3arry /ummers "rote aout the 6devastating conse&uences6 of 3-D printing
and other technologies (roots, arti4cial intelligence, etc#) for those "ho
perform routine tasks# *n his vie", 6already there are more American men on
disaility insurance than doing production "ork in manufacturing# And the
trends are all in the "rong direction, particularly for the less skilled, as the
capacity of capital emodying arti4cial intelligence to replace "hite-collar as
"ell as lue-collar "ork "ill increase rapidly in the years ahead#6 /ummers
recommends more vigorous cooperative eUorts to address the 6myriad
devices6 (e#g# ta5 havens, ank secrecy, money laundering, and regulatory
aritrage) enaling the holders of great "ealth to 6avoid paying6 income and
estate ta5es, and to make it more diLcult to accumulate great fortunes
"ithout re&uiring 6great social contriutions6 in return, includingK more
vigorous enforcement of anti-monopoly la"s, reductions in 6e5cessive6
protection for intellectual property, greater encouragement of pro4t-sharing
schemes that may ene4t "orkers and give them a stake in "ealth
accumulation, strengthening of collective argaining arrangements,
improvements in corporate governance, strengthening of 4nancial regulation
to eliminate susidies to 4nancial activity, easing of land-use restrictions that
may cause the real estate of the rich to keep rising in value, etter training
for young people and retraining for displaced "orkers, and increased pulic
and private investment in infrastructure development, e#g# in energy
production and transportation#[$)$]
Michael /pence "rote that 6Eo" comes a ### po"erful, "ave of digital
technology that is replacing laor in increasingly comple5 tasks# 2his process
of laor sustitution and disintermediation has een under"ay for some time
in service sectors V think of A2Ms, online anking, enterprise resource
planning, customer relationship management, moile payment systems, and
much more# 2his revolution is spreading to the production of goods, "here
roots and 3D printing are displacing laor#6 *n his vie", the vast ma!ority of
the cost of digital technologies comes at the start, in the design of hard"are
(e#g# 3D printers) and, more important, in creating the soft"are that enales
machines to carry out various tasks# 6Ince this is achieved, the marginal cost
of the hard"are is relatively lo" (and declines as scale rises), and the
marginal cost of replicating the soft"are is essentially 7ero# =ith a huge
potential gloal market to amorti7e the upfront 45ed costs of design and
testing, the incentives to invest [in digital technologies] are compelling#6
/pence elieves that, unlike prior digital technologies, "hich drove 4rms to
deploy underutili7ed pools of valuale laor around the "orld, the motivating
force in the current "ave of digital technologies 6is cost reduction via the
replacement of laor#6 8or e5ample, as the cost of 3D printing technology
declines, it is 6easy to imagine6 that production may ecome 6e5tremely6
local and customi7ed# Moreover, production may occur in response to actual
demand, not anticipated or forecast demand# /pence elieves that laor, no
matter ho" ine5pensive, "ill ecome a less important asset for gro"th and
employment e5pansion, "ith laor-intensive, process-oriented manufacturing
ecoming less eUective, and that re-locali7ation "ill appear in oth developed
and developing countries# *n his vie", production "ill not disappear, ut it "ill
e less laor-intensive, and all countries "ill eventually need to reuild their
gro"th models around digital technologies and the human capital supporting
their deployment and e5pansion# /pence "rites that 6the "orld "e are
entering is one in "hich the most po"erful gloal Ho"s "ill e ideas and
digital capital, not goods, services, and traditional capital# Adapting to this
"ill re&uire shifts in mindsets, policies, investments (especially in human
capital), and &uite possily models of employment and distriution#6[$)3]
8ores investment pundits have predicted that 3D printing may lead to a
resurgence of American Manufacturing, citing the small, creative companies
that compromise the current industry landscape, and the lack of the
necessary comple5 infrastructure in typical outsource markets#[$)+]
Distriuted manufacturing[edit]
Main articleK 3D printing marketplace
Additive manufacturing in comination "ith cloud computing technologies
allo"s decentrali7ed and geographically independent distriuted production#
[$)9] Distriuted manufacturing is mainly practiced y enterprises ut also
takes place in the homes of consumers via speciali7ed cloud service provider#
[$)<]
/ome companies oUer on-line 3D printing services open to oth consumers
and industries#[$)@] /uch services re&uire people to upload their 3D designs
to the company "esite# Designs are then 3D printed using industrial 3D
printers and either shipped to the customer or in some cases, the consumer
can pick the o!ect up at the store#[$)(] 2his allo"s for increased social
interactions et"een memers of the 3D printing community#
Materials innovations[edit]
-onsumer grade 3D printing has resulted in ne" materials that have een
developed speci4cally for 3D printers# 8or e5ample, 4lament materials have
een developed to imitate "ood, in its appearance as "ell as its te5ture#
8urthermore, ne" technologies, such as infusing caron 4er[$)'] into
printale plastics, allo"ing for a stronger, lighter material# *n addition to ne"
structural materials that have een developed due to 3D printing, ne"
technologies have allo"ed for patterns to e applied directly to 3D printed
parts#