Definition

A polynomial P(x) of degree n is defined as

1
1 1 0
( ) ... ; 0
n n
n n n
P x a x a x a x a a

= + + + +
where
+
Z n
and n 2 1 0
a a a a ,... , ,
are called the coefficients of the polynomial.
The degree of the polynomial is determined by the
highest power of x.
Eg : P(x) = 8x
4
+ 3x
3
x
!
+ 3x "
h#s # degree $% 4.
P(x) = x
3
+ !x
!
+ x &
h#s # degree $% 3.
P(x) = x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 5x
is not a polynomial.
Degree Name Example


0 constant P(x) = 7
1 linear P(x) = 5x + 4
2 quaratic P(x) = ! "x
2
+ x !1
# cu$ic P(x) = 2x
#
! #x + "
4 quartic P(x) = x
4
+ 5x
2
! %

&ition
(5x
#
+ 4x
2
' x + 7) + (7x
#
' x
2
+ %x + #)
= 12x
#
+ #x
2
+ 7x + 10
(u$traction
(5x
#
+ 4x
2
' x + 7) ! (7x
#
' x
2
+ %x + #)
= ! 2x
#
+ 5x
2
' )x + 4
*ultiplication
(x
#
+ 2x
2
' x)(x
2
' #x + 2)
= x
#
(x
2
' #x + 2) + 2x
2
(x
2
' #x + 2) ' x(x
2
' #x + 2)
= x
5
' #x
4
+ 2x
#
+ 2x
4
' "x
#
+ 4x
2
' x
#
+ #x
2
' 2x
= x
5
' x
4
' 5x
#
+ 7x
2
' 2x
Long Division
!
3&
1
1'
14
1&
!
3& !
=
1' +
!
1
Remainder
Divisor
Quotient
1 ) ! )( 1' ( 3& + =
Hence,
Division
The division of the polynomial can be
expressed in the form
where
R(x) Remainder
D(x)
Divisor
Q(x)
P(X) = Q(X) D(X) + R(X)
) x ( D
) x ( +
) x ( ,
) x ( D
) x ( P
+ =
or
Quotient
or P(x) = ,(x)D(x) + +(x)
eg
(2x
#
' x
2
+ #x + 1) (x ' 2)
--------- ---------
x ' 2 . 2x
#
' x
2
+ #x + 1
2x
#
' 4x
2
--------
#x
2
+ #x
#x
2
' "x---
)x + 1
)x ! 1%
1)
or 2x
#
' x
2
+ #x + 1 = (2x
2
+ #x + ))(x ' 2) + 1)
) x ( D
) x ( +
) x ( ,
) x ( D
) x ( P
+ =
2 x
1)
) x # x 2
2 x
1 x # x x 2
2
2 #

+ + + =

+ +
2x
2
+ 3x +
E/E+01(E
12 34 using long i5ision6 7in
(a) (x
#
' 2x
2
+ x ! 1) 8 (x ' #)
($) ("x
#
' 2x
2
+ 7x + 5) 8 (x ' 1)
(c) (4x
4
+ "x
#
' 2x
2
+ x ' 1) 8 (x + 1)
() (4x
4
+ #x
2
+ 7) 8 (2x + 1)
(e) (7 ' "x
2
+ 2x
4
) 8 (x
2
+ 5)
(7) (x
4
+ x
#
+ x + ") 8 (x + 1)(x + #)
9:e +emainer t:eorem (teorem $a;i)
17 7(x) is i5ie $4 (ax + $)6 t:e remainer is
7( ! $<a)2
Eg= > 7(x) = x
2
' 2x + 1 ? (2x + 4)
7(! 4<2) = (!2)
2
'2(!2) + 1 = )
0@E0A -----B x ! 2
2x + 4 . x
2
' 2x + 1
x
2
+ 2x
! 4x + 1
! 4x ! %
)
+emainer
(#) x+3 (b) x(3 ()) 3x(1
Example
is divided by:
P(x) = x
3
-2x
2
+ 4x - 5
Find the remainder when
(#) R = P ((3) = ((3)
3
(!((3)
!
+ 4((3) ( &
= !
(b) R = P(3) = (3)
3
( !(3)
!
+ 4(3) ( &
= 1
()) R = P(1/3) = (1*3)
3
!(1*3)
!
+ 4(1*3) ( &
= ( 104
!'
3x 1= 0
x = 1*3
olution
!f the "emain#e" o$taine# f"om #ivi#ing the polynomial
P(x) $y (x-a) is %e"o& then the linea" te"m (x-a) is calle# a
facto" of the polynomial P(x).

!f P(a) = ' then (x a) is a facto" of P(x)
(o" example ) P(x) = x
2
* x * +
P(3) = 3
2
* 3 * + = '
,ence& (x * 3) is a facto" P(x)
!n fact& P(x) = (x * 3)(x + 2)
!A"T#R
THE#RE$
%&"onversely, if 'x a( is a
factor of P'x( then P'a( ) *
+& ,n general, if 'ax + b( is a
factor of P'x(,
then -'. ( ) *
a
b
-g) f(x) = 2x
3
+ 3x
2
. /0x + /2
(2x . 3) is a facto" of f(x).
1h2s& f(332) = ' &
!. +etermine ,hether the %$--$,ing -ine#r
%.n)ti$ns #re %#)t$rs $% the gi/en
0$-yn$mi#-s:
(#) P(x) = 3 'x + &x
2
( x
3
; (x 3)
(b) P(x) = !x
3
+ 3x
!
( 8x + 3 ; (2x 1)
()) P(x) = ( !x
3
+ 3x + & ; (x + 1)
Exercise
3. 1i/en th#t (x !) #nd (x + 1) #re b$th %#)t$rs $% the
0$-yn$mi#- P(x) = !x
3
+ ax
2
+ bx &.
2ind the /#-.es $% the )$nst#nt a #nd b.
4. 1i/en th#t (x + !) is # %#)t$r $% !x
3
+ x
2
+ kx 4.
2ind the )$nst#nt k. 3en)e, %#)t$rise the ex0ressi$n
)$m0-ete-y.
&. 1i/en th#t the ex0ressi$n 3x
3
+ ax
!
+ bx (1! is ex#)t-y
di/isib-e by x
!
+ !x (3.
(#) +etermine the /#-.es $% a #nd b.
(b) 2#)t$rise the ex0ressi$n )$m0-ete-y.
. The 0$-yn$mi#- !x
3
+ ax
!
+ bx + 8 h#s # %#)t$r (x(1) #nd
gi/es # rem#inder $% 50 ,hen di/ided by (x(3). +etermine a
#nd b.
Exercise
A %e"o of a polynomial P'x( is a
number a such that P'a( ) *
x = a is called a "oot o" sol2tion of the
polynomial equation P'x( ) *
Eg / 0et -'x( ) +x
1
2 x 2 1
-'.%( ) +'.%(
1
.% 2 1 ) *
Hence, .% is a 3ero of -'x(
or .% is a root or solution of the e4uation,
+x
1
2 x 2 1 ) *
DE!,5,T,#5
,n general, if is a root of a
polynomial e4uation then
is a factor of &

Every polynomial e4uation of degree n
has exactly n roots& ome of these roots
may be repeated&
x a =
( ) 0 P x =
( ) x a
( ) P x
451-
f(x) = x
3
* /x * 3' = (x + 2)(x + 3)(x * 6) = ' is a
polynomial e72ation of #eg"ee 3 8ith "oots)
.2& .3& 6
f(x) = x
3
+ /'x
2
* 3x * /9 = (x . 2)(x + 3)
2
= '

is a
polynomial e72ation of #eg"ee 3 8ith "oots )
2& .3 ("epeate# "oots)
'. 4h$, th#t ( 4 is # 5er$ $% x
3
+ !3x
!
&x 4.
8. 2#)t$rise P(x) = !x
3
"x
!
+3x + 4 #nd
,rite #-- the 5er$s.
". 2ind the r$$ts %$r the e6.#ti$n
x
3
+ 3x
!
+ x 1 = 0 .
Exercise
P!"#$ %!&"'() (Pe*ahan )epara)
9:e alge$raic 7raction can $e expresse
as a single 7raction2
9:e re5erse process is calle expressing
as partial 7ractions2
1 x 2
2
1 x
#

+
+
) 1 ! )( 1 (
1 8
) 1 ! )( 1 (
! ! 3
) 1 ! )( 1 (
) 1 ( ! ) 1 ! ( 3
1 !
!
1
3
+

=
+
+ +
=
+
+ +
=

+
+
x x
x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
) 1 x 2 )( 1 x (
1 x %
+

P!"#$ %!&"'() (Pe*ahan )epara)

( )
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
) c $x ax (
D 0x
) c $x ax (
3 &x
) c $x ax (
) x ( P
) (
) cx (
0
) cx (
3
) $ ax (
&
) cx )( $ ax (
) x ( P
) c (
) e x cx (
0 3x
$ ax
&
) e x cx )( $ ax (
) x ( P
) $ (
) cx (
3
) $ ax (
&
) cx )( $ ax (
) x ( P
) a (
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
=
+ + +
+
+
+
=
+ +
C Degree o7 numerator D Degree o7 enominator
(i7 not6 i5ie t:e numerator $4 t:e enominator)
Eg -----------#
x
2
' 1 . #x
2
+ 2x
#x
2
! #
2x + #
1
# x 2
#
1
x 2 #
x x
x
2 2
2

+
+ =

+
+xample (+egree n.mer#t$r 7 +egree den$min#t$r)
( )
! ! ! ! !
! !
!
! !
) & 3 ( ) & 3 ( ) & 3 (
) (
) (
) 1 ! ( ) 1 ! ( ) 4 ( ) 1 ! )( 4 (
) (
) (
) 3 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 3 ! )( 1 (
) (
) (
) 3 4 ( ! 3 ) 3 4 )( ! 3 (
) (
) (
) 1 ! ( ) 3 ( ) 1 ! )( 3 (
) (
) (
+
+
+
+
+
=
+
+
+
+
+

=
+

+
+
+

=

+
+
+
+
=
+ +

+
+
=
+
x x
D Cx
x x
B Ax
x x
x P
e
x
C
x
B
x
A
x x
x P
d
x
C
x
B
x
A
x x x
x P
c
x x
C Bx
x
A
x x x
x P
b
x
B
x
A
x x
x P
a
EXERCISE
102 Express as partial 7ractions

) ! )( 1 (
1
) (
) 1 ! )( 1 (
) ! (
) (
) 1 )( ! (
' ! 3
) (
) 1 )( & ! (
1 !
) (
) 1 )( 1 (
3 1
) (
) 3 )( 4 (
11
) (
3
!
!
!
!
!
+

+ +

+

+
+
+
+
+

x x
x
f
x x x
x x
e
x x
x x
d
x x
x
c
x x
x
b
x x
x
a
(d )
!x
!
+x1
( x
!
+x!)(x+3)
&x1
P(x)
112 Ein all t:e Feroes o7 P(x) = 5x
#
+ 14x
2
+ 7x ' 22
@ence6 express as partial 7ractions2