Revista de Stiinte Politice NR 17

r.
17 • 2008
---R
RE
R EFFFE
E ER
E RE
R EN
E NC
N CE
C ES
E S---
S
GHEORGHE VLĂDU łESCU (Romanian Academy), ALEXANDRU BOBOC (Romanian

Academy), FLORIN CONSTANTINIU (Romanian Academy), CRISTIAN PREDA (University
of Bucharest), LAURENTIU VLAD (University of Bucharest), VLADIMIR OSIAC (University
of Craiova), CĂTĂLIN BORDEIANU („Petre Andrei” University of Iaşi)
---IIIN
NT
N TE
T ER
E RN
R NA
N AT
A TIIIO
T ON
O NA
N ALLL A
A AD
A DV
D VIIIS
V SO
S OR
O RY
R YB
Y BO
B OA
O AR
A RD
R D---
D
MIHAI CIMPOI
President of the Academy of the Republic of Moldavia
MICHAEL RADU,
Senior Fellow, Foreign Policy Research Institute, Philadelphia, USA
Co-Chairman, FPRI’s Center on Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Homeland
Security, Philadelphia, USA
YOHANAN MANOR,
Professor, University de Jerusalem, Israel
President, Center for Monitoring the Impact of Peace (CMIP)
JOZE PIRJEVEC,
Professor, University of Trieste, Italy
PATRICIA GONZALEZ-ALDEA
Professor, University Francisco de Vitoria, Madrid, Spain
OLIVER FRIGGIERI,
Professor, University of Malta
CRISTINA BEJAN,
Wadham College, Oxford, Great Britain
SLAVCO ALMĂJAN,
Professor, University of Novi Sad, Serbia
President, „Argos” Center for Open Dialogue, Novi Sad, Serbia
NICU CIOBANU
President, „Libertatea”Publishing House, Novi Sad, Serbia
---EEED
DIIIT
D TO
T OR
O RIIIA
R ALLL B
A BO
B OA
O AR
A RD
R D---
D
Editor in chief: AUREL PIłURCĂ
Deputy editor in chief: ION DEACONESCU
Editorial board: CEZAR AVRAM, VLADIMIR OSIAC, MIHAI COSTESCU, ANCA PARMENA
OLIMID, COSMIN LUCIAN GHERGHE, CĂTĂLIN STĂNCIULESCU, CĂTĂLINA GEORGESCU,
TITELA VÎLCEANU, MIHAI GHIŢULESCU
N
NO
N OT
O TE
T E ooofff ttthhheee E
E ED
E DIIIT
D TO
T OR
O RIIIA
R ALLL B
A BO
B OA
O AR
A RD
R D
D
R evista de Stiinte Po litice. R evue des Sciences Po litiques wa s e va lua ted and
authorized by the Na tiona l Council of Scientific Research in Supe rior Educa tion
(CNCSIS) in the C ca te gory – pe riodica l publica tions of na tiona l interest (Ma y 16 th,
2005)
A
AD
A DD
D DR
D RE
R ES
E SS
S S
S
University of Craiova, 13 A. I. Cuza Street, Craiova, 200585, Dolj, Romania, Tel/Fax: +40251418515.
© 2008- Editura Universitaria

All rights reserved. All partial or total reproduction without the author’s written agreement is strictly
forbidden.
ISSN: 1584-224X
http://cis01.central.ucv.ro/revistadestiintepolitice/
University of Craiova • Faculty of History, Philosophy, Geography• Political Science Department
CONTENTS
R
ROOM
MAAN
NIIA
ANN P
POOLLIITTIICCSS
CEZAR AVRAM, ROXANA RADU, Competence, participation and Political

7
Loyalty in the Process of Romania’s Integration in EU
ELENA TOBĂ, DALIA SIMION, Fundamental Changes in Romanian Trade
18
Policy after the Accession to the European Union
MĂDĂLINA VOICAN, Government’s Role in Coordination of Decision-Making
26
Process
IINNTTEERRNNAATTIIOONNAALL P
POOLLIITTIICCSS
ION DEACONESCU, Russia and the Binominal of Power 32

IOANA ALBU, ANDREW TOLETT, The &ew Democracy and Market reforms in
34
Latin America
ANCA PARMENA OLIMID, 2008 US Presidential Elections: The Iraq War,
39
Party Platforms and Social Polarization
OLIVER FRIGGIERI, The Role of Malta in a Unified Europe 45
YOHANAN MANOR, Arabs and Palestinians in Israeli School Textbooks. 55
ION-VIOREL MATEI, The Implications of the Commercial Tranzactions
through Settling Up in the Conditions of International Economical 72
Globalization
ADRIAN BOGDAN, Terrorism – Motivation or Violation of Human Rights? 78
P
POOLLIITTIICCAALL TTHHEEOORRYY AANNDD M
MEETTHHOODDOOLLOOGGYY
CRISTINA PIGUI, A Strategy for the Conservation of the Participative

Democracy Real Character 81
CĂLIN SINESCU, The Media and the Representation of Politics 86
A. IONESCU, M.R. COSTESCU, Statistical Evaluation of Events in the Mixing
96
Models
DANIEL TOBĂ, LAURENŢIU DRAGOMIR, The Impact of the Financial politics
101
on the Electorate’s Behaviour
5
Revista de Ştiinţe Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques • Nr. 17 • 2008
University of Craiova • Faculty of History, Philosophy, Geography• Political Science Department
CĂLIN SINESCU, The Public Opinion and its Role in the Electoral System 107
E
EUURROOPPEEAANN S
STTUUDDIIEESS
CĂTĂLINA MARIA GEORGESCU, Public-Private Partnerships and the &ew

Public Procurement Directive 116
LUCIAN PÎRVU, Lisbon 2007: Advance or Regression in Europe? 122
6
R OMANIAN P OLITICS
Competence, Participation and Political Loyalty in the

Process of Romania’s Integration in EU
Cezar AVRAM, Roxana RADU
Résumé: Dans les circonstances créées par la chute du communisme, la

vision roumaine sur l’intégration européenne a connu des changements et
des évolutions radicales. Acceptant, au début, ce processus comme réalité
historique et la collaboration économique bi et multilatérale avec les pays
occidentaux et avec l’Union européenne, la Roumanie est arrivée à accepter
l’intégration européenne et, plus important, de demander officiellement
l’adhésion économique et militaire. Cela montre un changement radical de la
conception et de l’attitude politique qui va de la coopération à l’intégration
complète dans les structures économiques, politiques, monétaires et
militaires éuropéennes.
Keywords : European Union, Integration, Sovereignty, Federalism,
Subsidiarity.
he notion of “integration” has acquired obtaining the results desired and expected
T another, much more comprehensive
connotation in economics, politics,
in the circumstances of the present
European space. This is the explanation for
individual and collective mentality since the fact that the EU expanded from 6 to 12
the treaties of Maastricht and Helsinki. members and will further expand from 25
Considering the way it was conceived to 27 members, for the fact that a single
and prepared from economic, political and currency was introduced and how the
administrative point of view, integration European Constitution will certainly be
represented a radical change, a break of adopted.
huge size starting from local and national All the attempts to define the concept
agents and markets, multiple and diverse, of “integration” were and still are situated
from individual and national decisions to between the meaning of cooperation and
an economic institutional and decisional the one of creating supranational spaces
space, inter and suprastate, to community and organizations.
policies and strategies, both for the interior The pluralist approach recommends a
and the exterior. Convinced and aware of form of loose association based on the
this indubitable truth, politicians have sovereignty of nation-states which envisage
adhered, not without reservations, to the integration as a “pluralistic community of
tactics of small and successive steps states” developing links of international
because it is the only way suitable for cooperation. In this form of integration the
7
ROMANIAN POLITICS
Cezar Avram, Roxana Radu
national states aim at “political union” by authority to regulate the behavior of the
intergovernmental cooperation at the level constituent states and to assume many of
of heads of states or government, while their sovereign rights and obligations. The
“the international organization has no real way the economic, political and legal
will of its own and no power to create a powers are shared between the member
new political entity apart from the wishes states and the federal government is
of its members”1. decided by a “constitutional conference”6.
The functionalist approach2 argues Before December 1989, Romania saw
that in the modern world the technological, integration, almost exclusively, in the shape
economic and social forces create a of economic cooperation with West-
complicated network of economic inter- European countries and coordination of
relationships between states and cause single national plans of socio-economic
problems of international dimensions. development with Socialist countries: “the
Therefore the objective of maximizing the history of the approaching between
economic welfare transcends the boundaries Romania and EU is a tumultuous history
and abilities of nation-states. The pressure exposed to the wind of Cold War and of a
of these inexorable economic problems communist regime with a development
makes international cooperation unavoidable perspective depending on the will and the
and ultimately leads to economic and political whims of the politics”7.
integration. For these reasons, the economic Romania was always afraid not of
integration precedes the political one. integration in West European structures,
In the neofunctionalist approach3, the but of the peril of being transformed
need for economic and political integration through socialist integration, into a Soviet
comes from the interaction of economic republic. Its geopolitical position and
and political forces rather than from status of country situated in the Soviet
functional needs or technological change. influence zone forced Romania to keep its
Integration develops not through a balance not only in the matter of foreign
predetermined process (as in the functionalist policy, but also home policy.
approach) but from the need to resolve the In the circumstances created by the
conflicts arising among competing interest irreversible break with communism, Romania's
groups which realize that more can be vision upon European integration has
gained by cooperation rather than discord. known and still knows radical changes and
For the neofunctionalists, the institutions evolutions. Starting with the acceptance of
of the EU constitute the beginnings of a this process as historical reality and the
supranational state. The “Community method” economic collaboration, bi and multilateral,
gradually unifies the national markets of with the Western countries and the
the participants by negative integration, Community on the whole, Romania has
removing internal barriers to trade and by come to admit European integration in the
positive integration, adopting common policies. present and future form and structures and,
In short, neofunctionalism “is inadequate which is more important, to officially ask
not simply because simple variants appear the adhesion: both economic and military
to be empirically disproved but because adhesion. This fact shows an obvious
more sophisticated versions of it remain change of political conception and
indeterminate”4. behavior that goes from the cooperation
The federalist approach5 to integration dimension to the complete integration in
entails setting up a supranational federal
8
ROMANIAN POLITICS
Competence, Participation and Political Loyalty in the Process of Romania’s Integration in EU
the pan-European economic, political, process and through treaties ratification

monetary and military structures. method9.
European integration was defined as The manner of settlement and wording
“the process through which EU member differs from one state to another, the
states agree to transfer progressively a following expressions being met10: “transfer
series of competences depending on the of sovereignty rights” (Germany11), “delegation
national sovereignty from national to of sovereignty functions” (Denmark),
supranational level accepting to exercise it “transfer of competences” (France), “the
in common (together), cooperating in the common exercise” of powers necessary for
respective fields of activity in order to reach the European construction” (Portugal),
certain objectives of political, economic, “the possibility to entrust the exercise of
social and cultural nature concerning these legislative, executive and judicial powers
state's progress and development”8, being to some institutions of international law”
often identified with a decrease of the (Luxemburg), renouncing the decisional
sovereign power of the member states and power “exercised by national bodies in
an increase of the influence of the favor of the Community ones, in certain
supranational central authority. conditions (Sweden). Only one country
EU was born on the basis of some asserts “the limitation of state's sovereignty”
international treaties and owns only those necessary for integration (Italy). The use of
competences offered by the states which this terminology different from one state to
have remained sovereign from the another reflects “a tint of the position
international law's point of view; however, adopted by the respective state in the
the member states agreed to the limitation problem of sovereignty's limitation”12. It is
of such important competence, which was however obvious that, no matter the
practically incompatible with their constitutional terminology used, the member states
dispositions which established the principle accepted in one way or another, the idea of
of national sovereignty. It was said that the sovereignty's limitation.
treaties on EU, especially the ones of Article 2 paragraph 1 of the revised
Maastricht and Amsterdam, affected “the Romanian Constitution stipulates that “national
essential conditions of exercising national sovereignty belongs to Romanian people”,
sovereignty”. In these circumstances, the and Romania's adhesion to the treaties on
treaties could be ratified only after the EU, in keeping with article 148, has the
Constitution revisal. Revising member “purpose of transferring some functions to
states' Constitutions was equivalent to community institutions, as well as
modifying the essential conditions of exercising, in common with the other
exercising national sovereignty. member states, the competences stipulated
By analysing the fundamental laws of in these treaties”. Romania's Constitution
EU member states we can observe that also intentionally asserts under the
some of them make intentional references circumstances of accession to EU, the
to the fact that state is able to transfer to principle of community law's supremacy
the European institutions some sovereign in keeping with which the rules of
competence or to accept exercising them community law will make any in force or
in common, while others admit only future rules of national law inoperable if
indirectly the idea of exercising together they are contrary, but only in the matter of
the sovereign functions of national states community juridical relations, fact that do
through the settlement of EU integration not hinder the application of national rules
9
ROMANIAN POLITICS
in other relations not included in this field whatever the result may be: “re-
and in relation with which the sovereign arrangement”, “merging” or “exertion in
functions of state will continue to manifest common” of sovereignties17.
themselves13. It is obvious that “the As EU's member states agree to
constitutional changes made by Romania exercise in common certain competences
reconstruct the notion of sovereignty at one can take into consideration neither the
least the notion known in the “classical division of national sovereignty with other
law”. Nowadays sovereignty proves to be states nor the endowment of European
not a rigid and out-dated concept, but a structures with own sovereignty (the so-
new, flexible and dynamic one, a “forever called “European sovereignty”18). Member
young” concept, freed from xenophobia, states keep their national sovereignty but
ultra nationalism and disregard for other within other limits than before joining the
peoples’ rights”14. EU, the notion of “relativisation” being
A new concept considered by many more appropriate than the one of
analysts as being the most adequate to the sovereignty partition19.
present reality at community level is the Regarding sovereignty, Romanian theorists
one of “shared sovereignty”. Shared affirmed that “national sovereignty disappears
sovereignty does not involve the total loss only at the same time with nation”20 and
of some functions of internal sovereignty, “Romanian state's sovereignty will not be
but enlarges the external and interdependent diminished either by European integration
capacities of national sovereignty in the or regionalism institutionalization”21. The
direction of strengthening the capacity to new dimension the sovereignty concept
regulate economic and political matters will get in the context of Romania's
(such as the free movement of persons, integration was emphasized by the practice
goods and capitals) in a more coherent, of the Constitutional Court: “the act of
efficient and cheaper manner15. integration has also the sense of dividing
Regarding the possibility of sharing the exercise of these sovereign functions
sovereignty in the context of affiliation to with the other states of the international
the EU, it is considered that the “partition” organization. Consequently, the Constitutional
of sovereignty or the “estrangement” of Court finds that, through the agency of the
some of its parts, cannot be accepted, but acts of transferring some functions to the
only the delegation of the competence to EU structures, the latter do not obtain a
exercise some functions related to the “supracompetence”, a sovereignty of its
sovereignty of member states or their own. Actually, EU member states decided
exertion in common with EU's to exercise in common certain functions
institutions16. which are traditionally related to national
This opinion leads to “a shared exercise sovereignty. It is obvious that, at the
of sovereignty, but a sovereignty seen in a present stage of globalization of mankind
different manner than in the classical concerns, of interstate evolution and
doctrine (abstract, indivisible and unalienable), human communication at planetary level,
a sovereignty which surpasses the the concept of national sovereignty can be
quantitative approach that sees it as being no more seen as an absolute and
territorial. This new approach considers indivisible one without the risk of an
that sovereignty is functionally divisible unacceptable isolation”22.
and therefore able to describe the In the light of the new changes having
functioning of an integration mechanism occurred at international level there is a
10
ROMANIAN POLITICS
distinction between sovereignty-substance juridical nature of community competence

and sovereignty-exercise, being emphasized becomes very important.
the fact that only the exercise of The characteristic feature of the
sovereignty is in fact restricted, not its European construction consists in the fact
substance which remains untouched. This that there is not a general assignment of
distinction was made for the first time in a competence, but there is specific
decision of the Permanent Court of competence, intentionally stipulated in the
International Justice (Decision nr. 1 from constitutive treaties on EU, subsidiary
17 August 1923) in the Wimbledon Ship competence created through the acts of
Case. The Court showed the “refusal of modifying the constitutive treaties and
considering that concluding a treaty by implicit competences, created by the Court
which a state pledges to do or not to do of Justice in the activity of applying and
something means the abandonment of its interpreting the treaties dispositions26. The
sovereignty. Without any doubt, any recognition of implicit competences on the
convention which gives birth to this kind basis of article 308 (ex-article 235) of CEE
of obligation establishes a restriction of the Treaty gave rise to many juridical
exercise of state's sovereign rights in the controversies due to the tendency of
sense of exercising them in a certain extending the community competence at
imposed way”23. the expense of national competence27. The
Sovereignty will be seen as that assembly establishment of the principle of
of member states competences defined in subsidiarity through the Maastricht Treaty
relation with community law. Building the was equivalent to the expansion of EU
sovereignty of the federation's member “implicit” or “subsidiary” competence.
states will essentially be the practical issue On the basis of the subsidiarity
of applying the principle of subsidiarity24. principle, the Union interferes in fields that
This principle, well understood and applied, do not belong to its exclusive competence
permits the effecting of a “reconciliation” only in case of and in the extent to which
between EU and the national Constitutions, the expected objectives of the action
being an important instrument of cannot be achieved in a satisfactory
maintaining states functions, which are manner by member states and, taking into
inseparable from national sovereignty25. consideration the dimensions and effects
The adoption of the European Constitution of the respective action, it can be better
appears to be the most adequate solution to carried out at community level28. In this
this controversial issue. case, the community intervention responds
The diversity of terms used to define, to some necessity reasons. The control of
as a matter of fact, the one and the same observing this principle belongs to the
phenomenon (transfer of competences, legislator which has a large power of
transfer of sovereignty, assignment of estimating its application and in case its
competences, limited sovereignty, shared application is contested the Court of
sovereignty) reflects the importance and Justice will get an intimation after the
the interest of member states, political or respective act is adopted29.
juridical theorists toward this process, Although the principle of subsidiarity
especially from the point of view of the is a reverse federal principle, EU still
dimensions and duration of the effect it remains a political entity whose proximate
might have on state's sovereignty. From species is federation. People30 say that the
this point of view, the determination of subsidiarity principle is a reverse federal
11
ROMANIAN POLITICS
principle because, in federal states (Germany, of the sea; environmental policy,

for example), the federation's competence consumer protection, transport, trans-
is general and the competence of its European networks, energy, space of
members is secondary while, in the case of liberty, security and justice, common
EU, the competence of member states is security objectives concerning the
general and the one of the Union is public health;
secondary. The Union inteferes only when c) support, coordination or complementary
the treaties confer on her competence in competence: protecting and improving
one sector or another. human health, industry, culture, tourism,
The Treaty of European Constitution education, youth policy, sport and
establishes the fundamental principles occupational training, civil protection,
applicable to the Union's competences: the administrative cooperation.
principle of competence assignment, the This three pillars structure of Union's
principle of subsidiarity and the principle competences will strengthen the principles
of proportionality. According to the principle of subsidiarity and proportionality, leaving
of competence assignment, the Union acts the majority of decisions in the b) pillar,
only on the basis of competence given by decisions which are to be taken with a
the Constitution. The principle of subsidiarity qualified majority.
is applicable to the fields of shared or Separately from Union's competence
support competence where the Union acts there is a fourth category: the exclusive
only if and in the extent to which states' competence of member states inside of
action is not sufficient. In accordance with which there is the territorial administration
the principle of proportionality, the exertion of each European country because this
of Union's competences, in comparison issue will not be and it is not wanted to be
with member states' competence, in fields regulated from the European level as the
of shared competence, must be proportional EU could not manage this process better
to the objectives likely to succeed. than the member states themselves.
The Treaty of European Constitution While the Treaty of Nice, admitting
specifies that EU can act only in the limits the fact that not all member states or future
of the powers and objectives established member states own the same resources,
by this Constitution and classifies Union's introduced the concept of “strengthened
competence in: cooperation”, the Project of European
a) exclusive competence of EU: customs Constitution uses the notion of “intensified
union, establishing the rules of cooperation”, establishing that the member
competence required for operating the states willing to set up a mechanism of
common market, monetary policy for intensified cooperation in the fields that
member states whose currency is euro, EU does not own exclusive competence
common trade policy, preserving sea's can use the Union's institutions and
biological resources inside common exercise certain competences by applying
fishing policies; Constitution's dispositions, respectively if
b) competence shared between European the following conditions are fulfilled:
institutions and member states: home - the aim of intensified cooperation is
market, social policy, strengthening promoting Union's interests and
economic, social and territorial cohesion, objectives and the strengthening of the
agricultural and fishing policy, excepting process of integration;
the preservation of biological resources
12
ROMANIAN POLITICS
- at least a third of member states are The Maastricht Treaty established many
involved; connections between EU and Western
- there is the Council's permit, given in European Union (WEU), a cooperation
keeping with the procedures established organization in the field of security and
by the Project; defense created in 1948, elevating WEU to
- the Council considers that the the rank of a “constituent part of EU
cooperation objectives could not be development” but with its own institutional
achieved in a reasonable term by the autonomy. Not even the Maastricht Treaty
Union on the whole. does include more explicit references to
European political integration the Common Defense Policy.
“encompasses the noneconomic aspects of The argument in favor of building
European integration, ranging from the EU European political union was strengthened
institutional structure to foreign and by the revelation of Europe's weakness
security policy”31. during the Gulf War (1990-1991): “The
After signing the Treaties of Rome, Gulf crisis is not only double. It is
the European construction focused subdivided into so many national crisis as
especially on economic aspects, political countries participant or non-participant in
cooperation in the field of international the coalition. The Gulf conflict represents
relations being often a taboo subject32. The a crisis for France, as well as it is for Great
accession of European states to NATO Britain, Saudi Arabia, Egypt or Germany...”35.
(1949) determined sovereignty limitation The European Community intended to
in the matter of defense33, setting European adopt a common position concerning the
troupes under American command. This Gulf War and to act collectively regarding
transfer of sovereignty to NATO set many the civil war in ex-Yugoslavia, but these
obstacles on the way of building European attempts failed, reflecting the divergences
defense policy because “it is difficult to among the interests of member states36.
transfer to Europe something that is already The disappointment caused by this
owned by NATO”34. For this reason, the failure and the awareness of the military
problems of security and defense were and political deficit of Europe led to the
initially excluded from the cooperation field. reorganization of Europe's program of
Starting with the Single European Act political integration: “Kosovo turned out to
(1986), the member states declared be a catalyzing element in a new trans-
themselves ready for coordinating their atlantic negotiation and for a larger
positions concerning “the political and autonomy of Europe, reflected in the shape
economic aspects of security”, but the first of a “common foreign relations and security
reference to the question of security and policy” as well as “European identity of
defense was made in the Treaty of security and defense” or “the European
Maastricht, but in very vague words, pillar” of NATO37. Thus, at the European
trying to come to a compromise between Council in Helsinki (December 1999), EU
the supporters of defense inside NATO member states decided to develop their
and the supporters of building an European military capacities and construct new
identity of defense. In accordance with the political and military structures in order to
same treaty, the Common Foreign and endow the Union with an autonomous
Security Policy (CFSP) represents one of capacity to decide and, when and in the
the EU pillars, together with the European extent to which NATO is not involved in,
Community, Justice and Home Affairs. to launch and lead military operations
13
ROMANIAN POLITICS
under its own command in case of some only that the negotiation place is common,
international crises38. Even if all NATO but also the coordinator of the elaboration
member states admitted the necessity for process (the academician Tudorel Postolache)
the Europeans to own military capacities and the way of showing the general
independent from the USA contribution support of the parliamentary political
for the purpose of promoting common spectrum through a political statement are
foreign and security policy of EU, the idea the same40. In 1995 Romania's president
of building European army was rejected participated for the first time in the
because of the fear that this idea could lead European Council in Cannes, together with
to the creation of a pure European alliance his counterparts from candidate states41.
and the discrimination of European states The accession to EU and NATO are
which are NATO members but not also two components of the national interest, so
EU members, and also to the doubling of convincingly expressed by the public
the duties and allocating of resources by opinion and political class that there is no
NATO and EU39. The development of need to be reaffirmed, two sides acting
Defense and Security European Identity alternatively. Valentin Stan considered that
(DSEI) inside NATO and the application the fact of Romania's integration into EU
of the principle of building European force and NATO being an essential objective of
“separable, but not separated”, asserted at the present political generation is a truism.
the North-Atlantic Council in Berlin (June He also brings forward the complementarity
1996) are meant to avoid these problems. of these two processes and considers that
At least in the beginning, Romanians neglecting the relation of interconditionality
saw the accession to NATO as a factor of between NATO and EU expansion is one
economic progress and joining the EU as a of the most persistent errors of the
security guarantee, using two terms: “European governments both before and after 199642.
integration” and/or “Euro-Atlantic integration”. Moreover, he thinks that Romania's
The reflection of these two subjects in the leadership wrongly built separate strategies
public opinion and Romanian politics has for NATO accession and EU integration.
known sinuous contra-timing evolutions, “Agenda 2000”, a very important study
rarely having the same intensity. They on EU expansion, finished by the European
advanced initially in a slow but continuous Commission in 1997, shows very clearly
rhythm, experiencing a stage of necessary that, although they are autonomous processes,
signatures on important documents, for there are important connections between
example the Association Agreement and EU and NATO expansion. This specification
the Partnership for Peace. The fact that was made in the context of the appearance
Romania was the first country signing this of DSEI idea. But Western leaders repeatedly
partnership, in January 1994, marked the emphasized that the fact of not being
first top moment in the discussions invited to one of these two organizations
concerning Euro-Atlantic integration. did not automatically involve getting
After NATO-1994 the interest in compensations in the process of adhesion
integration into the EU become prioritary. to the other.
In 1995 the Association Agreement came It was said that “Romania and
into force and the National Strategy for Romanians have a very developed sense of
Preparing Romania's Accession to the EU imminent political changes, especially in
(which we can call “Snagov I” by analogy the foreign policy” because “a complex
with the one from 2000) was adopted. Not history during which Romanians took
14
ROMANIAN POLITICS
advantage of the conflicts between their through obtaining the support of the states
powerful neighbors in order to achieve their with similar or close interests in order to
local political interests would have made obtain together the qualified majority
them very sensitive to the progressing needed for adopting the desired decision
change of the force relation between inside EU Council”47. It is equally important
America and the EU”43. the building of alliances inside the
As any other South-Eastern European European Parliament, taking into consideration
country, Romania was and still is in the tendency of giving it a status of absolute
dilemma between the EU and the USA. equality to the Council in their capacity of
The Iraq War from Spring 2003 confirmed co-legislators.
once more this situation in which Romania Member states' interests coagulate
has been for more than a decade: “Has she around two cores: the group of great
be on the USA's side and, thus, feel as countries, dominated by French-German
being a part of “the new Europe” or adhere coalition, and the group of small countries,
to the position of Germany and France and aware of the fact that the former want to
then be considered as “the old Europe”?44. form a “directorate of the great ones”.
More and more authorized voices Trying to counteract this tendency, the
affirm that the geopolitical and geo- small states intend to create alliances with
strategical realities of the beginning of 21st medium size countries such as Romania,
century require the abandonment of “what especially because the present vote system
the USA did for Europe” type of thinking inside the EU Council does not allow the
and the acceptance of “what the USA will constitution of a distinct category of
be able to do together with Europe” model45. middle states. The criteria on the basis of
The NATO membership still remains which these alliances are formed are: the
the basis of security in the Atlantic area but coincidence of their interests, geographical
the integration into EU will transform proximity, territorial dimensions, population.
Romania into a component part of “the Depending on these criteria, two categories
most proeficient system of economical and of alliances rise at different levels –
political construction known in history”46. regional and European level, but it has to
Taking into account its population and be taken into account the fact that “A
geographical dimensions, Romania is the regional alliance may be sufficient for
seventh country of an European Union developing transport networks in Eastern
with 27 members but, at the same time, it Europe, but an European alliance will be
is one of those member states with a low needed for the policy of allotting structural
standard of living, less efficient agricultural funds or for promoting certain priorities in
and food processing sectors, high rate of the European security strategy”48.
unemployment, a state of poverty of most Right after the joining moment, it
of the people. On the other hand, becoming becomes extremely necessary to survey
a member state of the EU signifies that the benefits and costs generated by the
Romania will become a stability factor for status of EU member. Thus, the costs
the whole Balkan space. Romania's inclusion related to the increase of competitiveness
in the category of EU's large states and in different sectors of national economy,
maintaining this position means the especially in agriculture, the infrastructure
identifying of those possibilities of alliance modernization, the adopting of community
with EU member states, which “should norms and policies, the observing and
enable us to achieve our objectives implementing of European standards are
15
ROMANIAN POLITICS
high enough. Through adopting the trade otes

1
policy, Romania had more to lose than Theo Hitiris, European Union Economics, 4th
gain in its relation with third countries edition, Prentice Hall, 1998, p. 39.
2
because, as EU member state, it was Ibidem.
3
deprived of the status of developing country Desmond Dinan, Encyclopedia of The European
and the right to benefit from customs Union, MACMILLAN, 2000, p. 279-280.
4
Ibidem, p. 280.
preferences by developed countries (such 5
Ibidem, p. 278.
as USA, Canada, Japan, Australia, New 6
Theo Hitiris, op. cit., p. 40.
Zealand)49. As regards integration benefits, 7
Romania and the European Union. Historic
the most important are Romania's access Chronology, Romanian Academy, The Institute
to important community funds (especially of Political Science and International Relations
for agriculture and regional development), Publishing House, Bucharest, 2004, p. 7.
8
reforms acceleration, support for the Costel Gîlcă, European and Social Law
transition to market economy, joining the Guide, Rosetti Publishing House, Bucharest,
common market. However, benefits are 2005, p. 215.
9
diminished by costs and “discovering the Cezar Avram, Roxana Radu, Adela Lupu, The
Evolution of the Concept of Sovereignty, in
existence of a bill will start to create a
“The Revue of Socio-Human Studies” nr. 4-
pressure on the citizens and even a 5/2004, Romanian Academy, The “C.S.
reaction of rejection if the effects and costs Nicolăescu Plopşor” Institute of Socio-Human
of integration are not transparent”50. But, Research, p. 107.
10
taking into account that integration costs See also Victor Duculescu, Constanţa
are in fact the costs of Romania's Călinoiu, Georgeta Duculescu, Comparative
modernization, absolutely necessary, we Constitutional Law, second edition, Lumina Lex
consider that the efforts made for Publishing, Bucharest, 1999, vol. I, p. 404-405.
11
integration are profitable for Romania, and The Constitution of Germany stipulates, in
the joining perspective was the objective article 24, that “The Federation may, by
legislation, transfer sovereign powers to
that Romania needed to achieve in this
international institutions. For the maintenance
transitional period51. of peace, the Federation may join a system of
Both the competence and the loyalty mutual collective security; in doing so it will
to the Union will be asserted by Romania consent to such limitations upon its sovereign
when it will make its choice for the powers as will bring about and secure a
adoption of the European Constitution. peaceful and lasting order in Europe and
The presence of the mentality of nation- among the nations of the world”.
12
state's absolute sovereignty, the modification See also Genoveva Vrabie, European
of Romania's Constitution in 2003, but, Integration and State Sovereignty, www.ccr.ro.
13
especially the perpetuation of nationalist Octavian Manolache, Community Law, All
Beck Publishing House, Bucharest, 1995, p. 42.
ambitions and vanities have led to the 14
Victor Duculescu, Ruxandra Adam, op. cit.,
uncertainty of what Romania would do p. 19.
after becoming a EU member state. The 15
See also Dorina Nãstase, Mihai Mãtieş, op.
modality of expressing itself in the concert cit., http://studint.ong.ro.
of the new Europe will certainly be an act 16
See also Genoveva Vrabie, cited work,
of loyalty, competence and political www.ccr.ro.
17
maturity. Jean-Victor Louis, L'ordre juridique
communautaire, Perspectives Européennes,
6eme édition, 1993, p. 15, cited in Dan Claudiu
16
ROMANIAN POLITICS
33
Dănişor, Actors of political life, Sitech Hugues Portelli, Les régimes politiques
Publishing House, Craiova, 2003, p. 221. européens, Librairie Générale Francaise, 1994, p.
18
For details, see also Dorina Nãstase, Mihai 160-162.
34
Mãtieş, op. cit., http://studint.ong.ro. Ibidem, p. 161.
19 35
Ioan Vida, Constitution's Revisal and Jean-Louis Dufour, International Crisis.
Romania's Integration into the Euro-Atlantic From Beijing (1900) to Kosovo (1999), Corint
Structures, www.ccr.ro. Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002, p. 195.
20 36
Cristina Iliescu, Ruxandra Ionescu, The See also Elizabeth Pond, The Rebirth of
Adaptation of the Sovereignty Concept in the Europe, Pandora-M Publishing House,
Perspective of European Integration, Târgovişte, 2003, p. 76-81.
37
http://www.colegejuridique.ro/files/c/2/ref. Ibidem, p. 204.
21 38
Dorina Nãstase, Mihai Mãtieş, The Future of Marianne Dony, Droit de la Communauté et
Romania's &ational Sovereignty in the Perspective de l'Union européenne, Éditions de
of European Integration, http://studint.ong.ro. l'Université de Bruxelles, 2001, p. 283.
22
The Decision nr. 148 from 16th April 2003 of 39
Petre Anghel, European Institutions and
Romania's Constitutional Court concerning the &egociation Technics in the Process of Integration,
constitutionality of the legislative proposal of http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/StiintePOL/anghel
revising Romania's Constitution, cited in Victor /8.htm.
40
Duculescu, Ruxandra Adam, Romanian &ational From Essen to Cannes. The Itinerary of the
Raport Regarding the Impact of the Accession Romanian Strategy of European Integration,
to the European Union on Romania's Juridical Romanian Academy, 1995.
41
Order, The Romanian Revue of Community Romania and the European Union. Historic
Law nr. 4/2004, p. 17-18. Chronology, Romanian Academy, The Institute
23
Bogdan Aurescu, The &ew Sovereignty, All Beck of Political Science and International Relations
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2003, p. 160-161. Publishing House, Bucharest, 2004, p. 54.
24 42
Gabriel Andreescu, Adrian Severin, A Romanian Valentin Stan, &ATO and EU: the Dilemmas of
Concept on Federal Europe, in “A Romanian Expansion, in Foreign Politics nr. 3-4/1997, p. 17.
43
Concept on the Future of the European Union”, Robert D. Kaplan, A &ew (Willing) Ally in Europe,
Polirom Publishing, Iaşi, 2001, p. 51. New York Times, 10 November 2002, cited in Petre
25
Ovidiu Ţinca, The Aplication of the Anghel, op. cit., http://www.unibuc.ro.
44
Subsidiarity Principle in the European Petre Anghel, op. cit., http://www.unibuc.ro.
45
Community, in The Romanian Revue of Mircea Cosma, Teofil Ispas, Romania's
Community Law nr. 2/2003, p. 41. Integration into the European and Euro-
26
Bianca Maria Carmen Predescu, Ion Predescu, Atlantic Structures, Terrestrial Forces
Aristide Roibu, The Principle of Subsidiarity, p. 21. Academy, Sibiu, 2002, p. 44.
27 46
See also Pierre le Mire, Droit de l'Union Ion Jinga, Romania's Profile in the European
européenne et politiques communes, Dalloz, Paris, Union, in The Romanian Revue of Community
2001, p. 247-253; Marianne Dony, Droit de la Law nr. 1/2005, p. 11.
47
Communauté et de l'Union européenne, Éditions Ibidem, p. 13.
48
de l'Université de Bruxelles, 2001, p. 97-100. Ibidem, p. 14.
28
Article 5 (ex-article 3B) of the Maastricht Treaty. 49
Fota Constantin, Romania's Integration into
29
C. Boutayeb, Dictionnaire juridique des the European Union, Universitaria Publishing
Communautées européennes, PUF, 1993, p. House, Craiova, 2005, p. 169.
50
1033-1034. Emilian M. Dobrescu, How Much Does
30
See also Valentin Constantin, Open Subjects Integration Cost Us?, in “Euroconsultancy.
on European Integration, http://studint.ong.ro. Firm's Guide” nr. 1/2005, p. 8.
31 51
Desmond Dinan, Encyclopedia of The See also Emma Dăscălescu, Juridical
European Union, MACMILLAN, 2000, p. 219. Aspects of Romania's Integration in the World
32
See also Luciana-Alexandra Ghică (coord.), and European Economy, in The Romanian
Encyclopedia of The European Union, Meronia Revue of Community Law nr. 4/2004, p. 71.
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2005, p. 163.
17
R OMANIAN P OLITICS
Fundamental Changes in Romanian Trade Policy

after the Accession to the European Union
Elena TOBĂ, Dalia SIMIO
Résumé: L’article présente les changements arrivés dans la politique

commerciale roumaine grâce a l’adoption des principes fondamentaux du marché
unique européen: la libre circuliation des personnes, des biens et services, des
capitaux, les droits de propriété intelectuelle et industrielle etc.
Wordkeys: Integration, Common Policies, Free Turnover, Free Movement.
he adoption of EU trade policy by e. transformation of Romanian from a
T Romanian on multilateral, interregional,

regional and bilateral plan in its
relations with third countries outside the
country beneficiary of SGP in a grantor
country of custom preferences;
f. retreat from the Global System of
community inevitably brings important Trading Preferences (GSTP) between
changes in our country’s foreign trade developing country and from the
policy1 starting from 1st of January 2007, “Protocol of 16” developing countries,
in the following directions: by abrogation of preferential trading
a. absolute deregulation of Romanian agreements with third countries and of
trade with EU; other agreements concluded with these
b. alignment of custom duties in our countries or to adjust them to the
country, towards the third countries, to community aquis;
the ones in EU, which generally g. hold up the status of developing
implies custom duties to a level sensible country and, as a consequence the
reduced toward the third countries advantages Romania beneficiates from
compared to the level of custom duties in the field of trading policy, in the
in Romania, especially for the virtue of this status; this fact also
industrial products; imply the retreat of Romania from the
c. adjustment with the EU agreements to group of unofficial developing countries
OMC in the field of trading with goods from OMC and from the “Group of 77”
and services; developing countries which acts in UN;
d. accession to the OMC Agreement h. etreat of Romania from agreements
regarding the public purchase; with CEFTA, AELS from the free
trading agreements concluded with
Turkey, Israel, from the free trading
18
ROMANIAN POLITICS
Fundamental Changes in Romanian Trade Policy after the Accession to the European Union
agreements with the countries from markets, the exporters from the countries
the Western Balkans, in case it concluded member of EU succeeded to have free
any agreements with these countries; access to a market which reaches almost
i. because EU did not concluded a free 500 millions consumers.
trade agreement with Moldavian Republic The single market was realized by
until the date of Romanian accession adopting numerous Directives by the
to EU, starting from 1st of January 2007 institutions in EU, where had been removed
the free trade agreement between Romania the technical barriers, the bureaucratic
and Moldavian Republic had been laws and protective and non-protective
terminated; tariff laws of the member countries and it
j. participation of Romania to EU preferential was established the free trade and free
and non-preferential trading agreements: movement insidee the European Union.
- accession of Romania to the The fundamental principles of the EU
European Economic Space (EES), single market which Romania compels to
to which EU and Ireland, respect are:
Liechtenstein and Norway participate; 1. Free turnover. Starting from the 1st
- participation to the preferential of January 2007, Romania adhered to EU,
agreements of Euro-Mediterranean in this way being eliminated the last
partnership and to the partnership restriction from the mutual trade with
between EU and African countries, goods with the countries member of EU
Caribbean and Pacific (ACP); (this is about the fact that from 1st of
- access of Romania to free trade January 2002 had been deregulated the
agreements between EU and trade with industrial products, and now
countries from Latin America, had been deregulated the trade with
Persian Gulf and other countries agricultural products).
with which EU will conclude The single market allowed a
such agreements. development of competition between the
Starting with 1st of January 2007, companies inside the countries member of
Romania adhered to EU, in this way being EU in the benefit of the consumers,
eliminated the last restrictions from the because the offer of goods and services
mutual trade with goods with the member had been on one hand, bigger, and on the
countries of EU (this is about the fact that other hand the prices decreased.
from 1st of January 2002 had been Inside the single market, the free
deregulated the trade with industrial turnover is based on the mutual recognition
products, and now had been deregulated principle of single market. This consists in
the trade with agricultural products). a free turnover for the goods and services
To create a single market represents of one member country into other member
the essence of European Union, consisting countries, even though these are manufactured
in turnover of goods, services, capital and after different quality regulations and
people between the member countries. So, standards having the condition to strictly
it reach the situation that, by the four free observe the regulation of common interest
turnovers between the countries member regarding the public health, environmental
of EU, to form a single market where the protection and consumerism.
turnover is similar to the one developed in A second principle which functions
one country; as a result of eliminating the generally inside the single market is the
obstacles and opening the national principle of origin regulation. In this case
19
ROMANIAN POLITICS
Elena Tobă, Dalia Simion
had been created some detailed regulation clearance (declarations) used as data
at the level of EU with the strict source to realize the statistics regarding the
observance of local regional and national intra-community trade. For replacing this
customs, which make available the diversity data source, inside EU, instead of former
of products and services and the economical customs clearance, it is used a series of
integration. additional declarations which the company
The way of respecting these principles have the obligation to depose regarding the
by the member countries is being monitor intra-community transactions performed
by the European Committee which draws (for example, the declaration of statistics
up evaluation reports every two years, by Intra-state). In this way it had been created
which it held conscious the member and developed a statistic system for
countries about the existent problems and collecting the information directly from
of the imposed solutions. the companies which realize trading
Regarding the application of these activities with countries member of EU.
principles are aimed both individual The goods which arrive into a member
citizens and also the economic operators. state are called intra-community acquisitions,
The actions are developed in two and the goods which leave a state member
directions: one at the European Committee of EU having the destination to another
level, and the second one at the member state member of the EU are called intra-
countries level. community delivery. So, the statistics of
The plan of actions at the European intra-community trade is called INTRA-
Committee level, first of all, takes into STATE.
consideration the elaboration of a Guide 2. Free turnover of services. Services
concerning the principle of mutual are of critical importance for the common
recognition in the area of industrial internal market of EU, because they
products and of an explanative brochure represent between 60% and 70% of the
for the application of Decision no 3052/95 economic activity of EU-25 and
regarding the derogatory measures from approximate the same percentage in the
the principle of free turnover. manpower occupied by EU-25.
The plan of actions at the member The principle which governs the
countries level, which implements in practice internal market of services has been
the principle of mutual recognition, foresees generally called “the principle of fundamental
among other measure the inclusion of liberty” and has been regulated in the European
principle of mutual recognition in the Community Treaty. According to this principle,
national legislation, the strengthening of the companies having the headquarters in a
the cooperation between the national member state hold the freedom to establish
administrations from the member countries, and offer services inside the area of other
and also the preparation of periodic reports member countries. The principle of free
containing the implementation problems turnover of services developed along the
and the possible solutions. time thorough Decisions of European Court
Beginning with 1st of January 2007, of Justice and by regulations specialized
since Romania became a country member on fields, as: financial services, tele-
of the European Union and part of the communications, emissions and recognition of
Single Market, the custom boundaries professional qualifications.
between the member states disappeared With all these regulations in the field
and, as a result, there are no customs of free turnover of services it has not been
20
ROMANIAN POLITICS
reached the level of performances at the January 2009 until 31 of December 2009,
level of turnover of goods. The Summit in of minimum 11.000 euro from 1st of
Lisbon (March 2000) marked off the task January 2010 until 31 of December 2010
for the elaboration of a strategy to eliminate and of minimum 15.000 euro from 1st of
the barriers which hold back the free January 2011 until 31 of December 2011.
turnover of services. It is to be noted the 3. Free turnover of capital. The
suppliers with services rather than big companies. principle of free turnover of capital is one
Taking into account that the small of the four basic principles established by
companies are upmost, in January 2004, European Community Treaty (article 677)
the Committee promoted the Directive from 1957. According to the European
concerning the Services on the internal Community the free turnover of the capital
market of EU. This document has as makes possible the integration, de opening,
objective to eliminate the discriminatory the competition and the efficiency on the
barriers, to modernize the legal and financial market and of services and brings
administrative frame, inclusively in the more benefits to all parties. For the citizen,
field of information technology services the free turnover of capital means the
(IT), and to determine the member countries ability to perform more operations outside
to cooperate more and systematically. The the borders, respectively opening of bank
document consolidates in the same time accounts, to pick up shares of foreign
the user’s rights. companies, investments in the areas which
According to the Committee, in the bring the biggest profit and the most
last 10 years, the benefits of free turnover advantageous real estate transactions. For
of services - created over 2,5 millions jobs companies, this principle means that they
and registered incomes over 900 billion have the right to invest in foreign
euro. In the same time, it was noted that companies and to take part in their
the competition developed, which led to an management.
increase of quality and range of services In practice, the free turnover of capital
and to the convergence of prices. began in 1990, as a result of adoption of
The Treaty of Romania adhesion to Directive 88/361/EEC, which foresees the
the European Union stipulates in Chapter 3 elimination of control authorities of a
– The free turnover of services for a period member country over the citizens or
of transition of 5 years for transporting the companies of another member country
Directive no 97/9/CE regarding the charts who wish to invest. The free turnover of
of compensating the investors. capital was set solid by adopting the
So, by derogation from the article 4, Maastricht Treaty from 1993, where all
paragraph (1) from the Directive no 97/9/ restrictions regarding the free turnover of
CE, the minimum quantum of compensation capital and payments were eliminated
(20.000 euro) is not applied in Romania between the member countries, but also
until 11th of December 2011. Romania between the members and third countries.
ensures that its compensatory system for With this treaty it is considered that the
investors foresees a compensation of with field of free turnover of capital the
a minimum value of 4.500 euro from 1st of legislation is complete.
January 2007 until 31 of December 2007, After adoption of Maastricht Treaty,
of minimum of 7.000 euro from 1st of also other countries outside the EU area
January 2008 until 31 of December 2008, adopted the principle of free turnover of
of minimum 9.000 euro from 1st of capital, even in cases when some countries
21
ROMANIAN POLITICS
requested period of transitions regarding (2003) 259, the Directive regarding the
the foreign citizens’ right to buy a second electronic signature, the Directive 2002
house or land. The principle of free /38/EC and the Committee Communicate
turnover of capital initiated by EU opened (COM (1998) 374 – not published in the
the way for cooperation in the area of “Official Journal”) regarding the tax on
capital policy and payments at the electronic transactions.
international level. The Directive 2003/31/EC regarding
There are some exceptions concerning the electronic commerce eliminated the
the free turnover of capital both inside the obstacles for free turnover of online
EU, and also with third countries which services on the internal market of EU and
concern the areas of: taxes, prudent it forms the legal background for
supervision, considerations of public policy, businesses and consumers. The Directive
money laundering and financial sanctions establishes adjusted regulations concerning
which make the scope of external Policy the transparency and informational requests
and Common Safety. On these subjects, of the suppliers of online services,
the Committee communicates with the commercial communications, electronic
national monitoring authorities to assure contracts and limitations of the suppliers’
the correct appliance of these exceptions, obligations for Internet services (ISP). The
and where there are misunderstandings; Directive covers all the category of
EU requests the support of European services of the informational society, as for
Court of Justice. The Committee considers example: services between companies;
necessary to monitor the activities specific services between companies and users; the
to free turnover of capital in the scope of free services supplied to users, the ones
identification of eventual barriers and supplied for money or financed, as
restrictions inside EU, and also to improve advertisements and the sponsored ones;
the fields which are moving slowly. services which allow electronic transactions
The Treaty of Romania adhesion to (distant interactive sale of products and
the European Union foreseen in Chapter 4 services and purchasing centers).
– Free turnover of capitals: The areas and online activities
• a period of transition of 7 years to covered by the Directive regarding the e-
purchase land, forests and lads with forest commerce are: online papers, data base,
by the EU citizens inside the European financial services, professional services
Economic Space (EES); (lawyers, medical, accountants, real estate
• a period of transition of 5 years for the agents), services for relaxation (video etc.),
right to purchase a property for secondary advertisement and direct advertising intermediary
residence. services (access to Internet, transmission
4. Electronic commerce. The development and keeping of information).
of electronic commerce (e-commerce) is The effective operation of e-commerce
one of the key factors in the effort to make on the internal EU market is assured by the
the EU the most competitive and dynamic clause of the internal market, which means
economy in the world based on knowledge. that services of the informational societies
The legal frame for the e-commerce inside are, basically, subject to the regulations of
the EU market is established by the member countries.
Directive regarding the electronic commerce The Directive concerning the consume
2000/31/EC (COM (97) 157 final) (COM tax (VAT) for electronic commerce
businesses abroad foresees that the
22
ROMANIAN POLITICS
imposing of these businesses is applied for the success of development and to face
according to the laws in the respective the changes imposed by recent evolutions.
country where the consume takes place, 6. Public purchase. The percentage of
and the supply of digital products will not public purchase (assets, services and
be considered as delivery of goods. public works) inside the EU is estimated to
5. The companies’ law. The adjustment 16% of the EU PIB (approximate 1.500
of regulations concerning the management billion euro in 2002). At the level of
of companies, of accountancy and audit is member state, the percentage is between
essential to create a single market in the 11% and 20% of their PIB. Taking into
area of turnover of goods and financial consideration the important value of public
services. purchase both in the EU budget, and in the
The objectives of companies’ law are member countries one, the European funds
the shareholders’ protection and of contracting are concerned to assure open and
parties with companies; to assure the freedom transparent procedures to increase the
to create companies on the entire territory competition in the area of public purchase,
of EU; to institute the principle of in the scope of reduction of the costs paid
competitiveness and efficiency in business; by the governments and to increase the
promotion of cooperation between different economies for the tax payers.
member states and simulation of dialog The public purchases make the object
between the member countries with regard of EU regulations and international rules,
to the modernization of the companies’ law. but not all public purchases are the subject
The Treaty of Rome, which in 2007 of these regulations. For example the
makes 50 years from its conclusion, purchases of military equipments for
mentions the following principles: defense are excluded from these rules, but
• the companies are mutually recognized they have to observe the provisions of the
in all member countries; international treaties in that area.
• the companies created legally in a The number of Directives concerning
member state will not be requested for the public purchases was approved in year
formalities by other member state, except 2004 by the European Parliament and has
the ones that are usually requested to as scope to contribute to the simplification
national companies. and modernization of public purchasing
Adjustment of legislation was procedures, for example, by facilitating the
performed gradually, based on the specific electronic purchases in the public domain.
adopted Directives. The European Committee considers that
By others action plans, the European the rapid implementation of the new
Committee explains the necessity to Directive will contribute the increase of
elaborate some new initiatives to modernize transparency in the domain of public
the existent legislation or to complete it, purchases, will improve the operation of
due to the following reasons: in order to the internal market and will allow the EU
create a better internal market; to create an to take advantage of the benefits of the
integrated market of capital; to maximize enlarged internal market.
the benefits by applying the modern 7. Right to intellectual and industrial
technologies which introduce the use of property. Copyright and its associated rights,
electronic means, as compulsory regulations trade mark, the designs and patents (right to
when creating certain types of companies; intellectual and industrial property) represent a
stimulant for creation and investments in
23
ROMANIAN POLITICS
new activities destined to development of In the list of transition periods included

protected products (music, films, media published in the adhesion Treaty of Romania to the
products, broadcastings, etc.) and contribute to European Union, is mentioned in Chapter
the increase of competitiveness, of 2 – The free movement of people a period
employment places and of innovations. of transition of 2+3+2 years regarding the
Copyright is associated with important free movement of Romanian workers.
cultural aspects, social and technical which Until the end of two years period after
have to be taken into account when setting the actual adhesion date the member
out the policy in this area. countries will apply measures of internal
The Directive concerning the right to law resulted from the bilateral agreements,
intellectual and industrial property was which limit the access of Romanian
adopted in 2004. In a two years period, it citizens on the market of manpower from
permitted the adjustment of national each of these countries. The actual member
regulations of member states of the EU, so countries can continue to apply these
that the barriers have been reduced measures until the expiration of a 5 years
regarding the free turnover on the internal period after the adhesion date. At the end
market of the EU and it was created the of the 5 years period, a member state can
background for new forms of exploitation hold measures of internal law or measures
of the right of property. which result from the bilateral agreements
Nowadays there are preoccupations can continue to apply, in case when on the
for adopting some complementary measures: market of manpower from that member
• to consolidate the rights, as, for example, country has there is the risk to produce
the ones regarding the access to justice, severe disturbances, also after the
punishment of the law breakings and notification of the Committee, these
remediation of the prejudices; measures until the end of a 7 years period
• on the line of management and patent of from the adhesion date.
intellectual rights. This clause is of big importance
Copyright is of big importance for the concerning the demarche of Romania to
European Community, because it implies turn to profit, by competitive services, the
media, culture and industries based on qualities of its citizens regarding the
knowledge. The development of industries academic and professional qualification in
represents the performance indicative of a any member countries of the European Union.
post-industrial society, especially, for those 9. The contract law. The single
pertaining to the informational society. In market offered the citizens, investors and
the year 2000, the copyright industry companies the possibility to implicate in
contributed with over 1.200 billion euro to economic activities or in other activities on
the EU-15 economy and created an added the area of EU in similar conditions. In
value of 450 billion euro (5,3% of the total case of purchasing goods or services, it is
added value of EU-15) and 5,2 million of necessary to conclude a contract where are
jobs (3,1% of the manpower occupied in defined the conditions the transaction can
the EU industry). take place.
8. Free movement of people. The The Directives adopted on the line of
possibility to work in any country of the EU adjustment of legislation in the area of
represents one of the four freedoms which contracts had as scope the elimination of
characterize the single market of EU. obstacles for the free turnover of products
and services. The substantial progress had
24
ROMANIAN POLITICS
been noted in the adjustment of contract provisions of contract laws and in other
legislation in the areas of: electronic existent areas of activity or with
commerce, banking and insurance, right to development perspectives, the European
intellectual and industrial property, Committee adopted an action plan in this
consumerism and SMB policy. respect.
Nowadays there are concerns to
increase the degree of coherence of the
25
R OMANIAN P OLITICS
Government’s Role in Coordination of Decision-

Making Process
Mădălina VOICA
Résumé: Cet article discute le rôle du Gouvernement dans la formulation

des politiques publiques. La première partie présente les fondements
constitutionnels et légaux de ce rôle. On analyse aussi la nécessité et la
procédure de l’adoption du Programme de Gouvernement et l’importance de
ce document-cadre pour le procès de formulation des politiques publiques.
Les acteurs internationaux ont soutenu la création des structures
institutionnelles considérées nécessaires dans cette direction: l’Unité de
Politiques Publiques et les unités homologues crées au niveau de chaque
ministère ou autre autorité de l’administration publique centrale. L’article
conclut que la réforme dans la matière de la formulation des politiques
publiques a fait des des progrès importants, dont on peut voir les résultats:
(i) elle offre aux membres du Gouvernement plus de possibilités de discuter
les alternatives stratégiques de la manière de concevoir les politiques; (ii)
elle renforce la qualité de l’analyse sur la base de laquelle on élobore les
politiques; (iii) elle assure la transparence decisionnelle, en offrant aux
citoyens la possibilité de participer dès le début aux discussions sur les
politiques publiques.
Keywords: Public Administration, Public Policy, Reform, Policy
Formulation, Governance Program.
ne of the ideas that seem to be Constitutional Framework of the

O central to a discussion on post-
communist welfare reform is the
Government’s role on coordination
of decision-making process
assumption that newly democracies needs In its widest sense, the Government is
to significant developments in the public the ruling power in a political society. The
policy management system. In Romania role of Government in the functionality of
public policy reform aimed to strengthening a State has significantly evolved during the
the capacity of the Government to more democratic development. Government's
effectively deliver its political priorities as role has gone from providing basic
well as to ensure better coordination for security to concern in religious affairs to
public policy formulation. control of national economies and
eventually to providing lifelong social
security. As our societies have become
26
ROMANIAN POLITICS
Government’s Role in Coordination of Decision-Making Process
more complex, governments have become 3. To exercise the general management

more complex and powerful. On classical of public administration.
administrative law approach, especially in The first two responsibilities, listed
democratic and republican forms, the most bellow, define the Government role in
noticeable work of Government is to decision-making and coordination for public
exercise the executive power of state as a policy formulation. The public policy process
consequence the Government is seen as in Romania is at the beginning and in
the entity in charge with exercise of the practices exist different types of policy
general management of public administration. documents such us: strategies, programs,
These reflections should make us cautious, public policy proposals, plans, memorandums,
and by this study we would like to and information notes.
highlight another major tasked on the Legislative framework related to
Government responsibility: decision-making public policy process, including the
and coordination for public policy formulation. government procedures for legislative
On the other words, the Government drafting and consultation is regulated by
role goes beyond the responsibility to following normative acts:
maintain the peace of communal life by Laws:
coordinating the public administration o Law No.90 / 2001 (updated) on
institution. The Government includes the Romanian Government and Ministries.
complex and difficult task to coordinate o Law No.24 /2000 (republished)
the process of public policies formulation on legislative techniques.
by making important organizational decisions, o Law No.73 / 1993 (republished)
identification of different alternatives such on Legislative Council.
as programs or spending priorities, and o Law No.500 2002 on public
choosing among them on the basis of the finance;
impact they will have. Policies1 can be o Law No.52 /2003 on transparency
understood as political, management, of decision making process;
financial, and administrative mechanisms o Law No 188 / 1999 the statute of
arranged to reach explicit goals. civil servants;
According with Romanian Constitution o Regulations of the Chamber of
that regulates the Government Role and Deputies.
structure in article of 102 that states: “The Government Decisions
Government shall, in accordance with its o Government Decision No.50/2005
governance program accepted by Parliament, on Government procedures for
ensure the implementation of the domestic drafting, endorsement and submission
and foreign policy of the country, and of draft normative acts.
exercise the general management of public o Government Decision No.775/2005
administration.” on drafting, implementation and
Concluding over the normative evaluation of public policy at
provisions the Constitution assigned the central level.
Government with three key functions: o Government Decision No.750/
1. To elaborate the Governance Program. 2005 on standing inter-ministerial
2. To ensure the implementation of the councils.
domestic and foreign policy of the The Strategy for Accelerating the
country, and Public Administration Reform 2004- 2006
defines the main initiatives to be developed
27
ROMANIAN POLITICS
Mădălina Voican
in the field of public policy making. framework for further specific public
Problems in the field of public policy policies proposals.
process also has been analysed within Governance Program is the basic
number of reports2 of international strategic planning document that allows
organizations and counterparts on policy the newly appointed Cabinet Government
making and co-ordination in Romania members opportunity to impose their
were taken into consideration. specific policies. By Governance Program
the newly party in power define its
Governance Program and policy strategy/direction, in making decisions on
formulation allocating its resources to pursue this
When working on a large and strategy, including its capital and people.
multifaceted reform, newly elected parties As a Strategic Planning document that
have to push forward reforms. The shapes the form of new governance for the
Governance Program offer the Cabinet a next 4 years period of time, the Governance
framework to summarize political goals Program is the formal consideration of the
and objectives into a structured document, Government’s future course. All strategic
as a mission statement /or a vision statement planning documents deal with at least one
for regular 4 years electoral cycle. As any of three key questions:
strategic planning document and decision 1. "What do we do?"
processes, the Governance Program should 2. "For whom do we do it?"
reveal the objectives and the roadmap of 3. "How do we excel?"
ways to achieve those objectives that the By the Governance Program the party
Government engages for. or coalition of parties that won the
The Cabinet (Government) is headed elections often take opportunities to shape
by Prime Minister and comprises a economic policies for their own electoral
variable number of persons3, usually 12 to benefits and accordingly with their doctrinal
20 persons. The Prime Minister candidate theses. For example, a left wing party in a
is nominated by the state president. Once government might adjust policy to social
nominated, the candidate for the Prime measures, so purer layers of society would
Minister Portfolio forms the Cabinet and see that government as a friend. The right
elaborates the Governance Program. In wing politicians and governors would
order to get the official empowerment the maintain laws that reinforce companies’
Parliament endorsement is needed. The rights and powers, so entrepreneurships
candidate for Prime Minister position would see a right wing government as a
engages political responsibility for both the friend. Depending on the nature of the
Cabinet team and their strategic planning measures predicted in the Governance
activity, synthesized on Governance Program. Program, naturally, the exploited persons
The Parliament examine, as whole, the in these situations may see government
Governance Program and the Cabinet very differently.
composition. If consented, the Parliament After the stage on which the
vote and empower both the Cabinet and Parliament approved Government priorities
their declared mission statement- the formulated in the Governance Program,
Governance Program. Once approved and those provisions has to be considered as
accepted by the Parliament the Governance priority tasks for line ministries to develop
Program became a compulsory official public policies, draft normative acts or
document, which offers the general
28
ROMANIAN POLITICS
ensure other activities in shorter terms, most significantly the Central Unit for
with clearly defined results. Public Administration Reform and Prime
What is a public policy? There is a Minister Chancellery on developing institutional
lack of a consensus on the definition of infrastructure and the legislation for Public
public policy. One of the definition Policy Reform.
proposed by professor Heckathorn states OECD_SIGMA’s6 preliminary review
that a public policy is a deliberate plan of of Center of Government institutions and
action to guide decisions and achieve practices suggested that it may be possible
rational outcome(s)4. Consequently, a public to build on some existing ad hoc
policy proposal is a policy document arrangements that appear to be ensuring
intended for solving specific policy problems reasonable vetting of policy proposals in
in case if there are several possible alternatives the area of European Integration. Consistent
or there is a need for a conceptual with SIGMA’s preliminary findings, The
agreement on the essence of the normative World Bank has proposed building on
regulation5. There could be one or several precisely those same ad hoc practices,
normative acts that derive from one public converting them, over time, into formal,
policy proposal. We would like to standing sub-committees of Cabinet
underline that a policy differs from rules or (Government), and gradually creating
law. A law can be one of the outcomes of similar sub-committees for each of the
a public policy document. While law can most important and enduring broad policy
compel or prohibit behaviors (e.g. a law areas. The special discipline of planning
requiring the payment of taxes on income) was unified and transferred from the 11
policy merely guides actions toward those sub-comities to only one: Strategic
that are most likely to achieve a desired Planning Council7.
outcome. Strategic Planning Council was
established to monitor the implementation
Institutional infrastructure for of priority tasks. In that case the templates
coordination of public policy and reporting system was defined by
formulation Strategic Planning Council. The Strategic
To ensure the functionality of the Planning Council is not an administrative
system of public policy formulation it was body, but acts more as an ad-hoc committee.
necessary to build up an institutional In practice the Council performs the
infrastructure. Starting with 2003 there function of ensuring harmonization and
were several significant developments in coordination among political layers of the
the policy management system. ministries involved in decision making
General public administration reform process.
in Romania was supported by several Among first institutional measures
international actors this is why the intended to capacity building was the
international influence on public policy setting up the Public Policy Unit (PPU) in
process came in various forms and a the General Secretariat of the Government
varying degree impact. First ideas on (GSG) and staffing this unit with young
public policy reform were put foreword by and qualified specialists. As one of the
the European Union and indirectly departments that make up the Chancellery
encouraged in country assessments. of Prime Minister, the seat of the PPU is at
The World Bank funded international the Government office. The PPU was
consultants to work with the reformers, established by a Government Ordinance
29
ROMANIAN POLITICS
Mădălina Voican
and its organizational structure consists of well as to ensure better regulatory

a body of civil servants coordinated by a environment.
Secretary of state. PPU was established in
2003 to provide coordination to PPU Conclusions
counterpart units in the line ministries. Over the last 5 years, the Romanian
By establishing of the PPU Government role on policy making and
counterpart units in the line ministries, administrative accountability evolved and
representatives of Public Policy Unit of the have a significant impact by both improving
General Secretariat of the Government on the predictability and effectiveness of
brainstorming sessions and workshop government policies and by bringing
discussions with counterpart representatives transparency and accountability to public
of centre of Government institutions and life.
line ministries can assure the implementation The Public Policy Reform reached its
of Government priority tasks through aims by following achievements:
public policies documents. i. Increase effectiveness of government
Through adoption of the regulations policies by giving members of Government
regarding the procedures for designing, greater opportunity at an earlier stage to
implementation and evaluation of public discuss strategic alternatives in the
policy at central level the PPU ensures that design of policies. Gradually ad-hoc
all ministries will comply the requirements practices on policy formulation were
to develop public policy proposals in a adapted, over time, into formal structures
specific format for all major legal acts such as: Strategic Planning Council and
prior to their drafting. In respect of Public Policies Unit.
building an unitary practice, the PPU of ii. Strengthen the quality of analysis upon
GSG has also prepared The Public Policy which policies are built. Conforming to
Manual8 to assist ministries in working the reform improvements, the procedure
with the new regulation. for legislative solutions was changed to
International influence on the Public policy decision making, based on policy
Policy Reform came in a more direct form documents. Adoption of new procedures
through formulation of the Strategy for for policymaking, agreed with international
improving the public policy planning and assistance actors, based on Public Policy
formulation system at central level, that Strategy allows appending estimates of
was prepared within the PHARE the budgetary and other impacts.
Twinning PROJECT RO2003/IB/OT/ 10, Besides that the content of substantiation
2003/005-551.03.03 “Strengthening the note shall include budgetary impact
Romanian Government’s capacity for assessment, the Government has the
policy management and coordination and mandate to issue a methodological
for decision-making” together with norms regarding impact assessment of
representatives of Public Policy Unit of the draft normative acts
General secretariat of the Government of iii. Ensure transparency on decision making
Romania. process by opening and distributing all
All these infrastructure and regulatory draft normative acts for public comment.
measures have aimed to strengthening the New procedures for policymaking give
capacity of the Government to more stakeholders greater opportunity at an
effectively deliver its political priorities as earlier stage to participate in policy
discussion
30
ROMANIAN POLITICS
4
Acronyms: Heckathorn, D., Maser, S., The
CUPAR - Central Unit for Public Contractual Architecture of Public Policy:
Administration Reform A Critical Reconstruction of Lowi's
PPU - Public Policies Unit Typology, The Journal of Politics 52 (4),
1990, pp. 1101-1123.
GSG - General Secretariat of the 5
***, The Public Policy Manual, Public
Government Policy Unit of the General Secretariat of the
Government, 2006, p. 3.
6
otes Sigma Report: Romania Policy-Making
1
see McCool, Daniel C. Public Policy And Co-Ordination Assessment July 2004;
Theories, Models, and Concepts: An Sigma Report: http://www.oecd.org/data
Anthology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: oecd/ 40/12/34990425.pdf
7
Prentice Hall, 1995, p. 4. The functions and role of Strategic
2
European Commission Comprehensive Planning Council is defined by GD No.
Monitoring Report on Romania, Brussels 750/2005.
25, October 2005, SEC (2005) 13541 and 8
SGG, Strategy for improving the public
Assessment report of SIGMA, 2005. policy planning and formulation system at
3
Cabinet members must be persons of the central level, http://www.sgg.ro/docs/File
highest reputation, known for heir high /UPP/doc/STRATEGIEpoliticipublice.pdf
morality, integrity and competence in the
specific field.
31
I NTERNATIONAL P OLITICS
Russia and the Binominal of Power
Ion DEACOESCU
Résumé: La Russie est la principale victime de l’implosion du système

communiste et de la fin de la Guerre froide, tandis que les Etats Unis en sont
le principal bénéficiaire. Aujourd’hui le gouvernement de Moscou fait des
efforts considérables pour regagner ses positions et pour refaire l’ancien
binôme du pouvoir.
Keywords: Globalization, International System, Leadership, Superpower.
t has become more and more obvious maximum advantage, thus becoming a
I that Russia has already begun to put to
practice its plan to recover a clear
world superpower. At present, Moscow
makes considerable efforts to recover this
position in the international relations gap and to re-establish the former USA-
system and to re-acquire the role it once USSR binominal, as well as the monopoly
held within the balance of world power. of the “political agenda” through which to
The transition phase following 1990 has determine new subjects and actions in the
triggered off other types of equilibriums in current international political life.
the world, but also obvious blending in the However, the role of leadership now
relations among states, once extremely imposes a new type of behavior in the
complicated, in the world geopolitics, arena of international relations, and Russia
which have facilitated the economic is more and more active in another type of
globalization, as well as the switch in the politics, especially energetic and military,
“sense” of current history (the highways of looking to retrace some favorable
information, the financial markets, the coordinates on geographic areas as wide as
escalation of terrorism, the religious possible. Some recent approaches
extremism etc.). demonstrate this vision. The expedition led
One is familiar with the fact that by two Russian MPs, Arthur Cilingarov
economic power imposes the military and Vladimir Gruzdev, in the Arctic
power, which can become, in some Ocean, aimed at supporting Moscow’s
circumstances, a real factor of power in the claim to the oil, gas and minerals in the
international system. area, in virtue of the idea that the
Russia has lost the most, following the Lomonosov Strip, a underwater formation
implosion of the communist system and of over 1800 km, which unites Siberia and
the end of the Cold War, situation from Canada, represents the prolongation of
which the United States have taken Russia’s continental platform and thus the
32
INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
Russia and the Binominal of Power
latter is due a much wider area of the force in its relations with the US, still
Arctic Ocean, while the implantation of a warning that the risk of some obvious
Russian flag made of titan, 4 km under the deteriorations of the relations between
North Pole, was not only a symbolic Russia and the US, especially in the
gesture, but one with complex meanings conditions in which Moscow installs, as a
and with possible unpredictable meanings counter-reply, a S-400 TRIUMF anti-
in the near future. racket shield, with a range of action twice
Russia’s expansionist politics is as long as the PATRIOT American
known for centuries, and Russia’s present missiles, being able to destruct targets at
vision of strength, under the rule of 400 km distance from the launching base.
president Vladimir Putin, of recovering the If one adds the extremely acute energy
position of world superpower, must issue to this, an issue managed by Russia
become concerning to the world leaders. almost with easiness and pragmatism in
Moscow’s recent decision to suspend the relations with the partners from the
its participation to the Treaty regarding the EU, warned since last year of Russia’s
limitation of conventional forces in Europe hardly calm intentions as regards the new
(CFE) represents another proof that the weapon of fuels, we will surely soon
Russian politics has changed its substance witness another type of pre-figuration of
and the desired effects. the putinist Russian politics, as,
The causes of this approach reside, paraphrasing the title of a successful
firstly, in USA’s unilateral retreat from the movie, “Moscow don’t believe in the
Treaty regarding anti-ballistic missiles tears” of the oil and gas consumers,
(ABM), signed in 1972 by Richard Nixon subscribed to the Russian tap.
and Leonid Brejnev, document through
which one limited the use of the anti-
ballistic systems by the two military
superpowers. But the most important
reason for Russia’s position is represented
by the American presence, near its
borders, on wider areas: the establishment
of military bases in Romania and Bulgaria,
as well as the activation of the plan to
place an anti-racket shield in Europe.
In these circumstances, Kremlin’s
decision to suspend the application of the
CFE Treaty must be understood as a clear
and determined political signal within
Russia’s relations with the United States
and with the EU, consolidating Putin’s
rigid decision during the discussions with
Bush at Maine, without foreseeing any
partial solving to the dispute between
Moscow and Washington.
The Western political analysts have
avoided to consider that Putin campaigns
for himself by approaching a campaign of
33
The New Democracy and Market Reforms

in Latin America
Ioana ALBU, Andrew TOLETT
Résumé: Cet article propose un débat sur la démocratisation de l’Amérique

Latine, débat que l’on ne peut pas séparer des circonstances historiques
particulières de l’époque d’après la Guerre froide, lorsque la gauche
politique de l’Amérique Latine essaye de s’imposer et de vaincre les forces
globalistes. La gauche politique est “privilégiée” dans notre approche de
l’Amérique Latine, grâce au rôle central qu’elle joue dans la société et dans
la politique. Pendant les dernières décennies l’Amérique Latine est devenu
un “champ d’essai” pour les politiques néo-libérales de la globalisation et
de la démocratie; la consolidation de la société civile et la privatisation
stimulant une renaisance aux niveaux politique et intelectuel.
Keywords: Globalization, Post-War Transition, Structural Adjustment,
Industrialization, Opression, Peripherization, Pauperization.
lobalization has had a great impact main reasons account for this, the first of
G and is responded to in various parts
of the world, such as East Asia,
which being the post-colonial domestic
social structure. The social structure of the
Middle East, Africa and Latin America. In country has been characterized by two
the 1980s the main theme of Latin elements: a strong state and a weak civil
American debate is democracy1. The Latin society, displaying a few relevant aspects:
American intellectuals and more political parties unrepresentative, civil
prominently the political left are the very institutions rather weak and nation
basis of the democratization debate. The building under way of consolidation.
particular history, post-Cold War and post- According to Jorge Castaneda, from
modern are the ones that determine this the first half of the twentieth century, the
debate and form the actual background in best-known Latin American intellectuals
which Latin America finds itself going were on the left of the political spectrum3.
beyond globalization and neo-liberalism. The second aspect refers to the relationship
In this context, structural forces play a of the intellectuals with the western world,
central role. In analyzing the Latin always at the cutting edge of political
American societies and politics, the left- theory4 arising from a different post-
wing intellectuals have created an entity2 colonial tradition from that in other regions
in itself, playing a highly central role. Two of the world. Here, the present population
34
The New Democracy and Market Reforms in Latin America
from which intellectuals are of European years imposed an emergency measure of

descent [having no native roots, culture or import substitution8. The idea was to
religion so as to reflect either national produce goods that could no longer be
identity or self-expression], whereas obtained from abroad. Thus a model of
colonialism has strongly altered native development was shaped after World War
culture and society. II, denoting a structural break with the
The above-mentioned stand for the world capitalist system. The above-
troubled post-war transition of Latin mentioned model implied the process of
America from development to contemporary incipient industrialization of the
neo-liberalism. The individuals within this underdeveloped countries. The state
group were frequently participating in the played the leading role in making policies
leadership of political parties making the that vise the domestic development of the
policies that formed the respective region, country, encouraging foreign investment
actually having the political power. whilst developing industrialization
According to Castaneda, these individuals combined with import substitution.
played the role of mediators between the Dependency theory was mainly a Latin
two main actors – the state and society5 – American theory of development9.
in the link between one another. “In the Postwar policies in Latin America
history of power in Latin America there are were state-centric. Similar examples were
only military dictatorships or intellectuals”6. the Soviet industrialization and the revival
Another important aspect related to of the European economies after World
the intellectual left is the ’aligning’ of War II, which reinforced the central role of
Latin America to the world economy, in a the state in the centralized economic
neo-liberal trend7, which has preceded the planning. Latin America’s exports were
neo-liberal integration of the advanced made expensive, whereas imports cheap10
countries. The consolidated Western by the whole array of public policies:
democracies once presented the same consolidation of infrastructure/industry;
pattern as Latin America, which now subsidizing basic food products, imposing
experiences a return to democracy and a price controls thus keeping labor costs
civil society which has a new role. Thus, to down in urban areas, nationalization of the
those looking at social reconstruction in key industries as well as protecting local
the old democracies the intellectuals’ industry against foreign competition.
reflection on the new political economy The model of import substitutive
and its nature in Latin America becomes a industrialization transformed the region’s
source to be treasured. economies in the 1950s-1960s being quite
Turning now to the position of Latin successful even if subsequently discredited.
America in the world economy before According to A. Hoogvelt11 “Latin
World War II, one can say that it occupied America’s economies were growing faster
a similar position to other colonial areas, than those of the industrialized West. At
the main exports being made in exchange the political level populism accompanied
for goods from the West. Foreign the economic theory of the import
companies owned and/or controlled the substitutive industrialization. The ruling
mines and plantations. The national elite attempted at mobilizing and uniting
policies focused primarily on exchange industrialist, masses and peasants
rates, tariffs and taxation, all favoring ‘instilling’ the message of nationalism and
export and the war that followed for a few
35
Ioana Albu, Andrew Tolett
national development, blaming the nization. A series of social-economic

American imperialism. reforms that were imposed severely are in
However, by the second half of the close connection to the international
1960s, the model declined, problems context that shaped them (the collapse of
worsened in all fields. At this point the Bretton Woods system, the
dependency theory came into its own acceleration of the internationalization of
analysis of underdevelopment. It was the capital and the ‘recycling of petro-dollars’
left intellectuals who pointed out that the the 1970s13. An important element to be
model had lead to a deepening of added here is the interest of the American
dependence and underdevelopment. The foreign policy in the region ‘translated’
reason for this was the existing class into numerous actions (e.g. the armed
structure, colonially inherited that has invasion as in the Dominican Republic in
determined a visible unequal distribution 1965), the training of armies and police for
of income, limiting internal domestic peace programs (such as in Honduras, El
markets. The domestic market was limited, Salvador, Nicaragua).
the foreign industrial subsidiaries set into Examining the region’s political
motion an inefficient system of production economy of the 1970’s in Latin America,
and an outflow of resources, contributing it went through a change in the foreign
to the economy becoming regressive. investment. Most countries in the region
Further to the post-war indus- needed to borrow to cover balance of trade
trialization and social development, there deficits, but the new lending went to
emerged new middle-class (working class) private companies and para-statal companies;
sectors, willing to participate in the relatively little covered government deficits.
political life of the country, their demands According to the World Bank, huge wastes
for rights contributing to the political crisis of money and corruption determined a
of the 1960s, at the same time the guerilla high inflation; in the early 1980s the debt
warfare and terrorism being developed. burden increase massively and the dollar
The overall picture in most American interest rates were extremely high.
countries was characterized by economic All through this period of time, the
stagnation, high inflation and serious variations in political style, economic
balance of payment difficulties. The only policies and performance occurred.
solution seen by many elites against the Regimes like Venezuela or Brazil were
domination of the state by revolutionary regarded as ‘bureaucratic authoritarian’14
forces was the return to authoritarian rule pursuing development programs coordinated
by military dictatorship, in an attempt at by the state, whereas others, like Chile or
restoring the condition of social and Argentina were ultra-modernist, focusing
political stability, essential condition for on privatization and export-orientated
accumulation and economic growth12. accumulations. Some regimes recorded
Thus imports of military equipment placed very high rates of economic growth
Latin American countries among the main (Brazil, Mexico, Chile), while others had
importers, many of them having military no economic record to show.
governments by the middle of the 1970s. The economic situation of the country
This came in contradiction with the went even more through changes and
assumption that a consolidated civilian austerity measures in the 1980s, when the
government together with more professional program imposed by the IMF and World
armed forces trigger economic moder- Bank led to contraction, de-industrialization,
36
The New Democracy and Market Reforms in Latin America
drastic reduction in wages, declining living The overall picture now was characterized
standards and popular revolt in all by a reversal of economic fortunes, a
countries of Latin America. There emerges widening of inequalities and the deepening
a form of civil society which would be the misery of the masses18.
center of attention, as well as the nature of Since 1980s the Latin American
the democratic rule. By understanding the region has witnessed an extraordinary
dynamics of the relationship between increase in the organizational capacity of
economic and political forces in Latin civil society, which has been both a source
America, much may be learnt about the of hope and an issue about post-modern
new forms of democracy emerging there15. social reconstruction.
The program of stabilization and The movements lead to leftist coalitions
structural adjustment imposed by the IMF that took power at local (municipal) level,
and the World Bank and backed by the US as opposed to rightist coalitions that rule
set up the neo-liberal agenda and shaped the national state. Some of the larger
new relationships between the state, movements developed into NGOs,
society and the market. Thus, there take financially viable and accountable. To the
place new forms of political mobilization, revival of civil society, the women’s
democratic rights are set as a priority, the movement in Latin America takes a
public and the private sphere is clearly special place. They were very diverse and
delineated. The democratization process in had different goals. Apart from these, the
Latin America in the late twentieth century environmental groups could be included,
is analyzed along the delineation political as well as the peasant movements.
democratization-social democratization, Conclusion. Globalization has led to a
i.e. establishing autonomy in a constitution polarized model of accumulation in which
and experimenting with different democratic the domestic market is no longer seen as
mechanisms and procedures in civil society16. being strategic to development. The main
Structural adjustment programs came concern of the ruling class consisted in
into operation and Latin America faced a creating proper conditions to attract
paradox: i.e. the return to civilian rule. The international capital, cheap labour, flexible
struggle against dictatorship took place working conditions, no taxation, leading to
outside the left-wing party and a cleavage between a small percentage of
organizational structures. In their place enriched population, ad the ret turned
new forms of human rights movements pauper. Throughout the 1990s the region
took place in Latin America. One should faced a continuing social decline. Latin
distinguish between the ‘party left’ and the America’s wealth, its markets and its
‘movement left’17, the latter one being the labour remain targets for exploitation. The
fulcrum of the re-democratization of the state remains the most powerful
region. The military regimes “returned to instrument of global domination, being
barracks”. What is interesting is that the perceived as the locus of oppression.
intellectuals from the traditional left Quoting Ankie Hoogvelt again, one could
(Marxist-Leninist) joined the grassroots say that the dismantling of the
movement in a struggle for electoral developmentalist model and its
democracy. This support of the intellectual replacement by the neo-liberal model has
left for the democratically elected thrown the region into a “spiral of
governments has lead them to rethink the peripherization and pauperization”.
relationships between state and the market.
37
Ioana Albu, Andrew Tolett
otes 10
1
F.J.Schuurmann, Beyond the Impasse: D. Green, Silent Revolution, the Rise of
&ew Directions in Development Theory Market Economics in Latin America
(London:Zed Books, 1993), pp.113-21 (London: Cassell and Latin America
quoted by A. Hoogvelt, Globalization and Bureau, 1995) p. 16, quoted by A.
the Postcolonial World (The New Political Hoogvelt.
11
Economy of Development, 2-nd ed., Ibidem.
12
Palgrave, 2001), p. 239. Gary W. Wynia, The Politics of Latin
2
J.G. Castaneda, Utopia Unarmed (New American Development (3-rd ed.,
York, Vintage Books, 1994), p. 177. Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 104.
13
3
Ibidem. Ibidem, p.112.
14
4
A. Hoogvelt, op. cit., p. 240. Ibidem, p.230.
15
5
J.G. Castaneda, op. cit. , p. 179. K. Roberts, Democracy and the
6
Ibidem, p. 196 Dependent Capitalist State in Latin
7
Ibidem. America, in Monthly Review, Oct.1995,
8
Ibidem. pp.12-26.
16
9
R. Prebisch, The Economic Development Ibidem., p. 22.
17
of Latin America and Its Principal A. Hoogvelt, p. 252.
18
Problems (NY: Economic Commission for D. Green, op. cit., p. 164.
Latin America, 1964).
38
2008 US Presidential Elections: The Iraq War,

Party Platforms and Social Polarization
Anca Parmena OLIMID
Résumé: La guerre d’Irak est le principal facteur de la campagne

présidentielle de 2008. Aujourd’hui elle représente le problème central de
l’opinion publique Américaine. Cet article est une approche analytique
intégrative de cette campagne, portant surtout trois questions: les sondages
concernant les préférences des Americains pour l’élection présidentielle de
2008, le vote de la population hispanique et les déclarations des candidats
sur le problème Irakien.
Keywords: Presidential Campaign, Poll, Hispanic Vote, Iraq Issue.
residential elections are the heart of clear: to answer these attacks and rid the
P any democracy; they are the
instrument for the people to choose
world of evil”4.
leaders and, at the same time, they are a Iraq issue in 2008 Polls for President
core public function upon which all other The war in Iraq is the major factor in
government responsabilities1. Today, polls this year’s presidential campaign. It
indicate that the majority of Americans represents the major policy issue on
lack confidence in the electoral system and American’s minds and it has been at the
the political parties are so divided top of the list on Gallup’s most important
concerning the major issues of the society2. problem since March 2004. The majority
The most important undertaking of the of Americans believe that the United
first George W. Bush administration was States can win the war in Iraq, but only
the war in Iraq; today, at the end of the about a third think it actually will win the
second Bush administration, there is a war in Iraq5.
growing consensus across the political In December 2007, a CBS News/New
spectrum that this war may be the York Times Poll showed that the
president’s most disastrous undertaking as Democrats voters disapproved the way
well3. George W. Bush was handling the
It is also important to notice that in situation with Iraq6. The majority of
2001 presidential campaign, George W. Americans favor setting a timetable for
Bush offered a new approch to foreign removing US troops from Iraq. At the
policy and expressed strong reservations same time, 45% believe that the
about America’s undertaking nation Democratic Party is more likely to make
building “Our responsibility to history is the right decisions about the war in Iraq.
39
Anca Parmena Olimid
CBS ews/ew York Times Poll, December 5-9, 2007

"Do you approve or disapprove of the way
George W. Bush is handling the situation with Iraq?"
Approve Disapprove Unsure
% % %
ALL adults 26 69 5
Republicans 58 34 8
Democrats 7 92 1
Independents 22 73 5
.
10/12-16/07 26 67 7
9/14-16/07 25 70 5
.
"Regardless of how you usually vote, do you think
the Republican Party or the Democratic Party is more likely
to make the right decisions about the war in Iraq?"
either
Republican Democratic Both (vol.) Unsure
(vol.)
% % % % %
12/5-9/07 30 45 2 9 14
9/4-8/07 32 42 1 9
Source: CBS ews/ew York Times Poll, December 5-9, 2007,
http://www.pollingreport.com/iraq.htm.
At the same time, a USA Today Gallup parties, the Democratic Party would do a
Poll showed that, thinking about the political better job of dealing with this issue7
USA Today/Gallup Poll, ov. 30-Dec. 2, 2007

.
"Thinking now about the political parties:
Do you think the Republican Party or the Democratic Party would do a better job of
dealing with each of the following issues and problems?
How about the situation in Iraq?"
Republican Democratic o Difference
Party Party (vol.)/Unsure
% % %
11/30 - 12/2/07 38 48 14
1/9-11/04 53 37 10
.
Source: USA Today Gallup Poll, November 30-December 2, 2007,
http://www.usatoday.com/news/polls/tables/live/2007-12-03-politics-poll.htm
Despite these extreme levels of concern, determing vote for President. Only 6 %
there is much consensus on Iraq issue. At say that homeland security/defense is
this point, 36% of Americans think that the actually important and only 3% pay
war in Iraq is the most important issue in attention to the international affairs8.
40
2008 US Presidential Elections: The Irak War, Party Platforms and Social Polarization
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
y
y
re
q
on
irs
y
n
xe
ue
m
tio
rit
Ira
rit
io
rit
ca
fa
rti
no
Ta
at
iss
cu
cu
eg
ra
af
n
bo
lth
uc
co
se
ig
se
i
nt
tic
al
ar
A
ea
Ed
m
ei
ee
nd
al
on
es
W
im
at
ci
Th
ela
ati
id
So
al
Do
rn
om
nd
ig
te
Ca
Ill
In
Source: Gallup Poll, What Voters Want, January 3, 2008,
http://www.gallup.com/poll/103534/What-Voters-Want.aspx
The Hispanic vote: the key to 2008 there is no consensus about the timing of
elections? any troop withdrawal. While three-
The race to replace George W. Bush quarters want to decrease the number of
results in a strange inversion of recent troops in Iraq, only a third advocate a
campaigns: Democrats and Republicans complete, immediate withdrawal. There is
prefered to champion the idea of post- even less support for that option among
partisanship. In fact, in 2007 presidential independents (15 percent) and Republicans
debates, the conservative ideology on the (6 percent)10.
nomination process seems imperiled. In 2008 presidential elections, the
Today, the majority of the Republicans Hispanic could become decisive. Hispanic’s
believe the improved security in Iraq could are the U.S. largest and fastest growing
help whoever becomes the Republican minority group: at 46 milions strong, they
Party’s presidential candidate in November make about 15% of the U.S. population
2008: John McCain, Rudy Giuliani, Mitt and in 2008, Latinos will comprise about
Romney and Fred Thompson worked 9% of the eligible electorate nationwide11.
desperately to present themselves as social Even though immigation has had a very
defenders of the conservative pol of the high profile in the early stages of the 2008
American foreign policy. presidential debates, the war in Iraq rise
At the same time, the Democrat’s also to the top when Latinos registred
nominee will have a major advantage with voted are asked to give a list of six most
independent voters going into the 2008 important issues in this campaign.
presidential elections9. Even among Democrats,
41
Anca Parmena Olimid
Extremely important Very important Total
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Education Health care The economy Crime Immigration The war in
and jobs Iraq
Source: Paul Taylor, Richard Fey, Hispanics and the 2008 Election: A Swing Vote?,
Wasshington, D.C.: Pew Hispanic Center, December 2007
2008 Presidential Candidates on The plan will have three specific goals:
Iraq issue non-interference, mediation and reconstruction
The war in Iraq remains the most funding.
important issue in the battle for the The central idea of senator Barack
Democratic Party nomination where Obama’s project is a phased redeployment
senator Hillary Clinton of New York of troops to the U.S., Afghanistan and
continues to lead the debates in public other points in the Middle East no later
opinion polls. The major part of Hillary's than May 1, 2007 with the goal of final
plan is the first: to end the U.S. military removing by March 31 this year. In this
engagement in Iraq's civil war and respect, Obama recommends a regional
immediately start bringing troops home. and international diplomatic initiative
Her plan for Iraq begins with a phased “involving key nations” within 60 days. He
redeployment of U.S. troops in 90 days. At says: “I made a different judgment. I
the same time, the Hillary’s strategy will thought our priority had to be finishing the
include an international conference with fight in Afghanistan. I spoke out against
Iraq’s neighbors in order to reduce the what I called ‘a rash war’ in Iraq. I worried
interference in the internal affairs of Iraq. about, ‘an occupation of undetermined
length, with undetermined costs, and
42
2008 US Presidential Elections: The Irak War, Party Platforms and Social Polarization
undetermined consequences’. The full increase and says that this war is one
accounting of those costs and consequences Americans cannot afford to lose. He
will only be known to history. But the believes the United States should continue
picture is beginning to come into focus”12. to coordinate efforts to assist Iraq.
Former senator John Edwards accepts John McCain voted in 2002 to authorize
immediately withdraws in the next 12 to invasion. He also agreed with the
18 months by the fall of 2008 “without President’s difficult decision to go on war
leaving behind any permanent U.S. in Iraq and he remains totally supportive of
militar, U.S. military base in Iraq”. In fact, his determination not to leave Iraq until the
John Edwards has done the most to carry freely elected government.
the progressive banner, even though he Costs of the war in Iraq continue to
initially supported the Iraq war13. accrue for the people of the United States.
His recent declarations have found that Most Americans are somewhat aware of
the United States should keep its troops in the important of this issue in the 2008
Iraq as long as necessary until the situation presidential debates. Iraq will unavoidably
there gets better. But that does not mean be the main subject of debate during US
most Americans necessarily want a quick presidential campaign; the debates will
exit from Iraq. While the majority of the almost certainly encompass the original
Democrats continue to support setting a decision to go on war as well as postwar
timetable for withdrawing U.S. troops, political transition and reconstruction
John Edwards favor a gradual withdrawal: efforts in Iraq15.
immediately withdraws 40.000 to 50.000
combat troops. At the same time, sufficient otes
1
forces should remain in the region to Building Confidence in U.S. Elections, Center
contain the conflict and ensure stability in for Democracy and Election Management,
the region. American University, supported by Carnegie
There are certainly obvious differences Corporation of New York, The Ford
between the Democrats and Republicans Foundation, John S. and James L. Knight
Foundation, Omidyar Foundation, September
perspectives concerning Iraq. The Republican
2005, p. ii.
Party has been especially vexed in recent 2
Bruce Buchanan, The Policy Partnership,
nomination contests by the Iraq war issue. Presidential Elections and American Democracy,
In fact, the Principal republican groups– Routledge, New York, 2004, p. 18.
big business and traditional religion-get 3
James Kurth, Ignoring History: U.S.
along better, but they can still disagree14. Democratization in the Muslim World, Orbis,
In order to get the party’s nomination, Foreign Policy Research Institute, Elsevier
Rudy Giuliani’s perspective on Iraq is Limited, Philadelphia, Spring 2005, pp.
clear. In an interview, Giuliani said that the 305-306; Idem, Global Threats and American
goal of U.S. engagement in Iraq is a secure Strategies: From Communism in 1955 to
Islamism in 2005, Orbis, Foreign Policy
nation where Iraqi should have the
Research Institute, Elsevier Limited,
institutions they need to provide security Philadelphia, Fall 2005, pp. 631-632.
for their country. He also says there are 4
Remarks, National Cathedral, September
significant inhibitors to political progress. 14, 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov /news
Althought the U.S. goal remains constant: /releases/2001/09.
5
to create stability. The People's Priorities: Gallup's Top 10,
Mike Huckabe is supportive of decision November 2, 2007, http://www.gallup.com /poll
to invade. He is also in favor of troop
43
Anca Parmena Olimid
11
/102526/Peoples-Priorities-Gallups-Top.aspx? Paul Taylor, Richard Fey, Hispanics and
version=print. the 2008 Election: A Swing Vote?,
6
CBS News/New York Times Poll, Washington, D.C.: Pew Hispanic Center,
December 5-9, 2007, http://www.polling December 2007, pp. i-iii.
report .com/iraq.htm. 12
Barack Obama, Plan for ending the war
7
USA Today Gallup Poll, November 30- in Iraq, Clinton, Iowa, September 12, 2007,
December 2, 2007, http://www.usatoday. http://www.barackobama.com/issues/iraq/.
com/news/polls/tables/live/2007-12-03- 13
Franklin Foer, Election 2008: A Voter's
politics-poll.htm Guide, Yale University Press, London,
8
What Voters Want, January 3, 2008, 2008, p. 18.
http://www.gallup.com/poll/103534/What- 14
William G. Mayer, The Making Of The
Voters-Want.aspx. Presidential Candidates 2008, Rowman &
9
Nelson W. Polsby, Aaron Wildavsky, Littlefield, Lanham, 2007, pp. 8-9.
Presidential Elections, Rowman & Littlefield, 15
David North, The Crisis of American
Lanham, 2007, pp. 119-122. Democracy. The Presidential Elections of
10
Jon Cohen, Dan Balz, Poll Finds 2000 and 2004, Mehring Books, Sheffield,
Democrats Favored On War, Washington 2004, pp. 42-43.
Post, Tuesday, July 24, 2007, p. 1.
44
The Role of Malta in a Unified Europe

A Cultural Interpretation of a Political Reality
Oliver FRIGGIERI
Résumé : Cet essai porte sur le rôle international que le plus petit des états
de l’Union Européenne pourrait jouer aujourd’hui, en partant de l’histoire,
de la culture et de la spiritualité maltaise, vues comme les sources de l’avenir
de ce pays.
Keywords: &ation, History, Identity, Independence, Future.
ertain factors have forcefully creeps in. Perhaps the past can be narrated
C contributed towards the definition
of Malta, at least that Malta which
also through intuition, and not only
through reasoning. The heart is frequently
is immediately identifiable in terms of its more perceptive than the mind.
objective characteristics: the unique Historical research has successfully sought
geographical position midway between to identify and to describe in detail what
two distinct continents and constituting makes such a minute stretch of land a
part of the frontier of one of them, the long nation, and eventually an autonomous state,
colonial experience, the composite nature as any other. An exception to the rule, to
of its history and culture, the strong and the point of eventually claiming to be a full
uninterrupted religious tradition which is member of a Unified Europe, an EU
as ancient as its exceptionally early free which will soon be simply known as
standing stone buildings. Simply the oldest Europe. The island’s smallness is already
of this type, and yet pertaining to an an indication of something peculiar which
unpretentious tiny rock. All this is contained has managed to stand the arduous test of
within a very small space, which is also time, to outwit the dictates of history and
complete, constituting a whole. to finally arrive at the phase which defines
Smallness and entirety: that is the first a nation as fully accomplished. The fact
paradox, begetting the rest. God created that Malta is now the smallest member of
elephants and God created ants, and He is the European Union is a significant
equally marvellous in both cases, perhaps indication of the persistency with which
much more in the latter one. An ant the Maltese have traditionally stuck to the
involves implication, a way of ‘putting it conviction that their nationhood should be
all in a nutshell’. Indeed, a living universe finally rewarded by all. That is Malta, the
almost invisible, demanding knowledge nation and the state. A will to be.
and astonishment to be somehow appreciated.
And that is where the idea of a novel
45
Oliver Friggieri
One whole story about survival be important to guarantee existence at least

But what about the inhabitants, those in terms of the primeval notion of common
few thousands of people who have social conviviality. In any case, whichever
persistently built themselves up into what the complex implications of such premises,
they are today? Survival is the ultimate one can safely consider Malta as a very old
rule of the complex game, and continuity nation, endowed with a civilisation of at
is the sort of process which made them least seven thousand uninterrupted years.
reach their seasonal destination. That is why Being Maltese, therefore, is equally a
a history of Malta may be substantially source of authentic pride and a matter of
distinct from a history of the Maltese. self-investigation. Being Maltese is itself a
Where were they, all along, so productive question.
– through their highly fascinating and That question can be answered both
resourceful spoken word, and their finely scientifically, through documented conclusions,
carved and constructed stone – and yet so and literarily, through the creative, imaginative
conspicuously absent, unacknowledged? construction of a novel. If both endeavours
The land and the inhabitants: they are or could be associated so as to form one
have been for quite a long time two diverse unique process of discovery, then that is
entities, since history has put the people in quite fine. Academic research provides
a situation wherein they had to spend most conclusions which literary perception can
of their life asking who they were, what then amply reorganize into a meaningful
right they actually had to exist, what sort narrative.
of relationship could be the most The fundamental issue still beckons:
convenient for them to establish with their what does it actually mean to be able to
foreign landlords. One thing they have survive and to eventually define yourself
never put in doubt: the land was theirs. as Maltese? To me it has instinctively been
Religion (pre-Christian and Christian) an equally existential and historical query,
and language (pre-Maltese and Maltese) and has gone a very long way in providing
have actually moulded their condition, me with material of various sorts for my
giving shape to their frame of mind (their narrative works. In academic research things
grammar amply testifies this). Both are could not be substantially different, but in
intimately intertwined in a manner rarely that field matters have to be dealt with and
found in the chronicles of enormously bigger analysed clinically, with complete detachment.
countries which did not have to face the In creative literature imagination and memory,
most elementary among problems: survival. the ideal and the real, have to play a
Faith and language have helped the simultaneous double role, and results are
Maltese defy the incessant challenges of unpredictable since individuals do not easily
time. If, or when, both succumb that will fall within the predefined patterns. Even
be the unhappy ending of the story. The structural criticism makes an allowance for
harshest onstaught of all is perhaps today’s. such divergences.
The ultimate problem of Malta is Malta.
The challenge of overcoming extinction The essence of the Maltese soul
went hand in hand with striving to construct I have sought to explore the close
nationhood, to keep alive that degree of quarters of the Maltese soul (religious,
collective coherence necessary for a community Mediterranean, Southern European, insular,
to be defined as something unique and peripheral) in my poetry, novels and short
compact. For a long time it all seemed to stories. Such remote and shaded territories
46
The Role of Malta in an Unified Europe
are normally unsung, unacknowledged, novel is a question. Then revision comes

perhaps disowned, only to be considered next, involving scrutiny of all sorts.
as mere aspects of outdated, irrelevant folk The central point is the reality of someone
life. Beyond being a Nationalist or a living on a tiny sunny land surrounded by
Labourite, there is something abysmally the infinite ocean. The inhabitant is
deeper. There is much to prove that such hardworking, stubborn, kind, determined,
residues of the past, especially as may be unrecognized, and has two constant points
rediscovered through fiction, betray traits of reference: his God (omnipresent, eternal,
of archetypal modes of perception and almighty) and his range of land (here and
behaviour still enduring in the post- now, restricted). Both have never failed
modern inhabitant. In spite of the Malta him/her. The land is minute and the sea is
Labour Part-Partit Nazzjonalista persistent infinite; both contradict the inhabitant's
claim to parenthood, which is not at all innate sense of space and preciseness. But
unwarranted, the inhabitants of the island opposites resemble each other, and so the
are inevitably and simply Maltese, a fact security of faith and the pervading feeling
forcefully preceding the recent formation of precariousness blend together. So it has
of our partisan grouping. This has proved been, and so it still is, when a whole cultural
to be a beneficial acquisition, an indication heritage is being consistently dismantled.
of how close to continental belief has been An island is thus seen as an open secret,
the Maltese spirit during the British period. an exception to the rule of the much broader
Our modernity has been moulded in terms spaces, a peculiar reality worth exploring
of a truth much deeper than itself. which is quite different, perhaps more
Perhaps, by way of opposites, another intriguing and inspiring, from the one a
conclusion is plausible: bipartisanship may visitor may get on the mainland, the so-
be even older than the political parties called 'terra ferma'. In the specific case of
themselves. A strong plant needs soil. The Malta, things are perhaps much more
French period is already indicative of engaging. Here a whole continent finds its
duality: for instance, Mikiel Anton Vassalli uttermost boundary. The periphery begets
and Dun Mikiel Xerri, both exemplary in a special sensation. That is what can be
their own way, are so similar and yet so sought within oneself and consequently
distinctly different. And there starts the through the depiction of characters and
long weary story of our modernity. situations in a novel. At least that is what I
All this I have learned and revisited have sought to do in my novels.
continuously in the process of constructing In Fil-Parlament ma Jikbrux Fjuri (1986)
seven novels over about thirty eight years. an average Maltese citizen, ironically
The period of actual writing is much shorter, named Karlu Manju, questions all, talks to
but the thinking course is incessant and himself and to everybody, and eventually
occupies the whole range of time. A novel seeks his origins in the magnificent old
takes much longer to be felt and thought, temples. He must have been born in the
digested, than to be designed on paper and whereabouts of Mnajdra, Hagar Qim,
then written down. Inner experience is thus Tarxien Temples, he who lives now, in an
put into shape, and I would say that a novel urbanised spot. He goes on a walk all
is nothing more, and nothing less, than the alone on that day, preceding elections,
shapening of something initially vague, or when PN and MLP organize their own
else too obvious to be taken seriously. A final mass, massive meeting, a real show
of strength, a tough tug of war, then
47
Oliver Friggieri
dutifully followed by a silent day of issued by Mireva Publications. I have

reflection... or revision of choices already sought to delve even furthur into this
made. The novel seeks to discover whether matter in the sequel to It-Tfal Jigu bil-
Karlu Manju is actually a member of the Vapuri, namely La Jibbnazza &igi Lura
group. There he goes, through utterly (When it Clears I will Return, 2006), as
desolate streets as both mass meetings duly well as in the third novel in the series, still
unfold, on his way towards the ancient unpublished, Dik id-Dghajsa f’&ofs il-Port
temples, where his credentials for his (That Boat in the Middle of the Harbour).
modern claims are held, defying time. Is Whilst narrating through fiction the modern
he a member of a third hypothetical party, ‘history’ of a country in my own way, I
or just an undercurrent within the two found myself coming to grips with what
mainstreams? makes it worth discovering. Indeed, ‘to be’
The concept of unity, oneness, is is not equivalent to ‘to know’.
fundamental to both major parties. Twoness Gizimin li Qatt ma Jiftah is set in the
would amount to imperfection. A whole late fifties, whereas It-Tfal Jigu bil-Vapuri
tradition of thought is implied in such and La Jibbnazza &igi Lura reconstruct
simplifications. Malta is indeed, albeit the early decades of the twentieth century
unconsciously, Mediterranean, in spite of and years later, namely phases of the British
itself. A study of the essential vocabulary period. Everything is meant to depict a sort
repeatedly employed by the major political of Malta which is sadly no more, but
parties will easily prove this. One minimal which will presumably reside in the
underlying language serves them both. memory of various generations, enticing
Where can one really strike a middle the younger ones to imagine and to dream
course? For instance, if the record of of a future partially resembling the past. It
history cannot provide us with a unifying is all meant to be a tribute to our
national day, can we, or should not we, foremothers and forefathers who passed
create one artificially? Yes. away without ever being complimented
This is the essential list of elements for all they have done: to create a nation
constituting this unique exception, a out of nothingness, and through sheer
diminutive island which is equally a city belief in what they were.
and a nation, a geographical dot and a Is this all irrelevant to the present? Of
formidable fortress of history, standing course it is, only if a plant can survive in
midway between two continents, belonging isolation from its roots.
to the South of Europe and so close to Perhaps globalisation, merely substituting
North Africa, looking very far ahead from the previous forms of dictatorship through
herself. A dynamic paradox? Perhaps that the unwarranted intrusion of the media on
is what makes Malta worth narrating individual life, is heading towards something
through novels, both as a given reality and of this sort. So the island portrayed in these
as a paradigm of being, whoever, wherever. novels may actually be somewhere within
I have tried to do so in my novels Fil- us, timeless. It still persists. Is it possible
Parlament ma Jikbrux Fjuri (In Parliament that tourists choose to visit such a remote
no Flowers Grow, 1986), Gizimin li Qatt rock mainly to discover a feeling islanders
ma Jiftah (Jasmin Blossoms for all Time, inevitably experience all time? The
1998), It-Tfal Jigu bil-Vapuri (Children situation in Malta during the British period
come by Ship, 2000), and Koranta and may be a fitting setting to evoke such a
Other Short Stories from Malta (1994), all perception. The contemporary period, which
48
in certain respects can be easily called ‘the religious faith and national culture, predating
self-destructive period’, can lend itself to our ancient Christianity itself. Both belief
much thought in this regard. in Our Lord and love towards the country
A tentative answer only begets questions, (‘Religio et Patria’ for the Nationalist Party
at least in literature. All these novels, I and ‘Malta l-ewwel u qabel kollox’ for
now come to understand, are inherently Dom Mintoff’s Labour Party) have
related to each other, based on my uninterruptedly flourished together in
knowledge and experience of the British partial isolation, indeed a splendid one
period in Malta, namely in Balzunetta, which has not deprived any of what is
Floriana, so endearing, and fascinating, essential and common to any other
and intriguing, so colourful in the way it anywhere else.
was experienced by our forefathers and by It then had to be St. Paul, shipwreched
us who can fully recall its final fase. The and warmly welcomed, to give a different
portrait I can thoroughly provide is related and much more distinctive mould to that
to the Grand Harbour area and to preexisting conviction that heaven and
Balzunetta, both of which I have done my earth must meet somewhere in the human
best to reconstruct and to evoke in highly soul, if both are to have any meaning at all.
respectful ways. It has been quite alluring They do meet in the Maltese spirit, and
to draw on dear memory and to enliven it that is quite interesting for anybody who
with imagination. would like to look at Malta from the
inside. An X-ray instead of an average
A nation built on memory photo. That can be done through a novel.
The Maltese themselves, deprived for
many centuries of the recognition of their A novel going beyond history
speech medium (Maltese) in official life, The inner aspect of the island resembles
had to rely on memory (verbality). Our an unlocked mystery, whereas the outer
nation is actually built on our collective one seems to exemplify just another
memory. I have tried to interpret this fact segment of the complexity of the South.
through characters who never write anything. We are the southernmost part of the South,
A pre-alphabetical era, ancient, indeed and a methodic comparison with northern
modern, or even post-modern, contemporary. countries yields ample proof. Only regionality
Spoken verbality as the national unwritten (as opposed to continentalism) provides a
archive of a community. Does this imply complete definition of a country. Malta can
that the real soul of our people has died a be best understood through its belonging to a
silent death? Indeed, words are people. An specific region, and that is definitive. We
important character in these novels, Katarina, will always be Mediterranean. Characters
embodies all this. In other respects she is a in It-Tfal Jigu bil-Vapuri and La Jibbnazza
remnant of something on its way towards &igi Lura are all, including victims, the
extinction. product of a long, uninterrupted tradition,
Archaelogical evidence pertaining to insular and self-sufficient, within which
Malta goes back to seven thousand years. they recognize themselves.
Here are the oldest free standing stone And so the long story goes... An
buildings in the world. Its megalithic temples unmarried mother, Susanna (Biblical
are a marvel, the earliest "churches" which connotation), a rigidly traditionalist father
have actually established the major feature (Saverju, a typically Southern name) and
of Maltese identity: the unity between an utterly submissive but patient mother
49
Oliver Friggieri
(Katarina), a saintly priest whose holiness calm down and lead back to normality.
knows no bounds and is therefore equally That is due to our long standing religious
saintly and self-destructive (Dun Grejbel, a tradition, to which we owe also our
name denoting the locally formed diminutive complete social well being. The Church-
of ‘Gabriel’), and a distant, though vigilant, State dispute has normally illustrated this
demanding, unanimous, croud: perhaps tendency. Life on an island must in any
these are the constituent elements of a case look like a family event, an
conventional Southern European village, unpredictable story in itself which must
as typified in a local one. In such a remote then have a happy ending. Celebrations of
corner, “it-tarf tad-dinja” (the edge of the any sort are frequent, church village festas
world), all the predicaments of life are are a continuous occurrence, whereas politics
equally present: peace and disorder, love is indeed an entertainingly controversial
and hatred, life and death. Indeed, the commitment to most inhabitants. Almost
village provides both the cradle and the every argument has a partisan connotation.
tomb, birth and burial, and is therefore All words are inevitably loaded with
utterly complete, self-sufficient, in itself. unintended meaning. Most of our double
A welfare state of fact, preceding the or triple meaning is partisan. Meaning
thought of it all. Indeed, the partial isolation Added Tax. Nothing in Malta is politically
of our foremothers/forefathers may have free. Political correctness here means political
been a real privilege. I now do believe isolation belonging. All else is either myth or death.
may be a way of having the best of both Sad enough, but then sufficiently pleasant
words. Malta still stands that chance, but to narrate, to translate into a novel.
other choices seem to have naively taken When all these ingredients are put together,
over. A real pity for our future generations, the product must be contextualised isolation,
who will have to decide whether living in a condition which is neither inferior nor
Malta is viable or not. superior to any other, but just different. It
Either directly or in disguise, the is intriguing to think that there may be
question of ‘splendid isolation’ and dutiful only two spaces: ta’ Malta (inside Malta)
integration has always been there. It has and ta’ barra (outsiders). I and the other.
consistently been the real cause of the But in actual fact it is a state of the mind,
bittermost encounters (Strickland, Mintoff, possibly everywhere, and not just a
the Church-State relationhip, the EU geographical fact. This can be best explained
membership question, post-modernism, as a modified application of the ancient
typified in the vivacious Lawrence Gonzi- Mediterranean principle that reality can be
Alfred Sant cultural conflict), but to date best, if not only, perceived through a dualism.
never to disagreeable degrees. The Gonzi- In these novels I have sought to explain
Sant conflict, a generational duel, may be events and feelings through the sense of
systematically analysed and defined, for belonging, perhaps the one underlying all.
instance, in terms of the adjectives they The family, the parish, the district
employ in the regard of each other, and the (conventionally known as either a city or a
semantic context within which such intentional village or a suburb), the parish, etc. are
adjectives are adoperated. The exercise makes aspects of how belonging is organised,
me very sad, and may I leave it at that. structured, transformed into conviviality.
Indeed, a thoroughly cultural encounter. In the light of a whole spate of unwritten
Maltese conflicts somehow reach a rules, such characters constitute a sort of
point and then come to a hault so as to autonomous state long before political
50
awareness reached that stage. Malta lacked equivalent to "being" (the nominative is
leaders of its own for a long time simply frequently equated with the genitive). One
because it failed to look for them in the is born within a group, and different
average person. A question of roots, choices may only be made within that
unacknowledged, even despised. Independence decisive perspective. An islander cannot
is essentially mental, not constitutional. easily afford to be capriciously exposed to
the whims of the other, the unfathomable,
The distinctive identity of islanders the unpredictable. And "the other" is really
Islanders are a peculiar breed. They the sea, that huge expanse larger than
tend to be inwardlooking and yet are one’s own, different, ambiguous, immobile,
always in search of the outer world. Local ferocious, challenging. It recalls the past,
tourism, an invitation to discover what when sieges have left an indelible mark,
makes a rock a real nation, largely depends mainly psychological, and it ushers the
on the hospitality of the average people. future, when the wide world will become
The Maltese instinctively greet foreigners closer with its indiscriminate dictates.
and would go out of their way to make Central points move. Globalisation is
them feel at home during their stay. That indeed the new form of centralisation,
verdict is unanimous and the Maltese trace succeeding the collapse of formal dictatorships,
their virtue back to Biblical times (The Acts typical in diverse ways of any era, now
of the Apostles, 28:1). In St. Luke’s account determined by a non-political force: technology.
the key-word is perhaps ‘courtesy’, ‘hlewwa’. Will it eventually lay claim to what we now
(A term related to ‘hlewwa’ - ‘ohla’ - has consider sacred? Technology is a marvel,
eventually found its place even in the namely by definition incomplete, not self-
island’s national anthem). In actual fact, sufficient. In novels formally evoking the
this may be due to what seems to make the past (such periods as pre-war, post-war,
Maltese consistent in their perception of post-independence, post-colonial), the present
themselves and of the universe at large. is indirectly implied, and comparisions and
The entrenched feeling of duality, namely contrasts are immediately drawn.
a world view necessarily divisible into two
is, in my opinion, essential to the whole An island resembling a boat
interpretation. The Maltese are quite proud of their
It is inevitable to have to face such an identity and therefore they will not find it
interpretation in the process of writing. A very difficult to recognize the more important
human type in a novel, a general social truth that their party only constitutes a half,
background, an argument, all characters and that the sense of incompleteness must
seen as a group, the choice of a specific be overcome. There they are: partisan in
‘literary’ word as opposed to the more all respects, duly critical of the opposing
frequently used one: this sort of twoness party, and yet ready to acknowledge that
has largely determined my way of thinking they are all survivors. Otherness, as
and constructing written works. represented by the opposite group, is
The two major political parties have necessary for the islander to be sure of
for many decades shared power and his/her completeness.
support between themselves. Bipartisanship Otherness is not what it is in a
has been a workeable choice from the very different context, namely where the sea is
start. Most Maltese belong from their early not so close and does not constitute a
years to their party, since "belonging" is definitive boundary. Opposites imply and
51
Oliver Friggieri
resemble each other. Hence the islander is the medium chosen by God to disclose his
tied to the sea as much as to the fields. I plans to humankind, namely to the language
have tried to explore this dichotomy in the of the Torah, the Gospels, the Quran. The
novel La Jibbnazza &igi Lura, where a dignity of the Maltese language is simply
large segment of the story occurs in the superlative. Therefore, the characters of a
Grand Harbour area, the fanciful place of novel must naturally, albeit subconsciously,
decades ago, the joy of my generation. embody this feeling, this sense of security.
Detailed descriptions and colourful memories As usual, it is all due to the most privileged
help to recall and to revive the splendour aspect of our identity, faith. The Church
of Harbour life any time of the day, any can save whatever is still there to be saved
day. One only closes one’s eyes to see of a whole tradition, or else it will perish
better, through memory, the earliest, the like all perishables. A Church at the cross
most recent candid camera. I firmly conclude roads. The choice is hers to make, here and
that a large portion of the creative act is now.
made up of nostalgia, an undefineable feeling Another stage in the process of modernised
pervading all senses. Thank God for isolation is normalisation. That only involves
nostalgia, especially now when now-ness is the adoption of international criteria. The
almost all. That environment is perhaps the fact that the Maltese tend to be
most solemn aspect of the land-sea contact automatically divisive on most issues is
and of what makes islanders what they are: only indicative of their need to discover
people related to the ocean, always aware otherness. They are aware that the ocean is
of its call. ‘Vapuri’ used to bring babies as a ‘wall’, and that the land is a sort of open
much as they will always carry adults to harbour, embracing water on all sides. The
other countries. Birth and departure are fortress image which Malta had for so long
both a ‘vapuri’ affair. The islander, therefore, has been assimilated as part of the people's
is anybody anywhere. An island lives mental apparatus. Our collective unconscious
within the self as well. is that of a sailor, retired, remindful,
Let us concede that this, our, story is a nostalgic. At least this is what I had in
tale about self-contentment. In the context mind when constructing La Jibbnazza &igi
of other countries, Malta’s story has been a Lura, where the Grand Harbour area is
story of success. In other terms, unequivocal, thoroughly described and explored in its
relative isolation has been a privilege. varied features. There is a ‘bambott’ (bum
There enters pride, in disguise, inhibited, boat) willing to become a ‘gadraj’ (ship’s
and real. Much of the pride of the Maltese chandler), and there are all the nuancies of
is derived from their profound attachment an alluring environment which I very well
to the land and from the fact that they have remember and have sought to reconstruct
an ancient language, rich, resourceful, in great detail. That stretch of sea between
recognized by so many remarkable foreign Valletta and Floriana, on one side, and
scholars as uniquely interesting for its Kottonera, on the other, typifies the condition
intercontinentality, intimately related to the of the rest of the island. The island’s real
world’s three major religions. Maltese is story cannot be understood if not against
simply close to the sounds God Himself the Grand Harbour’s background. At least
has chosen to speak to this planet. So much this is how I concluded that a Maltese
pride condenced within a language. In story could actually resemble the story of
spite of our low national self-esteem, we any islander anywhere else. Delete any
know that Maltese is simply very close to
52
reference to Malta, and it will still be qualified, all having to assume a different
anywhere else. So is life, just one. nature as times change and as globalisation
The protagonist of Fil-Parlament ma takes its cruel toll on whatever survives
Jikbrux Fjuri, ironically named Karlu and flourishes through relative isolation.
Manju, considers himself a full person, an Globalisation is most cruel in the regard of
example of unified duality, embodying the the small and the weak. Just another
completeness and self-sufficiency of the seasonal sort of totalitarianism.
emerging Maltese citizen. But even this is There came the need, throughout the
partly elusive since things, ideas and twentieth century, for Malta to rediscover
people in Malta must be conceived in itself, to evaluate its heritage and to present
terms of to whom they belong. Such an it to the outer world. There lies its justification
illusion is necessary, a sign of the times, for being accepted in all normal terms
indicating an urge which is fast gaining within the European family of nations,
ground among the younger generation, however unfair and inconsistent the
even though the traditional structure will concept of such a family can be. The fact
still be there for a long time to come. The that such an island has built itself into a
predominance of the genitive case in state is indicative of the great amount of
surnames and nicknames is, for instance, self-confidence the inhabitants have always
only an indication of a profounder had in their homeland and in themselves.
characteristic of the islander: immobility. Malta still a ‘colony’? To a great extent,
Mobility, however, is equally decisive. and in a metaphocial sense, it cannot afford
In these narratives a villager moves towards not to be. The irony of it all is that neo-
the harbour, there to start life afresh, colonialism is frequently identified with
eventually to understand that ‘ships’ also modernism, whereas references to other
move outwards. A lesson which Furjana countries prove otherwise. But the process
and Isla, amongst other places, forcefully is still reversible, and the solution depends
impose on all. Children used to arrive on how much an inverted sense of isolation
happily by ship, as much as adults then can be overcome. Only international
used to sadly leave their abode by ships. criteria favour national redemption from
The cruel irony of islanders. ‘Lanca gejja any sort of outdated colonial feeling.
u ohra sejra’ (a boat is coming and another
one is going). It is all about the variations Malta’s future residing in the past
on the theme of migration. The territory as well as the mental
An island of this sort is quite unique: frame are closely related to each other in
exceptionally small and remarkably rich in the average life of an islander, especially
culture and traditions, an age-long colony so when the island is very tiny. Tourism
which in the past few decades has managed has turned self-recognition into an economical
to partially rebuild itself psychologically necessity. As this industry assumes greater
and structurally. Not completely, of course, importance, it becomes more obvious that
because prejudice has been devastating, an island can only survive through going
and ignorance has grossly overcome what on being itself: its future somehow resides
is obvious in most countries. Whatever in its past. Conservation is perhaps the best
anywhere else is obvious, here is controversial. form of development for realities like
The process of self-reconstruction, therefore, Malta. The novity of the future is
must go on, and it is the newer challenge equivalent to the recognition of the past.
facing our younger teachers, all highly
53
Oliver Friggieri
Gozo is the most glaring example of this (speedy, relentless), continuity and mobility,
self-evident paradox. the regional and the continental aspect.
Narrating all this and much more in The list may go on and on, but perhaps it
poetry and in novels has proved to me will only prove the same point: islanders
quite an inspiring experience, a labour of descend from fish. But then, according to
love and much more, a sort of duty Einstein, what does a fish know about the
towards that unknown compartment of our ocean it swims in?
psyche which still has to discuss itself in Malta, the southernmost part of the
the light of both tradition and modernity. South (about 100 kilometres south of
The two have to go on hand in hand, Sicily), an epitome of Mediterranean culture,
embodying continuity. Without its past, well a point of reference to the whole history of
preserved, venerated, Malta will not enjoy the region, the abode of a wellmeaning
any future at all. Indeed, Malta can disappear, people always ready to know itself better
and become an average residential area. and to welcome visitors: this is perhaps
The Maltese character must express this the best way how to cut a very long story
compromise between what appear to be short. It has a happy ending. One hopes
extremes. The Phoenicians, the Carthaginians, that Malta will eventually inspire Brussels
the Romans, the Arabs, the British, have to adopt a specific policy involving member
all contributed towards the formation of states which constitute a category determined
modern man. The Knights of Malta have by size and regionality. But then that is
left an indelible mark in most sectors of another matter, and will warrant a different
culture, mainly in architecture. Napoleon sort of novel. Perhaps a novel about
took Malta within days but he said the absorption. The plea of the islander within,
right thing, or partly so, in the wrong way, the claim of any island, any place on earth
and the uprising of the Maltese soon led to where humankind asks what and why.
the British period. Perhaps a novel is the
best medium for putting all this into
meaningful shape. What will the Maltese
now do of their own country?
The attainment of independence and the
self-proclamation of Malta as a republic
are the results of a whole process. So,
finally, the small community was in a
position to decide for itself. It had been a
long and weary way, during which culture
was enriched, and morale wandered through
varying degrees.
The South is permanent

Polarisation has very deep roots. The
overwhelming dualism may be looked at
as a set of variations on a theme: the ruler
and the ruled, the land (stability) and the
sea (fluctuation), the enormous outer world
and the minute inner territory, ancient
tradition (defined, static) and modernity
54
Arabs and Palestinians in Israeli School Textbooks.

Changing the Perception of the “Other”
Yohanan MAOR
Résumé: En partant de l’idée que les programmes et les manuels scolaires

peuvent être des instruments par lesquels les authorités publiques exercent
une influence sur les convictions, les aspirations et les perceptions des
jeunes, cet article analyse la manière dans laquelle les Musulmanes, en
général, et les Palestiniens, en particulier, sont présentés dans
l’enseignement Israélien. L’analyse et fondée sur une étude des manuels,
réalisée par le CMIP. La conclusion confirme l’observation d’un tournant au
milieu des années ’80, lorsqu’on a commencé une campagne éducative dans
l’esprit de la coexistence pacifique avec les Palestiniens.
Keywords: &ational Identity, Education, Recrimination, Conflict, Coexistence
I ntelligence services of countries in

conflict devote considerable means to
finding out what are the real motives of
This contradiction could have largely
been overcome by a thorough investigation
of open official Palestinian documents,
the enemy regarding the intensification, namely the school textbooks devised and
curbing or settlement of conflicts. They produced by the Palestinian Authority (PA)
often provide contradictory evaluations, and under the leadership of its chairman, Y.
senior officials have difficulty in making Arafat, who, by way, was at that time also
up their minds as to which to adopt. in charge of the Ministry of Education2.
The Israeli press reported such Textbooks give a unique insight into
contradictory evaluations with regard to the convictions, aspirations, ideas and
Arafat’s intentions during the Camp David perceptions that governments and public
negotiations, before the outbreak of the authorities look to instil into the younger
second Intifada at the end of September generation, by virtue of their ability to
20001. According to one of the evaluations, direct, orientate or simply supervise the
Arafat aspired to a peace settlement based content of educational curricula.
on the creation of a Palestinian state that This ability is absolute in the case of
would recognize the state of Israel and the Palestinians, since it is the PA that is
coexist with it. According to the other he dictating the content of both the school
was looking to dismantle the Jewish state textbooks and the teacher guides used in
by resorting to terrorism and to the all Palestinian schools, be they public,
“demographic weapon”. private or run by UNRWA, the United
55
Yohanan Manor
Nations Relief and Works Agency for the A Radical Change

Palestinian refugees. Professor Bar-Tal, of the Department
In the case of Israel, this ability is far of Education of Tel-Aviv University, has
more limited, but remains substantial through noted that societies involved in intractable
the list of textbooks that the Ministry of conflicts develop appropriate psychological
Education recommends for use each year. conditions which enable them to cope
In the public sector3 80% of the school successfully with this kind of protracted
textbooks used in primary and intermediary and irreconcilable conflict situation. Bar-
education as well as 50% of those used in Tal mentions several “societal beliefs” which
secondary education come from this list4. are instilled through the educational system
Many studies have been devoted to and are conducive to the development of
the Israeli schoolbooks, some on specific these psychological conditions7, among them:
disciplines, others on different time-periods, “the justness of one’s goal”, “the opponent’s
such as before or after the creation of the de-legitimisation”, “positive self-image” and
State of Israel. All these works provide very “victimization”8. His conclusion is that the
useful standpoints from which to view the analysis of the school textbooks for language,
present situation in perspective5. history, geography and civics recommended
The present analysis is based on the by the Ministry of Education in 1994,
findings of two surveys carried out by the “showed that the content of the textbooks
Centre for Monitoring the Impact of Peace used in the 90s differed dramatically from
(CMIP) on 500 Israeli school textbooks those used in the 50s and the 70s. The
that were in use in the school years 1999- emphasis on the societal beliefs whose
2000 and 2001-2002 for all the twelve grades function was coping with intractable
in the following disciplines: language, conflict decreased considerably. Only a
literature, communication, history, geography, small part of the school textbooks focused
civics, religious education and inter- on societal beliefs concerning security,
disciplinary disciplines6. positive self-image and the victimization
CMIP works as an “observatory”. It of Jews. The de-legitimisation of Arabs
pinpoints and presents all the references almost disappeared, but their negative
relating, in one way or another, to the image stereotyping still continued. Some textbooks
of the “other”. In the case of the Israeli attempted even to transmit new societal
textbooks, it had noted all the references to beliefs which promoted the peace process
Muslims, Arabs and Palestinians. and coexistence with the Arabs”9.
The results of the CMIP analysis both Eli Podeh, Professor of Oriental Studies
corroborate and exceed the findings of at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, has
other researchers, notably those of Daniel also pointed out that since the middle of
Bar-Tal and Elie Podeh. On one hand, they the 80s there has been a radical change in
confirm their observation of a radical the presentation of the Arab-Israeli conflict
turning point that occurred in the middle of in the Israeli textbooks for history and
the 80s, and, on the other, they surpass civics. His diagnosis is even more clear-
them in highlighting an active preparation cut than Bar-Tal’s, since he does not have
for coexistence with the Arabs and the his reservations regarding the maintaining
Palestinians. of negative stereotyping. Podeh
distinguishes three periods in the history of
the Israeli textbooks: the childhood period
(1948-1967), the adolescent (1967-1985)
56
Arabs and Palestinians in Israeli School Textbooks
and from 1985 the adult, during which the But the watershed in the content of the
radical change occurred10. Israeli school textbooks occurred during
During the “childhood period”, the the “adult” period, notably as a result of a
educational system focused upon instilling directive, of February 1, 1984, sent out by
Zionist values. The historical narrative was the Director General of the Ministry of
“simplistic, one-sided and often blatantly Education detailing the basic guidelines of
distorted” (p. 76). The textbooks of this an education program oriented towards
period were clearly “filled with bias and “Jewish-Arab Coexistence”. There is a
stereotypical descriptions”, as well as with clear shift in the historical narrative, from a
errors, misrepresentations and deliberate simplistic, unilateral and biased one to a
omissions. “Arab history, culture and far more objective and balanced one.
language… were almost completely ignored”. “Generally the Arabs are no longer
(p. 74) “Savage”, “sly”, “cheat”, “thief”, described in stereotypical terms. Indeed,
“robbers”, “provocateurs” and “terrorists” on the whole, these textbooks seem to
were typical adjectives when describing present a balanced picture of the Arab-
Arabs. Their actions against the Jews were Israeli conflict. Even though it is still
dubbed “riots” and “pogroms” or “the events” viewed primarily from a Zionist perspective,
and their perpetrators labelled “bandits”. an attempt is made to understand the Arab
“Any information that might have marred point of view, especially in discussions of
Israel’s image or raised doubts about the some of the sensitive issues in the history
Jewish right about the land of Israel was of the conflict. While none of the new
instinctively omitted” (p. 76, History & textbooks is flawless, together they reveal
Memory, op. cit.). the extent to which Israeli society and the
The first seeds of change began to educational system have progressed with
appear during the “adolescent period”. The respect to the way the Arab-Israeli conflict
historical narrative was “less biased and and the Arabs have been portrayed in
contained fewer (stereotyped) expressions”. Jewish textbooks” (p. 85 History &
“Moreover for the first time the Arabs Memory, op. cit).
were not treated as a monolithic group but In addition to the above-mentioned
divided into separate peoples, including directive, Podeh pointed out two other
the Arab Palestinian people”. The school factors to explain this drastic change in the
textbooks of the second generation “were content of the Israeli school textbooks.
not free of prejudice”, but this was now “First, the appearance of a new
expressed in a “more sophisticated, and historiography based on newly released
therefore perhaps more dangerous, manner archival material, which is more critical of
than in the past. If previously the text alone Israel and the Zionist movement than
was used to convey erroneous facts, before. …Second, the improvements resulted
slanted accounts and biased opinions, now from changes in the Israeli society with
maps, pictures, caricatures and diagrams regard to the perception of the “other”.
reinforced this information. Furthermore Clearly, the changes in the history
sensitive issues such as the refugee curriculum and in the content of the
problem or the 1967 war, was treated in textbooks reflect a more mature society
much the same way as before: Israel was able to regard self-criticism not as a sign of
absolved of all responsibility or blame” weakness but rather as a source of
(pp. 80-81, History & Memory, op. cit). strength.” (p. 61 Arab-Israeli, op.cit.). However,
in his eyes, these improvements are not
57
Yohanan Manor
sufficient. Further progress is needed by Morocco facilitated the peace treaty and openly
strengthening the knowledge about the hosted Israelis. Countries like Sudan, Tunisia
“other”, through the teaching of Arabic and Oman overtly support the peace process;
and of Arab history and culture. According to the Camp David accords, the
Arab population of Judea, Samaria and Gaza is
In stressing all these factors, Podeh
supposed to be granted autonomy…
was actually belittling the fundamental The Arabs of Israel are citizens of the state and
importance of the 1984 directive, namely constitute an integral part of it. According to
that it reflected a political will to transform the Declaration of Independence, they are
the way to relate to the “other”. One can entitled to equal rights and all Israeli
find clear expressions of this political will governments ever since statehood reiterated
both in the guidelines of the education this principle in their guidelines;
program toward coexistence and in their By contrast, some Arab states still continue
ongoing implementation by all the Israeli cultivating hostility and initiate belligerent
governments, be they from the left or from activity against us. Syria, Iraq and Libya are the
most prominent of these. In addition, the PLO,
the right.
in all its factions, aspires to perpetuate the
The preamble to the 1984 guidelines conflict and continue fighting against Israel by
stressed the vital importance for both the all means, including the use of terror, until the
Arab and Jewish pupils in Israel of two final destruction of the Israeli state…”
tightly interrelated issues: “Jewish and
Arab relations in Israel as an issue of civil Hence the inescapable conclusion:
equality … in a multicultural society and “Therefore we can no longer educate
Israel’s relations with its Arab neighbours students … to treat the Arabs as a single entity
as an issue of relations between nations”. and only in the context of the conflict.
“There will always be Arab citizens within Moreover, the preamble stressed that “the
and among us, and there will always be whole world is multicultural at present; the
neighbouring Arab peoples. Ignoring these distances between various cultures, both in time
two issues educationally means educating and space, have been narrowed down. The
Middle East too is multicultural; the Israeli
the young generation toward ignorance
state too is both a state and a multicultural
and alienation with regard to questions that society. This situation compels us to develop a
will always be at the very core of our new ability, the ability to maintain intercultural
existence.”11 contact on the basis of equality and respect for
In addition, the preamble outlined the the other’s culture. Imparting this ability is one
necessity to differentiate and not to refer of the aims of the educational system, and our
anymore to the Arabs as a whole as ministry must help teachers find ways of doing
enemies: so ... Our students must realize that a different
and foreign culture is not inferior or superior to
“The polarization between us and the Arabs as our culture, and that all peoples, religions and
enemies no longer constitutes the only pattern ethnic groups have a right to cultivate their
of relations. At present, we are witnessing culture, even within the boundaries of another
different patterns of relations, and a distinction state. Above all, we must implant in our
has to be made: students the firm awareness that every person is
We have peaceful relations with Egypt since a human being, and that every human being
1979. Although today this is a ‘cold peace’, it must be respected, even if he belongs to
still passes two major tests that indicate another people, and even if he is a political
peaceful relations. enemy”.
58
The directive contained a detailed Active Preparation for Coexistence

comprehensive plan of action to achieve The new educational and pedagogical
these goals: policy oriented toward coexistence was
carried out by all the successive Israeli
“The relationship with Arabs and their culture;
Jewish-Arab relations and Israeli-Arab
governments, in spite of both the changing
relations will be part and parcel of the of coalitions’ composition, and their
educational process, from kindergarten and ensuing policies, and the inexorable
through the twelve years of study in elementary deterioration in the Oslo process under the
and high schools. blows dealt to it by its Israeli and
This relationship will be included, where Palestinian opponents.
possible, in all aspects of school, primarily in In the textbooks, this new policy was
social activities and in the following subjects: implemented by focusing and giving
civics, social sciences, history, geography, expression to five main themes:
“moledet” [i.e. homeland] and literature.
“Considering the “other” first as a human
The existing curricula (for all subjects and
levels), and the textbooks authorized for use,
being”, “Overcoming suspicion, hatred
will be evaluated with a dual aim. On the one and prejudices”, “Knowing and respecting
hand to eliminate wording –if found- that Islam and the Arabs”, “Admitting the
connotes hatred or the existence of negative legitimacy of the opposing national
stereotypes and prejudice; and on the other to movement”, “presenting the conflict in a
add and integrate new content that coincides more balanced way”.
with the aims that we have set for ourselves.”
One has to recall here that this Regarding the “Other” First as a
directive was adopted when the Minister in Human Being
charge of education was Zevulun Several pedagogical devices have
Hammer, that is, not a member of secular been used to further this view among the
or left party, but of the National Religious pupils. One of them consists in introducing
Party (NRP) that since 1977 had broken its in literary anthologies and readers short
“historical alliance” with the Labor party stories relating to the rescue by Jews of
and entered in on-going alliance with the Arab children and adults. For example, a
nationalist right under the leadership of the fourth-grade reader for state religious
Likud. In order to understand the full schools tells of Israeli soldiers in Jerusalem
meaning of this decision to change the during the Six Day War who, on entering
perception of the “other”, one has to bear one home, found a blood-soaked Arab girl.
in mind that Hammer was considered a One of the soldiers “ran under heavy fire
typical product of the generation of the with her to an ambulance and thus save her
kipot srugot, the knitted skullcaps, the life. The girl has long since left the hospital
head dress of modern religious which and returned to her family and parents, but
replaced hats and black skull-caps. He was the friend who rescued her is still lying
instrumental in turning the NRP, from a wounded”13. A fifth-grade textbook for
party whose main concern was religious state schools tells the story of a Jew who
affairs into a movement with deep saved an Arab even though that same Arab
involvement in foreign affairs and security was among rioters who attacked Jews in
issues, while actively assisting Gush Baghdad in the 40s14. Of course there are
Emunim, the “Bloc of the faithful” and also stories of Jews rescued by Arabs, such
those in favor of settling Judea, Samaria as the story of Abu Hamis, the “most
and the Gaza Strip12.
59
Yohanan Manor
famous seaman in Jaffa” illustrated by a against nurturing hatred and to help them
picture15. overcome bias and prejudices19. Hence
Another device is to include in there are stories showing how suspicion
anthologies and readers stories written by can be turned into friendship.
Arab authors about the daily life of Arabs, For example, a reader for the seventh
mostly without connection with the Arab- grade used in the state school system,
Israeli conflict or the relationship between quotes a passage from the book &adia by
Jews and Arabs. The objective here is to Galina Ron-Feder, about an Arab girl who
provide the pupils with some knowledge comes to a Jewish boarding school and
about the customs and the concerns of describes her fears that the Jewish girls,
Arabs in various countries16. one of whom lost a brother in a terrorist
Legend of Picture: “Jabalya refugees attack, will not want to share a room with
camp in the Gaza strip”. “One of the her. Happily for her, she is warmly
largest refugees camp where residents live accepted and one of the girls asks her to
in very crowded and distressing conditions.” share a room with her20.
Evoking the suffering of refugees in Or again, there is the story of a
different places and periods is one way to friendship that develops between an Israeli
arouse the empathy of the pupils for the boy and an Egyptian boy who meet at an
“other”. For instance a textbook of geography international youth conference in London.
and demography provide information about It all begins when Amir, the Jewish boy,
“the three largest groups of refugees … was invited to join the Egyptian boys’
created as a result of ongoing wars and soccer team and scored a goal. Said, one of
political conflicts…: the Jewish refugees the Egyptian boys comes to Amir’s room:
during WWII, the Arab and Jewish - “I realized you are surprised by a visit from a
refugees resulting from the Arab-Israeli boy from an enemy country…
conflict, the Rwanda refugees who “I was looking for a chance to talk to you. My
emerged as a result of inter-tribal wars”, older brother fell in Sinai during the last war
with a Palestinian Refugees camp to between our countries, but it would be stupid
illustrate it17. for me to be angry at you for that”.
Another way to arouse the empathy - “If so, we’re even… because my father also
for the “others” is to bring their fears and died in that war. He was among those who
pain through extracts from stories and tales crossed the canal. …”
“Well, since that accursed war, I have thought,
written by Israeli writers18.
that everything must be done to ensure that it
will be the last war. It may sound strange
Overcoming Suspicion, Hatred and because our radio, television and newspapers,
Prejudices and even our textbooks feed us a diet of stories
Most of the researchers studying about the evil Israelis, who stole the Arabs’
Israeli textbooks have noted that since the homes. My teacher at school is a unique
middle of the 80s there is a steady decrease individual, who has always cautioned us about
in the phenomenon of negative stereotypes blind hatred and in his history classes, told us
and de-legitimisation of Arabs, and that about the sufferings of the Jews for 2,000 years,
these disappear almost completely from even though there is no mention of it in the
textbooks. The teacher also told us what the
the middle of the 90s. In addition to this
Nazis did to the Jews during WWII. In
trend, the CMIP reports have observed a general, he opened our eyes to many things,
notable effort to assuage the pupils’
suspicion of the Arabs, to alert them
60
which we were used to accepting without to the few Jews dwelling in it, as is
21
thinking about them.” suggested in the maps of the early
It is not easy for pupils to stand aloof schoolbooks, before the creation of the
and not to internalise hatred of the state, which mentioned only the cities
adversary or the enemy when this is the inhabited by the Jews. This approach
dominant feeling at home, at school and in persisted until the end of the 70s, and one
the society at large. One way to take up can still find some remnants of its in
this challenge is to remind the pupils that current Israeli textbooks24. The present
the world of the children is not necessary approach is completely different, as is
the reproduction of the adult world. This shown by the following excerpt from a
is the way a Jewish boy describes his textbook of history for the 14-15 year old
friendship with Abed, a Bedouin shepherd: pupils, which quotes the words of Arthur
“We did not have a common language, but Ruppin, the head of the Palestinian office
the hatred of the adults also hadn’t yet of the World Zionist Organization, at its
attached itself to us. Children’s games eleventh congress in 1913: “At first, the
don’t need words.”22 Zionist movement believed that Eretz
It is relatively easier to arouse the Yisrael was empty of people … In the
awareness of the children against bias and meantime, we have learned to see the
prejudices. One can find an interesting matters in a completely different way. As
device in this respect in a reader for 13 of now, there are six times as many Arabs
years old pupils: in Eretz Yisrael as there are of us…”25.
Knowing means also having a
“Many people think: the dove is a bird that minimum of objective information about
pursues peace. This belief is incorrect; it is a the “other”, about the Arabs, theirs customs,
prejudice: people believe it without checking it. their history and culture.
There are lots of prejudices. For example:
The Israeli textbooks provide the students
The Jews control the world and exploit all
those who live in it.
with some basic knowledge about Islam,
The blacks are inferior; they are incapable its Prophet Mohammed, its five pillars, its
of being scientists. main holy sites, the meaning of Jihad and a
The Arabs only understand the language comparison with Judaism and Christianity.
of force. One can observe expressions of respect
During the year, make a long list of and even sympathy toward Islam, notably
prejudices. Write them down and keep them in in the textbooks of the state religious
a special folder called ‘That’s what they say, sector, which outline the positive aspects
but it is not true- prejudices.’ Try to find a of Islam and suggests that Jihad is not
drawing or caricature that fits each prejudice.
directed against Judaism and Christianity26.
Be ready to explain orally why these are
23 Bravery, courage and a deep sense of
prejudices.”
justice are mentioned several times as
characteristic cultural traits of the Arabs.
Knowing and Respecting Islam
Some textbooks quote the words of Ahad
and the Arabs
Ha'am, one of the most prominent Zionist
Knowing means, first, to acknowledge
thinkers, after his first visit to Palestine in
that the homeland, the Promised land, to
1891: “Our brothers are correct when they
which the Jews began to return in growing
say that the Arab respects only those who
numbers during the ninetieth century, was
show him bravery and courage. When he
not empty: its population was not confined
feels that justice is with his opponent; not
61
Yohanan Manor
so if he justifiably thinks his opponent's more in Islamic thought – as Islam has

actions to be oppressive and stolen justice. developed and spread both religiously and
Then, even if he also remains silent, he geographically. As Islam absorbed more and
will restrain himself endlessly, but his more of the world conquered by it, so it
adapted and Islamised the values that it
anger persists in his heart and he plans
absorbed, including the holiness of the Land of
revenge and bears a grudge.”27 Israel, its flora and its water, living in it, the
The Arabs’ contribution to the development sanctity of being buried in it and the like. All
of human civilization also is mentioned in these became from that time onwards part of
several school textbooks. For example a orthodox Islam… An expression of the
history textbook in use in the state run holiness of the Land of Israel and Jerusalem in
network stresses that the Arabs developed Islam can be found in the erection of the pair of
29
a flourishing culture: “From India to their mosques on the Temple Mount” .
country, and from their country to the In addition, after quoting this passage,
countries of Europe, the Muslims transferred the authors of this textbook go on to write:
numbers, which replace Roman numerals,
which were not convenient for mathematics “In the Land of Israel Islam sanctified
arithmetic functions. They also translated Jerusalem because of its importance to Judaism
into Arabic the rich literature of the and Christianity. According to the Muslim
tradition Jerusalem is the city of the forefathers,
Greeks, which dealt with philosophy, science
the place of the binding [of Ishmael, not Isaac],
and medicine. Afterwards, the peoples of the arena of the activity of the prophets. After
Europe translated these books from Arabic the [Arab] conquest the name 'Bait al-Maqdis' –
into Latin, and thus the Arabs contributed the city of the Temple– was used for the city,
to restoring the cultural treasures of Greece from which we learn that the special
to the European peoples... However, the significance of the city was that it contained the
Arabs were not simply cultural middlemen, Temple. From the eleventh century the name
there were also creators of culture. For al-Quds – holiness– became common. Other
example, they were the first to discover the names for the city are ‘Ursalim’ and
30
existence of infectious diseases. They were ‘Tzehayun’- Zion.”
also the first to build public hospitals. Contrary to expectations, the implications
Because of their considerable contribution of this deep, joint, and one could even say,
to various scientific fields, there are rival, attachment to the Holy land and to
disciplines that to this day are called by Jerusalem, are not avoided or ignored, but
their Arabic names, such as Algebra…”28 explicitly referred to, as illustrated by the
What is even more noteworthy is the drawing and the picture mentioned below.
express mention of the Arabs’ deep An anthology for 15 years old pupils
attachment to the Holy land and to contains the well known poem “Jerusalem
Jerusalem. 1967” written by Yehuda Amichai, one of
A geography textbook devotes a the most famous contemporary Israeli poets:
whole chapter to the attachment of
Christianity and Islam to the Land of “The city plays hide-and-seek among her
Israel, and quotes the late Professor Havah names:
Yerushalayim, Al-Quds, Salem, Jeru,
Lazarus-Yaffe, an eminent specialist of
Yeru, all the while
Islam: whispering her first, Jebusite name: Y’vus
“The Land of Israel in general, and Jerusalem Y’vus, Y’vus, in the dark. She weeps
in particular, have been sanctified more and With longing: Ilia Capitolina, Ilis, Ilia.
She comes to any man who calls her
62
At night, alone. But we know teacher and educator, well known for his
31
Who comes to whom” . scathing criticism, who at the beginning of
Legend of the Drawing: “Jerusalem, the twentieth century, in Palestine under
the city that is sacred to the three Ottoman rule, who called on his fellow
monotheistic religions.”32 Zionists to grasp, and be fully aware of,
Legend of the Picture: “The the actual nature of the problem: “In
‘Machepelah Cave’ in Hebron. This is the general we are mistaken in regards to a
name of the building in the picture. great people… This is the mightiest, most
According to the Book of Genesis, excellent people in physical attainments
Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebecca, and in the skill of its understanding. We
Jacob and Leah are buried under the must not belittle its rights (those of the
building in the picture”33. Arab people).The Hebrew people respects
The text in the frame under the picture not only the personal rights of each person,
reads: “It is interesting to know: The Cave but rather the national rights of each nation
of the Patriarchs is holy not only to the and tribe.”35
Jews, but also to the Muslims and the His penetrating and famous article
Christians. In the building known as the entitled “A Hidden Question”, published
‘Cave of the Patriarchs’ there are a mosque in 1907 in the Hebrew review Hashiloah,
and a synagogue”34. in which he pointed bluntly to the vital
problem that the Zionist Jews in Palestine
Admitting the Legitimacy of the had to grapple with, is now part of the
Rival ational Movement curriculum:
For a long time, the Israeli school “Among the difficult questions connected with
textbooks painstakingly avoided conferring the idea of resurrecting our people on its land is
any legitimacy on the Arab opposition to one question that stands clearly against them
the Jewish national movement. The Arab all: the question of our relations with the Arabs.
actions against the Jews in Palestine were This question, on whose correct resolution
presented as the result of petty motivations, hangs the rebirth of our national hope, has not
been forgotten, but rather has vanished entirely
such as the lure of gain, greed, the desire to
from among the Zionists and in its true form is
seize property or the thirst for power. almost never, mentioned in the literature of our
This approach has been replaced and movement. The loyal Zionists have so far not
now the clash between Arabs and Jews in touched on the question of how we should act
the holy land is presented to the students as towards the Arabs when we come to buy land
a fight between two national movements in Eretz Yisrael., to establish Moshavot
over the control of the same piece of land. [villages], and in general to settle the land…
Excerpts from texts written by Zionist Most of the land we buy from the large estate
leaders and thinkers, who since the end of owners… When we buy such land, we
the nineteenth century had clearly completely remove those who previously
worked on it. True, we will not send them
perceived the nature of the conflict, that
away empty-handed, we will pay them nicely
were for a long time considered for the ruined houses and gardens, and in
“inappropriate” for school curricula by the general we will not be stingy with gold coins
people in charge of national education during the time of the ‘exemption’. From the
have now been introduced into the standpoint of accepted justice and official
textbooks. honesty we are completely just, entirely
An instance of this is the case of the lawfully. However, if we do not knowingly
writings of Yitzhak Epstein, a famous want to deceive ourselves, let us admit that we
63
Yohanan Manor
have dispossessed poor people from their “During the 1930s, Arab nationalist
meagre property and broken the staff of their movements evolved all over the Middle East.
bread. Can we really persist on such a path of Many of the Arabs of Eretz Yisrael also began
purchasing land? Is it successful, does it befit formulating a national consciousness – in other
our objective? A hundred times no. Members words, the perception that they are not just part
of the people that was the first to say “and the of the larger Arab nation, but also Palestinians,
land will not be sold in perpetuity, and limited inhabitants of Palestine. Therefore, there are
the rights of the buyer in favour of the worker, some who believe that the 1930s saw the start
should not, cannot, expropriate their lands from of the fight over the land between nationalist
the hands of its workers, who settled on it in movements: the Jewish-Zionist movement and
good faith. But let us leave justice and 39
the Arab-Palestinian movement.”
sentimentality for a moment and look at the
question from the standpoint of ability alone. A geography textbook even claims
Will they be silent in the face of dispossessions, that already before WWI this conflict has
calmly accepting what we have done to them? had a national character40.
Will they not ultimately awaken to restore by The most spectacular move to bring
force what was stripped from them by gold! … the Israeli pupils to admit the legitimacy of
And this people… is only a small part of the the opposing national movement came on
larger nation, which holds everything the initiative of Yossi Sarid, Minister of
surrounding our country: Syria, Aram
36 Education in Ehud Barak’s government
Naharayim [Iraq], Arabia and Egypt…”
from May 1999 to January 2001. He pressed
A further turning point was reached for the inclusion in the Israeli curriculum
when, in addition, the Arabs of Palestine of a poem composed by Mahmud Darwish,
were viewed not only as part of the larger one of the greatest contemporary Arab
Arab people, but as having a specific poets, the epic minstrel of Palestinian
national identity and establishing a specific nationalism and the main drafter of the
national movement. Palestinian declaration of Independence of
Hence a history textbook, observing November1988. Several years before, an
that the 1936-1939 clashes in Palestine apparently trivial poem by Darwish had
which at the time were considered as already been included in the curriculum,
“riots” or “disturbances” by the Jews while but this time it was a very nationalistic one.
the Arabs called them “Arab revolt”, There was a general outcry. Not only
pointed to their national character, stresses did the opposition, from the Likud (Right)
that “contrary to 1929, this time the Arabs to Shinui (Center-Liberal), voice their
presented clear national demands.”37 fierce opposition to Sarid’s initiative, but
Moreover, the exercise at the end of this even PM Barak, expressed his reservations,
chapter asks the pupils the following arguing that the conditions were not yet
question: ripe for such a move. Darwish reacted to
this controversy by observing that: “The
“C. The whole class should discuss whether
the contention that in the Arab Revolt there was
atmosphere in Israel is not ripe to deepen
a clash between two national movements, is the understanding of the other. I followed
correct. You should give reasons for your the debate in the Knesset. I think that the
conclusions.”
38 extreme right is not ready to recognize the
history of the Palestinian people, which is
Similarly, another history textbook for linked to this country that it loves and for
grade 9 states that: which it longs.”41
64
The strong reservations of a large part The Oslo Accords, which contained
of Israel’s public opinion, motivated by its the mutual recognition by the State of
strong concern that the recognition of the Israel and the PLO, and set up a Palestinian
enemy’s national legitimacy may affect its Authority to rule the Palestinian territories,
own, underline even more the revolutionary are presented in detail in one the above-
character of the changes introduced in the mentioned atlases. These accords are mentioned
Israeli curriculum. in several school textbooks, sometimes
with their geographic and territorial
Presenting the Conflict in a More representation45. As an example of this a
Balanced Way geography textbook for the upper grades
A more balanced presentation of the present the Oslo Accords as follows:
conflict implies, first and foremost, that the
“In May 1994 the areas of the Gaza Strip and
school textbooks take into account the Jericho from which the Israel Defense Forces
most recent scientific literature, and do not were to withdraw were defined and it was
distort or omit embarrassing or shocking agreed that there should be a transfer of
matters. The first Hebrew school textbooks, authority in these areas to the Palestinian
both during the Mandate period and the Authority. Twenty-seven years of Israeli rule
first decades of the State of Israel, came to an end…The purpose of the second
mentioned only the existence of a Jewish Oslo Agreement was to enlarge the Palestinian
population, as if there were no Arabs in the independent administration in the West Bank
country. This is no longer the case today. by means of an elected ruling authority- ‘The
Palestinian Council’… This agreement
Several textbooks provide the pupils with
prescribes a timetable for the redeployment of
data about the Arab population of the Israel Defense Forces and the division of
Palestine both in the nineteenth and the the area of Judea, Samaria and Gaza into
twentieth centuries42. The two Brawer Different kinds of areas:
atlases, which are the most used in the Area A- including the six large Palestinian
Israeli schools, for all the grades, give towns on the West Bank; in this area the
detailed data about the demographic ratio Palestinian Council was to assume full
between the two peoples as well as about responsibility for internal security, public order
their geographic distribution from the 30s and civilian matters.
to present43. There is a series of four maps Area B- including Palestinian townships and
villages (in which some 68% of the total
headed “Israel-Population” detailing the
Palestinian population lives). In this area the
ratio between the Jewish and the non Council was to be responsible for the
Jewish population, in 1931, in 1947, in preservation of public order and Israel was to
2000, and the percentage of the population be the supreme authority in matters of security,
living in towns and cities in 200044. so that it should be able to safeguard the well
Secondly, the purchase of lands by the being of its citizens and fight terror.
Zionist movement, and its role in the Area C- including the uninhabited areas, the
confrontation between the two populations, regions where there were Israeli settlements
were finally brought to the attention of the and locations that were strategically important
students. However this improvement is for Israel. In this area Israel was to retain full
46
insufficient, since generally specific data responsibility.”
are not provided to illustrate this major This presentation is not accurate and
factor in the confrontation between the two complete since it does not refer explicitly
peoples. to Palestinian territories, and does not
mentions the powers of each of the parties
65
Yohanan Manor
in civilian matters in Area B. The Brawer guiding force behind them. A civilian
atlas is more accurate and concise. It population concerned about its fate, justly or
provides a map indicating by different not, moves to areas where soldiers of their own
colours these areas with a legend entitled people or religion are in control.
4. The organized appeal of the leaders of Arab
“Territories of the Palestinian Authority”,
countries to the Arabs in Eretz Israel.
which enables the pupil to grasp the 5. The horror propaganda broadcast by the
territorial and political meaning of these Arab media about incidents in which the
accords. Jewish forces compelled Arab residents to
It is unfortunate that the textbooks leave and harmed the civilian Arab
49
themselves do not include any map of this population.”
kind, even in a more simplified form. In
Alongside these reasons the author
the best case one can only find evasive
descriptions such as: “The name Palestine mentions a new historical explanation
offered by one of the so-called “new
serves today, particularly among the
historians”, Benny Morris. According to
Arabs, to denote all the territory of the land
him “the main catalyst for the flight was
of Israel west of the Jordan. Nevertheless
the attacks by the Hagana, Ezel, Lehi and
the Authority aspires to establish the ‘State
of Palestine’ in the major part of Judea and Israel Defense Forces and not the calls or
instructions of the leaders of Arab
Samaria.”47 The lack of maps illustrating
the Oslo accords is a serious lacuna that countries or of the Supreme Arab Council
should be amended, as CMIP stressed in and the Mufti.”50
2003 before the Council of Europe48. A more recent geography textbook
The issue of the Palestinian refugees is includes naturally this explanation among
now also dealt with in a more objective the reasons for the Arabs’ flight:
way. Till the end of the 80s this issue was “During the war of Independence, between
referred to indirectly, by mentioning 500,000 and 900,000 Arab refugees left their
demographic changes in the region without homes. They left behind their possessions and
further explanations, or by explaining that planned to return to their homes after the
this problem was created by the Arabs fighting ended. There were a variety of reasons
for their departure: some sought to distance
themselves, since they had fled their towns
themselves from the dangers of war, some
and villages as a result of the fighting, for listened to the directives of their leaders who
fear of having to live under Jewish rule or called on them to leave their residences and
at their leaders’ instigation. Since the thereby facilitate the Arab armies’ conquest of
beginning of the 90s, the responsibility of Israel, and some were expelled during the
the Israeli forces is also mentioned. 51
fighting by various Israeli elements.”
For example, a history textbook used
by state-run high schools, which devotes This explanation is of course also
an entire chapter to the creation of this included in the renowned school textbook
issue, starts by recapitulating the usual by Eyal Naveh, issued in 1999:
reasons for the Arabs’ flight: “During the fighting, many of the local Arabs
were expelled. Some of them fled before the
“1. The flight of the leadership and wealthy Jews reached a village or Arab neighbourhood
class already at the beginning of the war.
in a city, and other were expelled by the
2. The deterioration of security and order in the
conquering force. Tens of thousands fled to
Arab towns and villages.
neighbouring countries – primarily to Jordan,
3. In any civil war there are necessarily
Lebanon and Syria – in the hope that, with the
unplanned ‘population exchange’ with no
66
help of these countries, they will one day return “A voice is Calling to the Arab People in
to their previous places of residence. Many Southern Syria (Palestine)
became refugees in camps set up in the Gaza The Jews are trying to separate Palestine from
Strip, West banks and neighbouring Syria and the rest of the Arab countries, in
52
countries” . order to become the rulers of this country.
Palestine is a natural part of Syria, there is
Any objective presentation of a nothing separating them; the residents of Syria
conflict in textbooks requires not only that are like us, their leaders are like our leaders and
the pupils be taught correctly, honestly and their interests are connected with ours. Uniting
completely with its basic elements, but that Palestine with Syria and the rest of the Arab
they also be informed of the point of view states is the only way to happiness for the Arab
of the other side on the conflict, preferably nation and the Arab countries…
in its own words, quoting its own There are only 60,000 Jews in our country and
documents, as once recommended by they have not even the slightest right to our
UNESCO53. In order to inform the pupils land and have no connection to it. We, the
Arabs, number more than a million people
about the point of view of the nascent
here, and therefore the land belongs to
Arab national movement on Zionism, at a us.Therefore, protect your country, your honor,
time when the ruler was the Ottoman your spirit and your property. Demand that
Empire, one textbook quotes from an Palestine and Syria be one, free, Arab state; and
article published in those years in an Arab that foreigners have no influence in this
56
newspaper: country.”
“Palestine is a pure Arab country… surrounded For a long time, the Israeli school
on all sides by pure Arab countries. The textbooks used to describe as “riots” and
national yearnings started emerging and “disturbances” perpetrated by “gangs of
intensifying among the Arab nation that resides marauders and outlaws” what the Palestinians
contiguously in its territory. The only people in
consider as a national uprising. A history
these Arab countries are Arabs … there is no
possibility of another people, with an
textbook brings this Arab Palestinian view
independent language, different customs and to the attention of the pupils in quoting
traditions and a contradictory political ambition verbatim the text of a resolution adopted
54
living with them” . by the Arab High Committee, a body set
up on April 25 1936, to coordinate the
A more recent school textbook gives activities of the various factions among the
excerpts from an appeal to the Ottoman Arabs of Palestine: “In April 1936, local
authorities, published on September 16, national committees were organized in all
1911, in Filastin, a Christian Jaffa-based Arab cities around the Istiklal
newspaper calling them “to fulfill their [independence] Party, and the Arab Higher
obligation and not to allow Jewish Committee was established. The committee
immigrants to remain in the country”55. declared a general strike that would
A history textbook for high school paralyse economic life in the country. Its
students, used both in state and state purpose: to exert pressure on the British
religious schools, presents in full another government to fulfil the committee's demands:
Arab appeal by “The Centres for Justice”, 1. Prohibit Jewish immigration; 2. Prohibit
voiced soon after the Balfour Declaration the transfer of lands to Jews; 3. Establish a
(November 2, 1917) and the Feisal- national government that would be
Weizman agreement (January 3, 1919): responsible to a representative council. If
these demands are not met …the general
67
Yohanan Manor
strike will continue, until the British United Nations… The game continues until
government fundamentally changes it arrangements have been reached with all the
59
current policy, the first step being the countries.”
halting of Jewish immigration”57.
Another device to enable the students Conclusion
to grasp both the views and feelings of the What is perhaps the most striking and
adversary, is to invite them to try and impressive trait of the Israeli school
“enter into its mind”, to contemplate programs and textbooks is that they do not
events and developments from his point of to seek to build the national identity of the
view and to attempt to imagine his Jews of Israel upon the rejection of identity
feelings. For this purpose, a history and national legitimacy of the Palestinians.
textbook suggests the following exercise: It seems rather that their objective is to
prepare the pupils to accept this concurrent
“4. Divide into groups representing Jewish legitimacy.
journalists and Palestinian journalists who have
The Israeli textbooks bear witness to
been sent to cover the discussion in the United
Nations Organization leading to the Partition
the efforts made for more than twenty
resolution. A. Prepare a report that will include years to change the perception by young
details about the discussion in the UN, the Israelis of the Arabs and the Palestinians,
position of some of the states participating in it to perceive them both as individual human
and the results of the discussion, the vote and beings who should not be labelled – who,
the reactions to the resolution…C. Discuss with like the Jews have among them “nasty
the whole class the differences between the people and decent people”60 – and as a
reports of the Jewish journalists and those of people having a legitimate national
58
the Palestinian ones.” movement, despite the illegitimate means
Similarly, an interdisciplinary textbook, to which it resorts against the Jewish state
devoted to the socio-demographic, and its citizens. These efforts have not
technological, climatic, topographical, been halted by the steady deterioration in
political and economical aspects of water, the process set in motion by the 1993 Oslo
as a vital resource for the whole region of Accord sealing their mutual recognition
the Middle East, proposes a simulation and the renunciation of violence and terror
game, with the explicit purpose of reaching as a means to resolve the conflict between
the two peoples. As stressed above, these
“the maximum regional cooperation that will changes were the result of a political
ensure by peaceful means a fair division of decision, and are manifest above all in the
water, to understand the special needs of each
country in the region…The class is to be
state general network and in the state
divided into groups of 9 pupils each. Each religious network, but not to the same
pupil in a group will be the representative of extent in the haredi [ultra-orthodox] sector,
one of the countries in the Middle East whose textbooks are still marred by some
participating in the peace conference… The offending and condescending expressions61.
parties participating in the discussion must Yet, some recriminations have been
reach a rational arrangement that is in accord voiced against Israeli textbooks. What do
with the treaties on water rights. The condition they assert? A thorough examination of
for the approval of the arrangement for the these recriminations shows that they have
division of water is its acceptability to the no serious grounds. For instance Maureen
representatives of all the countries participating.
The arrangement is to be approved by the
Meehan refers to outdated research or to
children's literature, a complete different
68
area which is not under the control or funding, is solely responsible for the content of its
responsibility of the government62. Nathan textbooks and the recruitment of its teachers; it
contains mainly the ultra-orthodox ‘haredi’
Brown’s criticism is based on unofficial
networks of the Agudat Yisrael and Shas parties.
texts circulated in some classes and on oral 4
See Report No 49 of the State Controller, Mevaker
comments supposed to have been voiced Hamedinah, April 1999, pp. 209-210.
by teachers63. The EU Commissioner in 5
For instance Binyamin Kalman, “The Image of the
charge of External Relations, Chris Patten, Arab in the Eyes of the Young. What has changed in
was not able to substantiate his insinuation the last 15 years” (Hebrew) in Iyunim baH'inukh,
that Israeli textbooks were also marred by No. 27, 1980, pp. 65-74; Ruth Firer, The Influence of
Zionist Values on Schoolbooks in the Hebrew
intolerance and incitement64. Language Dealing with the History of the People of
Till now, the radical change monitored Israel in the Land of Israel 1900-1980, (Hebrew),
in Israeli textbooks regarding the image of PhD, Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Daniel Bar-
Palestinians and the legitimacy of their Tal et al., The Image of the Arab in Readers: The
national movement has not been emulated Development of Political Knowledge, (Hebrew) Tel-
by the Palestinian schoolbooks. The major Aviv, H’amoul 1985; Binyamin Herzl, The
Presentation of Arab-Jewish Relationships in History
flaw of the later is their implicit incitement
Textbooks With Regard to the Arab-Israeli Conflict,
against the Jews and Israel by denying (Hebrew)Tel-Aviv University, Department of
their nationhood and by building Palestinian Psychology, 1987; Daniel Bar-Tal & Shmuel Zoltak
national identity on the rejection of the “Representations of the Image of the Arab and of the
legitimacy of Jewish national movement65. Relationships between Jews and Arabs in Readers”
The international community, particularly (Hebrew) in Megamot, vol. 32, (3), 1989, pp. 301-
the European Union, can play a decisive 317; Yoram Bar-Gal, “The Image of the Palestinians
in Geography Textbooks in Israel”, Journal of
role in convincing the Palestinians that Geography, 1994, 93, (5), pp.224-232; Polish-Israeli
they too have to turn the page. Committee on School Textbooks,
Recommendations for Correcting History and
otes Literature Textbooks in Israel and Poland”,
1
See Ha'arez, June 15 2004, June 16 2004, Jerusalem and Warsaw, 1995; Daniel Bar-Tal , “The
June 18, 2004 and Maariv, June 15, 2004 Rocky Road toward Peace: Beliefs on Conflicts in
reporting the controversy between General Israeli Textbooks” in Journal of Peace Research, vol.
Amos Malka and General Amos Gilad, who in 35, No. 6, 1998, pp. 723-742; Ibidem., “Societal
2000 were respectively the head and the Beliefs in Times of Intractable Conflict: The Israeli
director of research of the Military Case”, The international Journal of Conflict
Intelligence. Management, 1998, vol. 9, no. 1, (January) p.23; Orit
2
The textbooks produced by the PA did not express Ichilov, “Citizenship education in a Divided Society:
any recognition of Israel or any aspiration to coexist The Case of Israel” in Judith Torney-Putra, John
with it. See CMIP's report Jews, Israel and Peace in Schwille & Jo-Ann Amadeo (ed), Civic Education
Palestinian School Textbooks 2000-2001 and Across Countries: Twenty- four National Case
2001-2002, November 2001 and also Y. Manor Studies from the IEA Civic Education project,
Les manuels scolaires palestiniens: une génération Amsterdam, 1999; Orit Ichilov & Idit Livne, Civics
sacrifiée, Paris, Berg International, October 2003. in Israeli Middle schools: Analysis of Curricula,
One of these textbooks, The Palestinian Society- Schoolbooks and Teachers’ Guides. Research
Demographic Education, Grade 11(2000), p. 29, Report. (Hebrew), Tel Aviv University, Sociology of
called explicitly for resort to demographic weapon Education and Community, March 2002; Orit
to win the Arab-Israeli conflict. Ichilov, Political Learning and Citizenship Education
3
The public sector is divided in three sub-sectors: under Conflict, London & New York Routledge,
mamlachti (state) 54% of the pupils, mamalachti 2004; Elie Podeh, The Arab-Israeli Conflict in Israeli
dati (religious recognized by the state) 18% of the School History and Civics Textbooks 1953-1995,
pupils and Arab, 18% of the pupils. The private or (Hebrew), Truman Institute, Peace Publications, No.
"independent" sector although receiving public 9, Jerusalem, 1997 and “History and Memory in the
69
Yohanan Manor
19
Israeli Education System”, History and Memory, vol. See CMIP, 2000, p. 7 and CMIP, 2002, p. 2.
20
12, 2000, pp. 65-100, and “The Arab-Israeli Conflict Baruch & Stein, Strings, op. cit., pp. 264-267;
in Israeli History Textbooks, 1948-2000”, Dalia Korach-Segev & Varda Weinberg,
Westport/Connecticut & London, 2002. Literature-Fiction, Reader for Grade Seven,
6
CMIP, Arabs and Palestinians in Israeli (Hebrew), Modan, n.d., pp. 103-106.
21
Textbooks, September 2000; CMIP Arabs, Rivka Giladi, Story and Song- Let's Get
Palestinians, Islam & Peace in Israeli School acquainted, (Hebrew), Grade 6, Zak, 1985, pp.
Textbooks, July 2002. These reports are 360-361.
22
hereinafter referred to as CMIP, 2000, and Miri Baruch & Dalia Stein, Strings for
CMIP, 2002, respectively. Grade 5, (Hebrew), Massada, 1994, p. 43.
7 23
Daniel Bar-Tal, “Societal Beliefs…”, op. Avraham Cohen, Op. cit., p. 259.
24
cit., p. 23. See Chapter 28 "Statistical data" and Chapter 29
8
Ibidem. pp. 25-29. “Maps” in CMIP, 2000, pp. 111-123.
9 25
Ibidem. p. 44. E. Domka (ed), The World and the Jews in
10
Elie Podeh, “History and Memory”, op. cit., Recent Generations, Part I, 1870-1920, (Hebrew),
pp. 74-85, and Arab-Israeli Conflict, op. cit, Zalman Shazar Institute, 1998, p. 230.
26
pp. 26-74. On all these aspects, see CMIP, 2000, pp. 14-25.
11 27
For the English translation of this directive, Tsipi Elder & Lili Yaffe, From Conservatism to
except two technical paragraphs, see Podeh, Progress, History for Eighth Grade, (Hebrew),
Arab-Israeli Conflict, op. cit., pp. 157-160. Maalot, Ministry of Education, 1998, p. 374; E.
12
See Susan Hatis Rolef (ed.), Political Domka (ed), Op cit., p. 229.
28
Dictionary of the State of Israel, New York & Akiva Doron, Hava Frankel, Kizia Tabibian &
London, Macmillan, 1987, p. 139. Gush Malka Kaz, From Generation to Generation.
Emunim was founded in February 1974 as an Lessons in History for the State Religious
extra-parliamentary religious Zionist Schools, Part II, (Hebrew), Maalot, Ministry of
movement, which advocated the extension of Education, 1994, p. 220. See also detailed
Israeli sovereignty over Judea, Samaria and chapters on these topics in M. Zimmerman et al.,
the Gaza Strip. Lessons in History for State Schools, Part II:
13
Esther Columbus et al., Open the Gate, From the Rise of Rome to the End of the Middle
Reader for Grade 4, (Hebrew) 1993,Tal, Ages, (Hebrew), Maalot, Ministry of Education,
Ministry of Education, p. 186. 1987, pp. 213-219. Rabbi Dr. Moshe Auerbach,
14
Nathan Perski, The New Israel Readers, History of Israel, from the Destruction of the First
(Hebrew), 1987, Massada, pp. 181-184. Temple to the Present, Vol. 2, Part II: From the
15
Ilana Arieli-Meir, Journey to the First Crusades to the Expulsion from Spain, (Hebrew),
Settlements, Reader, (Hebrew), Tal, Ministry of Yeshurun, 1993. Dr. S. Shavit (ed), History of
Education, 1992, p. 66. Hamis’ story is taken Israel and the Nations. Part I: From the Rise of the
from Avraham Cohen, Did I Understand? Roman Empire to the Messianic Movement Led
(Hebrew), Reches, 1993, p. 222. by Shabbetai Zvi, (Hebrew), Maalot, Ministry of
16
Rina Tzadka, Reading Selections for Eight Education, 1987, pp. 204-218.
29
Grade, 1992 (Hebrew), Horev, pp. 76-84; P. G. Zohar, H. Leon & R. Peleg, This is the Land-
Shirav et al. Nuances [Migvan], Literary Introduction to Land of Israel Studies, (Hebrew),
Reader, for Grade 7, (Hebrew), Neta, Maalot, Yad Ben Zvi, Ministry of Education,
1994, pp. 150-151; Mira Levinger & Bracha Experimental Edition, 2000, p. 161.
30
Abecassis, Leaves of Literature, Reader for Ibidem.
31
Grade 9, (Hebrew), Modan, 1998, pp.112- Shirav et al., Op. Cit., p. 252. (Translated
115. by Stephen Mitchell, Poems of Jerusalem, a
17
A. Rapp & Z. Fein, People in the Expanse- Bilingual Edition, by Yehuda Amichai,
Studies in the Geography of the World’s Schocken Publishing House, 1987.)
32
Population, (Hebrew), Matah, Ministry of Rina Ben Shachar, That Is To Say-
Education, 1997, p. 154. Language, Expression and Communication,
18
Miri Baruch & Dalia Stein, Strings, Reader (Hebrew), Grade 5, 1999, p. 149. This
for Grade Six, (Hebrew), Massade, 1997, pp. drawing was taken from an exhibition
224-227. “Children Draw Jerusalem”.
70
33 56
A. Tirosh & B. Geller-Talithman, With E. Domka, op. cit., p. 283.
57
Joshua – Pupil's Workbook, (Hebrew), Reches Cf. A Eliezri & M. Geva, op. cit., pp. 125-126.
58
& Yavne, 2000, p.72. K. Tabikian, op. cit., p. 294.
34 59
Ibidem. M. Dressler & R. Zuzovski, Water in the
35
Tsipi Elder & Lili Yaffe, op. cit., p. 374. Era of Peace- Learning Unit about the Water
36
E. Domka, op. cit., pp. 230-231. Problem in our Region and Ways to solve it,
37
K. Tabikian, Journey to the Past- The Twentieth (Hebrew), Reches, Publishing and Kibbutzim
Century, By Dint of Freedom, (Hebrew), 1999, Seminar, 2000, pp.151-152.
60
Matah – The Center for Educational Technology, Rivka Motzafi & Michal Shachar, What's
1999, p. 137. the Connection? What's the Interpretation?
38
Ibidem, p. 150 (Hebrew), n.d., Reches, p. 184.
39 61
Eyal Naveh, The Twentieth Century – On the CMIP, 2000, pp. 12 -13, and CMIP, 2002,
Threshold of Tomorrow, History for Ninth Grade, p. 4, pp.33-35.
62
(Hebrew), Sifrei, Tel Aviv, 1999, p. 85. M. Meehan, “Special Report. Israel
40
R. Peleg, (ed) The Northern Land [of Israel] – Textbooks and Children’s Literature Promote
Galilee, Golan and the Valleys Through the Racism and Hatred towards the Palestinians”
Generations for Upper Grades, (Hebrew), Yad Ben in Washington Report on Middle East Affairs,
Zvi & Ministry of Education, Curricula Branch, 1999, pp. 19-20.
63
Experimental Edition, 1999, p. 388. Ibidem. p. 20 and Nathan Brown, “Democracy,
41
Interview with Mahmud Darwish by Tom History and the Contest over the Palestinian
Segev, Haaretz, March 10, 2000. Curriculum”, Adam Institute, November 2001,
42
CMIP, (2000), pp. 111-113. p.6.
43 64
Moshe Braver, Atlas for the Elementary and See Yohanan Manor, Les manuels scolaires
Middle Schools, (Hebrew), Yavne, 11th edition, palestiniens Une génération sacrifiée. Berg
1999; Physical, Political and Economic Atlas, International, 2003, pp 134-136.
65
(Hebrew), Yavne, 11th edition, 2000. On the content of Palestinian schoolbooks,
44
Reproduced in CMIP, 2002, p. 46. see. Y. Manor, op. cit., and also the six reports
45
See CMIP, 2000, pp. 101-105 and CMIP, issued by CMIP, the first two relating to
2002, pp. 7-10. Egyptian and Jordanian textbooks adopted by
46
G. Zohar, H. Leon & R. Peleg, op. cit., p. 8. the PA and the remainder to the new
47
Ibidem, p. 4. textbooks authored and produced by the PA to
48
“The case of the Israeli textbooks”, a paper replace the Egyptian and Jordanian books:
presented to the session of the sub-committee of Palestinian Authority School Textbooks
the Political Affairs Committee of the (1998); Palestinian Authority Teacher's Guide
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of (2000); Jews, Israel and Peace in Palestinian
Europe, devoted to “The Suppression of School Textbooks 2000-2001 and 2001-2002
Provocative Language and Incitement to Hatred (2001); Jews, Israel and Peace in Palestinian
and Violence in Israeli and Palestinian School Textbooks and High School
Textbooks”, October 24, 2003, Paris. Examinations 2000-2001 and 2001-2002
49
David Shachar, From Exile to Independence–The (2002); Jews, Israel and Peace in Palestinian
history of the Jewish People in Recent Generation, School Textbooks. The New Textbooks for
vol. 2, (Hebrew), Idan, 1989, pp. 308-312. Grade 3 and 8 (2003); Jews, Israel and Peace
50
Ibidem. p. 312. in Palestinian School Textbooks. The New
51
A. Rap & Z. Fein, op. cit., p. 153. Textbooks for Grade 4 and 9 (2004).
52
Eyal Naveh, op. cit., p. 138.
53
A Handbook for the Improvement of
Textbooks and Teaching Materials, as Aids to
International Understanding, UNESCO, 1949,
Chapter X, pp.123-135.
54
A. Eliezri & M. Geva, Zionism Tested in
Action, (Hebrew), Maalot, Ministry of Education,
Experimental Edition, 1984, p. 62.
55
Cf. Tsipi Elder & Lili Yaffa, op. cit., p. 370.
71
The Implications of the Commercial Transactions

through Settling Up in the Conditions of
International Economical Globalization
Ion-Viorel MATEI
Résumé: La tendance de passer de l’internationalisation à la globalisation

de la vie économique a été un des aspects essentiels de l’évolution mondiale
pendant le XXe siècle. Cette tendance a été observable dans le domaine des
échanges commerciaux, des investissements étrangers et des structures
organisationnelles d’affaires.
Keywords: Globalization, Internationalization, Production, Commercial Operation
transactions, modifying the rapports of

A characteristic feature of the business
medium’s evolution on a world
scale – in the second half of the XX
force in the economical and political-
military plan and a new modality of
century, has built the tendency to pass from defining the relation between national and
internalization to globalizing the economic international.
life. This tendency has subscribed also in Showing the economic relationships
the commercial transaction domain (the on a world plan and creating an international
world commerce expansion), of investments business medium was realized by two big
in foreign countries (product internatio- processes: the growing world commerce and
nalization), of organizational business structures fast development of the investments in
(the company’s internationalization). foreign countries.
In the last decade, under the influence International commerce has known, in
of numerous factors of economic, technologic the past two decades, a powerful and
and politic nature, the internationalization almost constant expansion, devastating the
process has entered a new phase, that of growth of the industrial production, and
emerging a global economy, built on an PIB on a world scale. This way, in 1950-
interdependence system in commerce, 1998, the world commerce has grown (in
production, services and the financial constant prices) for 87 times, while the
domain. industrial production has grown 9,5 times,
Actual world economy is characterized and PIB by 8,5 times. This means that, for
by a new technological base, by extending the world countries, a large part of
and intensifying international commercial production is realized by exports and
imports, that the interdependence of the
72
The Implications of the Commercial Transactions through Settling Up in the Conditions of International
Economical Globalization
national economy in the productive and Developing the commercial relationships

commercial domain has intensified. in the contemporaneous period was the
Accentuating international interdependences result of numerous factors, in which we
by the commercial fluxes results from a remind:
major mutation, which has took place in • Technical progress, which has had
the world commerce domain: the pass direct impact and over the
from structures and reports of base international commerce. If since the
products type contrary to manufactured ’60s it was talking about the pass from
products (intersectorial interdependences) industrial society to the post-industrial
and than to changing the products in a society, hardly in the past two decades
frame of branches and under branches of the nature and accounts of this
industry or in the frame of a group of become to be visible. In the economic
products (intraindustrial interdependences). domain, these are synthesized in the
The developing of the intraindustrial commerce “informational economy” collocation,
reflects the process of progressive deepness which is based on new technologies.
of the international division of work in the Technical progress determinates in a
decades after closing the last world direct way the depth of the international
configuration. division of work, studying more and more
On the other hand, statistic dates the intra-industrial and intra-product type
concerning the geographic distribution of specialization; on the other hand, this
world commerce shows us that the impact is limited to the countries and
internationalization process has not developed zones in which is affirmed and valued the
in a homogenous way in the frame of the technological advance. In other words, the
world economy. Indeed, in the year 1998, international commerce is extended there
the different procedures of groups of where conditions needed exist for
countries in the international commerce manufacturing the technical progress. On
was the following: developed countries the other hand, actual technological
66,6%, countries still developing 29,6%, developments, especially in the industry
countries with an economy in transition domain of elaboration, tend to modify the
3,8%. The difference between the groups premises to compete in the international
of countries is more accentuated if we refer businesses. So, the countries which are
to the changes in the manufactured/industrial based on intensive industrial exports in
products; in this case, the numbers are the manual labor risk losing, in terms of
following: (Export:) developed countries competitive position, in the new conditions
71%, countries in development 25,7%, on the world market. Concomitantly, the
countries in transition 2,9%. new material industry departures the
And so, the internationalization process natural limits of the growth and reduce the
was realized integrally on the globe, a rent associated to some products
powerful concentration of the interdependence considered irreproducible.
between the developed countries being • The accentuated production of
manifested, in the race in frame of the international commerce, in the second
USA “triads” – Occidental Europe – half of the XX century was owed to
Japan. The weight of the three in the world tendencies of imposing liberalism.
commerce in the year 1997 was the The economical performances obtained
following: occidental Europe 37%, USA in the occidental countries by promoting
14,7%, Japan 7%. the market economy and, in contrast,
73
Ion-Viorel Matei
economic failure of the command at economic regional integration. If these

the end of the ‘80s, have represented a processes have been taken in different
clear argue and economic doctrine. forms and at different intensities in the
The fast development of the international developed world and in those in
commerce was valorized by the transition, the greatest example is
freechangable orientation of the commercial represented by the integration of the
politics in the main countries participating East European countries in the
at the world market. At the same time, European Union.
following the export successful example of The integrationist organization has
Southern-East Asia (Japan, South Coreea, proven that, in a short historical period, a
Taiwan, etc.) a huge number of developing special capacity of training new members,
countries have adopted economic growth which reflects the expansion tendency of
strategies based on the export stimulation. the project at a continental scale. More to
An essential role in eliminating the that, the European Union’s performances
tariff and untariffed barriers from the demonstrate the deep progressive integration
international commerce way has revert in the intra-communitarian space and, in
GATT/OMC. In exchange, the United parallel, the growing role of the Union as a
Nations Conference for Commerce and centre of economic and commercial power
Development, which has purposed to in the world economy. Statistic dates
contribute to the instauration of some more confirm those above. This way, the
equitable relations between North and ponderation of the European Union in the
South Coreea and promote an international world commerce was 40,4% in 1991 and
commerce put in the growth and 37,6% in 1998.
development service, has entered, after a In what concerns the outer investments
period of intense militates, in the ‘70s, in a we can appreciate that these differ from
persistent cone of shadow. the international commerce by many
• Liberalization of commerce in the last aspects. If the commercial relationships
decades of the XX century, it is shown presume interdependence between parts of
in the following distinctive characteristics: money-product relationships (supply-
it has a starting point the developed market), outer investments create and
“center” of the world economy, develop direct reports in the production
constitutes a dominant tendency on a domain. Economically, an investment in a
world scale, even if the elements of foreign country implies an option for
protectionism are meet in the realities internationalizing the economical activity,
North-North and even in North-South; in the character of products, goods and
they have a base institutionalized on a services.
world level, represented usually by Analyzing direct outer investments,
OMC and other organizations of we observe that these purpose the
global or regional vocation; it is implication of the investor in the company’s
applied not only in the commercial management in the host country, him
relations domain, but also in the one taking part of the apportionment of the
of financial international relationships. profits and the business risks. This can be
• Another contributing factor to the realized by funding a new company, or
development of international commerce buying a set of actions from a company of
is represented by the processes of the foreign country. In a conventional way
it is considered that the acquisition of a
74
cote of over 10% of the social capital of a finance systems etc.; the communication
foreign company represents a direct infrastructure: the technical progress has
investment. permitted to perfect the material
If the commercial operations are based communication systems (transports), the
on the relation of type debtor-creditor, the realization of a mass-media cover at a
outer investments lead to the stabilization world scale (CNN) and, especially,
between partners of some reports based on instituting a global network of transmission
the spirit of association. /reception of information (INTERNET);
The partners are associates, not buyers the world institutional frame: a series of
or sellers, and have in the background of organizations of governmental nature (the
the company a position determined usually ONU system) or nongovernmental (ONG)
by the cote owned in the social capital. promote the discussions and actions that
And so, the business relationships don’t concern the global problematic: pollution,
have an impermanent or strict character criminality, sub-development etc.
limited by time, but to gain a durability The main economic processes that
and permanence character. sustain the tendency of globalization are
As it is known in the second half of manifested in the domains of production
the XX century, the process that indicates and services (generally, financial); and the
the increasing of economic inter- fundamental promoter force is the
dependences has carried on in more stages: multinational society.
the 50’-70’s, characterized by the Under the impact of the determinant
expansion of the international commerce; factors of the internationalization process it
the 70’-80’s, in which the international has been produced a growing expansion of
financial relationships gain a special the international division of work, with the
importance; the 90’s, in which the passing tendency to construct a system of inter-
from internationalization towards globalization dependences on a global scale.
in world economy takes place. Even if in the post-war years it has
A series of aspects of the social- been determined a zone of large
economic life from our days reflect the concentration of exchanges – “the triad” –
process of globalization: the global nature in the world work division network there
of science and technology; even if the have been attracted progressively new
main sources of the technical progress are states and groups of states: the new
concentrated in the developed world, the industrialized countries, and, in the last
scientific research is based on global decade, the Middle and East Europe
resources, and putting the technology to countries. This state of things demonstrates
application concerns global interests; the that globalization is the formation of a
global marketing: the marketing strategy global economy that involves regional
of the companies respond to the specificity.
globalization requests and promote this The process of globalization is
process (universal marks, (“focusing” the simulated also by the interdependent
consume, advertising culture etc.); the development of international commerce
world financial system: the “symbolic” and the outer investments in foreign countries.
world economy is based on a network that Compared to other historic times, at the
implicates, at a global scale, the bank present more and more companies, and
institutions and the capital market agents, firstly the multinational societies, adopt
national reglementation systems, international business strategies that involve directly the
75
Ion-Viorel Matei
global state, the world market in ensemble. of the importance of intra-industrial

In the frame of these strategies, there are commerce (in the frame of some industrial
practiced different forms of international subsides, of some groups of products or
transactions – from the category of intra-product) expresses the process of
commerce, of cooperation or forms of depth of international division of work.
implantation – or combinations of these. To this process correspond tendencies
Globalization is helped by the creation of world integration of production, which
of commerce effects too, which are is generated and controlled by the
generated by different regional integrationist multinational societies. The cote from the
groups or institutional arrangements – or internationalized production (estimated on
multilateral. These because in the conditions the base of the multinational societies
in which there is manifested a strong activities volume in the country of origin
tendency of fond towards globalization, all and the selling of their subsidiaries in
the regional concentration zones of foreign countries) reached in 1998 32% of
commerce or international arrangements PNB for USA, 24% for Japan and 42% for
made to simulate the companies to Holland.
compete tend to be attracted in the world The main mechanisms of interna-
commercial circuit and to be subordinated tionalization and globalization of production
to the dominant trend. are represented by: the productive valuing
The essential role of globalization is of a technology in foreign countries by
constituted by the multinational society. license or other forms of transfer of
By the available data in the middle of the technology towards mixed societies, subsidiaries
past decade of the XX century, in an or branches from third countries; de-
average of 45% of the total selling of the localization of production by sub-contracting
multinational societies are represented by and creating an international productive
exports; these societies control almost system of cooperation in productions at an
totally the international commerce with international scale; realizing fusions and
base products; and the finite industrial acquisitions constituted by large industrial
product markets are mostly global groups at a global scale.
(meaning electronics, the main powerful The internationalization of production
industry in the productive annual system). is doubled by the internationalization of
On the other hand, since over two services, in a process that reflects in the
decades ago a substantial cote from the world economic circuit the post-war
developed countries exports (above 50% tendency of growth of the third sectors
from the American exports, almost 80% of importance again, in report with the
the Britannic exports) and of the new secondary sector, in economy. And in this
industrialized states (over 90% for process the multinational societies play the
Singapore, above 40% from Brazil) are role of driving forces. These processes are
generated by multinational societies. From tightly bounded, so that we can talk about
where the conclusion that “world economy a kind of third-industrial global complex.
is formed so by the process of market The new technologies tend to industrialize
globalization”. the production of services and to thriven
If the development of the international the productivity of goods. Two categories
commerce reflects the extension process of of services have contributed in a decisive
the international division of work and way, especially in the years 80’ and 90’, at
market globalization, the remarkable growth
76
globalizing the business relationships: the

consulting and financial ones.
The third and multinational societies
have begun implicated more and more in
transactions by the financial international
markets; they are diversified towards Bibliography:
financial activities, they are “financializing”. 1. BARI I., Economia mondială, Editura
Even this diversity of activities – Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti
industrial, third, financial – integrated in a 1997.
network of conglomerate fives the specific 2. BRAN P., Relaţiile financiare şi
of global multinationals. monetare internaţionale, Editura
On the other hand, the financial operations ECONOMICĂ, Bucureşti, 1996.
of the large international banks and the 3. FOTA C., Economie mondială,
multinational societies drive to integrating Centrul de Informare şi documentare
the international financial markets, and the Economică, Academia Română,
capitals movement tends to become in a Bucureşti, 1994.
large state autonomous, in report with the 4. MATEI V., NEŢOIU L., Tranzacţiile
finance of production and exchanges. Comerciale Internaţionale, Editura
A financial global private system is in Universitaria, Craiova, 2002.
course of becoming a structure, including
the network of multinationals, commercial
and investment banks, Euromarkets, markets
of derived financial products, the large
financial world markets, which show
generally the process of internatio-na-
lization and globalization of international
commercial transactions with all the
consequences for the participants at the
stages.
77
Terrorism – Motivation or Violation of Human

Rights
Adrian BOGDA
Résumé: Le terrorisme est un des phénomènes les plus grave qui menacent
la paix et la sécurité mondiale. Cet article est une approche juridique de ce
phénomène, présentant les normes nationales et internationals qui le
condamnent.
Keywords: Terrorism, Human Rights, Conflict, International Law.
Introduction in the League of Nations, it supported the

necessity of an international action against
owadays, terrorism represents an the terrorism.
N important problem; given the
proportion of the phenomenon, it
In 1935, the Romanian doctrinaire
Vespasian V. Pella elaborated a project of
endangers even the international peace and convention concerning the foundation of
security. an international law court which should
Boutros Boutros Ghali emphasized punish the terrorist acts.
the connection between the human rights The Convention in 1937 referring to
and the international security, showing the prevention and repressing of the
that: “Observance of the human rights is, terrorism stipulated that it is envy state′s
cleanly, an important factor in maintaining duty to avoid any act meant so favour the
the international peace and security and terrorist activities against another state and
also the social and economic development”1. to prevent the terrorist actions.
Thus, terrorism affects the very inter- For a better understanding of this
national security and peace. phenomenon we should start from its
This crime is very serious since violent causes.
methods are used, putting in danger innocent The UN documents concerning the
people′s lives. The methods include: murder, international terrorism mention two categories
arsons, explosions, kidnapping, etc. of causes: economic and political or
A recrudescence, of the terrorist acts ideological causes. The economic causes
has bun noticed lately. The terrorist danger are: poverty, suffering and despair of
has become more and more serious. certain human communities who using
Romania took the first steps in the these radical solutions try to attract
fight against the terrorism in 1926, where people′s attention to certain situations
78
Terrorism – Motivation or Violation of Human Rights
which require to be urgently solved. The government, the civil population or a part
political and ideological causes are the of this for the accomplishment of certain
fanatism and the extremist or nationalist political or social objectives”6. On the
state interests2. other hand, the State Department defines
Etymologically the term “terror” the terrorism as “premeditated violence,
comes from the Latin terror3. politically motivated, against the civil
The concept of terrorist is of Arabian population, used by the sub national or
origin, designating a hashish consumer, surreptitious agents, usually intended to
who under the drug influence and being a influence the public opinion”7.
member of a fanatic Muslim sect was used
by the leaders of the group to strike terror Terrorism – motivation for the
and panic into the unfaithful heart through observance of human rights
violence and crime4. The international defining of the
Now, an important problem is terrorism is difficult since terrorist acts can
represented by the so called “nuclear be regarded from two points of view.
terrorism” which means the use of the One perspective is that of a state
nuclear materials for terrorist goals. victim of the aggression which considers
Mass-media tried to attract public′s these types of actions as crime.
attention, showing that some radioactive This point of view is shared by most
materials were removed from the former Western countries and by the U.S.A.
Soviet Union. It is about of the almost 100 The opposite point of view is based on
“nuclear suitcases” which disappeared the confusion between terrorist acts and
from the military warehouses and which the right to self – determination of the
could destroy a whole town. nations.
Taking this into account it is necessary The supporters of terrorism consider
that the security of the nuclear plants any activity of this type as a patriotic duty
should be strengthened. necessary to obtain the independence of
The terrorists′ access to the nuclear that territory.
materials would give them the possibility There have been cases when certain
to put in danger the whole community terrorist organization claimed that their
only by spreading these materials. actions aimed at the respecting of the
Thirteen cases of the sale of the human rights. But their means contradict
nuclear materials which could be used for their claims based on a false motivation.
weapons have been recorded in this period: 5 Thus, the self-determination right cannot
cases in Russia, 3 in Czech Republic, 3 in be invoked in case of group or national
Germany, 1 case in Lithuania, 1 case in Italy5. minorities as it is in case of nations.
Unfortunately, an international definition Most adepts of this doctrine have
of terrorism could not be formulated up to considered it absurd to give the right to
now. self-determination to national minorities
Although, there are more national since they are part of a nation.
definitions, these differ from one institution to A favourable answer to this question
another. would mean creating a series of
For instance, in the USA the terrorism international conflicts caused by territorial
is defined by the FBI as the “the illicit use claims laid by national minorities.
of force or violence against persons or The result of such an action would be
premises in order to intimidate or force a the dividing of the existing countries into a
79
Adrian Bogdan
multitude of smaller states since no nation A type of society which world allows
is “pure”, but includes minorities. the right of every individual to kill is
Nicolae Titulescu mentioned that “the unimaginable because in this case, self-
duty of a state towards its minorities is preservation instinct would make him
universal, both legally and morally … isolate himself which would lead to the
Goodwill most be a characteristic of the dissolution of the human society.
mutual relations between a nation and its
minorities.”8 Conclusions
Another motivation for terrorist acts is Since terrorism manifests more and
revenge meant to cause a prejudice against more aggressively a concerted action of all
a source of material or moral offence. the states is necessary to eradicate this
Both national and international laws phenomenon which defies human life.
forbid these actions considered crimes. Such acts cannot be justified since
There are legal means so be used the they bluntly break the international laws,
prejudiced, and violence is not on of them. no international provision allowing the use
of violence.
Terrorism seen as a violation of
human rights otes
The international community has 1
Boutros Boutros Ghali, Report upon the
repeatedly condemned terrorism as a activity of the U&O General Assembly, New
violation of human rights. York, 1992, p. 45.
2
Within the legislation focused on the Vasile Ciuvat, Public International Law,
above mentioned phenomenon we Universitaria Publishing House, Craiova, 2002,
mention: page 172-173.
3
Which means frighten, terror, panic.
1. UN General Assembly Resolution 4
Oleg Balan, Terrorism – international crime,
number 49/185 of December, 23, Chisinau, 1998, p. 7.
19949. 5
Oleg Balan, &uclear terrorism – mith or
2. The International Treaty on civil and reality, Law and Life Magazin no.11, 1998, p.
political rights. 26.
6
3. The International Convention against Cristian Jura, The International Terrorism, All
hostage-taking in 1979. Beck Publishing House, Bucharest, 2004, p.
4. The European Convention against 20.
7
terrorism in 1977. Cristian Jura, The International Terrorism,
5. The Hague Convention against plane All Beck Publishing House, Bucharest, 2004,
p. 20.
hijacking in 1970. 8
Nicolae Titulescu, Pleadings for Peace, The
6. The International Convention against Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest,
terrorism financial support in 1999. 1996, p. 121.
The effects of terrorist acts violate the 9
Which mentions that: all the terrorist acts and
right to life and integrity guaranteed by a methods are clearly incriminated since they
series of human rights documents. represent activities which infringe upon human
Murder is incriminated by all rights, fundamental freedom and democracy,
legislations because infringes upon the endanger territorial integrity and state security,
most important human rights - life. undermine legal governs and the pluralist civil
This rights has also a social dimension society and have a negative impact on the
social and economic development of the states.
since society world cease to exist if this
rights were not guaranteed.
80
P OLITICAL T HEORY AND M ETHODOLOGY
A Strategy for the Conservation of the

Participative Democracy Real Character
Cristina PIGUI
Résumé: Après la chute du régime communiste roumain,

l’approfondissement de la fosse entre les elites le people a eu pour résultat
une fréquente non representation des citoyens dans le processus législatif et
dans plusieurs autres circonstances. Cet article discute les possibilités de
régler les contradictions intérieures de la société roumaine par
l’intermédiaire de certains instruments de la démocratie participative.
Keywords: Participatory Process, Elites, Citizens, Community.
T he engagement of the national

community in the decision making
process and in the governmental
the citizens, in the law-making national
process or in other circumstances3. The
regulation of the contradictions inside the
policies means the validation of the Romanian society will be done through the
governmental elite conducts (often legitimated instruments of the participatory process
through vote) by the citizens. (democracy) enlarged by the local to
The interaction citizens – national elites national level4.
(called participative democracy or participatory The premise of the engagement of the
democracy) is a means for maintaining the participative democracy process is the
social cohesion and avoiding the breakage citizens’ motivation to take part in the
of the equilibrium between legitimization decision making process. Three reasons
and social justice1. Marc Crépon, Bernard motivate the citizens to preoccupy
Stiegler showed that the participatory themselves by the problems of the society
democracy is not a pleonasm. The participatory they belong to and to be free by their
democracy as a “direct democracy” may personal troubles:
be opposed to representative democracy, A. Order.
but it musn’t misinterpreted as a form of B. Direction.
populism2. C. Protection (Security).
After the communist regime collapse, Point A means the normal and real
the augmentation of the precipice between performance of the institutions of society
Romanian elites and citizens (the lack of and it represents the premise of the control
the political coherence, stability and the of interactions between the representants
political partisan tendencies, etc.) determined (elected) and the represented people. The
that national elites do not represent, sometimes, author of this study contends that it is
81
POLITICAL THEORY AND METHODOLOGY
Cristina Pigui
necessary to introduce a new concept: The means: debates, media, reunions, etc.
Concept of the Minimal Public Order of There is an ascendant interaction at this
the society in which the participative stage (citizens towards authorities).
democracy is able to perform5. This The third step: the chosen of the
concept supposes the fulfillment of the optimal variant from the citizens’ views
objectives of society institutions at least in and its promotion (the propaganda);
so little/big coefficient as to secure the The fourth step: the evaluation of the
existence and performance of the entire effects of this variant in the social
social system. relations, after the propaganda;
Point B signifies the direction and The fifth step: the compulsory behaviors
tendencies followed by Romanian elites prescribed by the authoritative national organs.
that must represent, as much it is possible, The first and the second step represent
the assimilation of the personal tendencies the vertical interaction citizens-Romanian
of each of the society members. elites (authoritative organs) and it must realize
Point C reflects the life level of the them in a transparent manner based on:
citizens: social security, unemployment, a) Consistency.
etc. In this context, it is necessary to adopt b) Accessibility (the equitable chances of
a common consensus regarding the participation).
significance of the term of decent life in c) Continuity.
the present conditions of civilization, on d) Complete cognition of the problem
the international arena. details .
The citizens’ implication in the political The third step is a very important
decisions making process is possible only instrument for attaining the principal aim of
in decent conditions of life; on the the debates: obtaining the viable solutions
contrary, it may be affected by the distrust, considering a minimal level of life.
selfishness, ignorance and indifference due The propaganda is a strategic means
to their poverty. for gaining the common profit. It seems to
The politicians wondered themselves be the same as the publicity in the respect
how real the citizens’ representation is in of its persuasive power of suggestion.
the participative democracy6. Despite the The use of the propaganda without the
fact that, only the final effects of this coverage of the first and the second step
process can show us whether the degenerates into dictatorship, but, at the
representation was true real nevertheless same time, a democracy is deficient if it is
the education and the ignorance level or not aware of the power of this instrument
the false political willingness (the vide to move the masses.
rhetoric) can undermine the real character The evaluation of the effects after the
of the participative democracy. In these promotion (the propaganda) of the optimal
conditions, we propose a decisional strategy variant chosen as a result of the
axed on the three pylons: community consultation will determine the
The first step: the dissemination of the passage towards the fifth step –to render
information towards the audience concerning the binding decision- or the recurrence of
the political problem debated. There is a the entire process, commencing with the
descendent interaction at this stage first step. The recurrence of the entire
(authorities towards citizens). process is not expensive because the
The second step: the accumulation of second cycle may involve a limited
the public opinions through the specific consultation at the expert level.
82
A Strategy for the Conservation of the Participative Democracy Real Character
ROMAIA ELITE
SELECTION, EVALUATION
OPINIONS
CITIZES
The decision equation often presents public consultation are: courage, energy,
many variables divided into two categories: originality, etc.
1. the variables regarding the organizers; The elite attention must focus for each
2. the variables concerning the citizens. public consultation process the extraction
Regarding point 1, the capacities of of the following unknown:
Romanian elites differ relatively to their - the values shared by the majority of
vision and profundity or other personal the citizens and their corroboration
characteristics as the administrative and with the desires of the minority;
managerial skills, etc. - a greater fulfillment of the goals of the
The community of citizens, who take majority considering the aspirations of
part at the decisional process, can confront the minority (the compromise);
itself with the subjectivism in the - the obtaining of the social cohesion
appreciation of the best alternative of the majority-minority through an adequate
solutions following from the differences distribution of the national resources
existing between their mentalities and in the decision content;
values, their life experience, etc. - The stipulation of the express and
These variables have to known at the exhaustive exceptions and, also, of all
beginning of the deliberative process for a the particularities that consolidate the
correct and representative selection of the rule from decision;
target group, who will take part to - The anticipation of a determined period
deliberation. Their cognition permits to of the decision enforce according to
avoid the risks in solving the problems the evolutional stage that claim it (its
debated. The supplementary advantages in limits).
the decision making process through the This linkage will permit to complete
the lack of stability in Romanian politics
83
Cristina Pigui
and to achieve a vision for a coherent participatory process, mentioned below as

development. an alarm signal8:
Each system or microstructure is • The dissipation of the solutions of
interested in the accumulation of its own problem debated in many variants
benefices. The adoption of the unpopular difficult to follow.
decisions out of the participatory process • The prolongation of the time necessary
will suppose the formation, remuneration for the decision adoption.
and instruction costs of a repressive • The insufficiency of the resources
machine entitled to enforce them. This allocated for the beginning and
alternative is more expensive than to overseeing the debate process.
promote a sustained policy of education • The organization of the debates
and social protection in a adequate and having the exclusive motivation of
gradual way. using the special funds afforded or
Concluding, the unpopular decision promoting the false impression of the
adoption will determine a lack of balance popularity of a certain governmental
between the costs implied over the program though there is not a real
benefices gained. intention to consult the citizens.
The predominance of the advantages Patricia White wrote in her book
over the risks of the participatory Beyond Domination: An Essay in the
democracy consolidates the allegations Political Philosophy of Education9 that the
aforementioned; the advantages of this participatory democracy is based on the
process are7: fundamental moral presumption of the
• The integration of the conducts of equality of all human beings as choosers.
Romanian governmental elites with the Nevertheless, it is also true that the people
community aspirations in a functional tend to participate politically if they
mechanism. believe that their participation will affect
• The control of the evolutions of the significantly the outcome. A common
community goals and their domains of feature of the contemporary societies is
manifestations. that many people contend that they have
• The coordination of the power better things to do than vote or involving
movements, the reconciliation of the in the participatory process because they
electoral masses of governmental can do nothing to change the reality of
power and opposition. corruption, bureaucracy, etc. In this kind,
• The consecration of the state that the autocratic elements are protected
based its politics on the participative against the progress.
process as a more credible and Many scholars10 theorized that a
powerful actor on the international society with periodic plebiscites would be
arena. structurally depoliticized. In fact, the
In other words, the participative initiatives and efforts of the citizens to
democracy is the fundamental premise of share the governmental responsibilities
power – for its existence, conservation and threat the replacement of the politics with
development. the corruption.
The Romanian governmental elites
must avoid the subsequent risks of the
84
A Strategy for the Conservation of the Participative Democracy Real Character
otes c. the dilemma of the scald : policy of

1
The JJ Roseau, GDH Cole, JS Mill theories proximity or incitation to augmentation,
of the participative democracy are described in anyway ?
« Participation and Democratic Theory» de d. the dilemma of the competence : rational
Carole Pateman; Cambridge University Press; argumentation vs profane expertise.
pp. 22-45, (1970) e. the dilemma of the conflict : factories of
2
Marc Crépon, Bernard Stiegler, « De la consensus or places of controversies ?
démocratie participative: Fondements et f. the dilemma of the decision : the illusions
limites » Edited by : Mille et une nuits, p. 5-20 of democracy or sharing the responsibilities?
7
(8 march 2007). Before the power, it is clear that only the
3
Patricia White, Beyond Domination: An Essay source of the participative democracy will be
in the Political Philosophy of Education, capable to give life of a more humane vision to
Routledge, p. 13-19, 87-91 (1983). money (Michel CHOSSUDOVSKY, « La
4
Jean-Jacques Degrange, "Construisons une mondialisation de la pauvreté », Edition
Démocratie Participative", Alotime Editions, Ecosociété, Montréal, p. 207, 1998).
8
p. 20-45 (2006) presents the convergent vision In 1925, Walter Lippmann published his book
of the different current approaches (e- « Phantom Public ». The Lippmann book is a
democracy, direct democracy, local ferocity critic of the government of public
democracy), in a harmonized frame. opinion because he affirms that the citizens
5
The New Haven school - Professors Mc have not the sense of reality objective and he
Dougal and Reisman, advanced the concept of plaids in favor of a representative government
public minimal order on the universal plan. assisted by the experts councils. In the next
6
Blondiaux, Loïc. 11 November 2004 years, John Dewey wrote his book "Le public
«Démocratie délibérative et démocratie et ses problèmes" and he redefined the public
participative : une lecture critique », itself, distinguishing the citizens informed by
Conférences de la Chaire MCD. This author the manipulable citizens according to
dilemmas regarding the participative debates Lippmann. For Dewey, the first category of
are : citizens are a part of "public".
9
a. the dilemma of representativeness : the See supra note 3, p. 14-17 (1983)
10
statistic representativeness or the politic Jürgen Habermas, The Concept of Political
representativeness ? Participation, International Political Science
b. the dilemma of the equality : integration Association, p. 37 (1967)
places or political exclusion factories ?
85
The Media and the Representation of Politics
Călin SIESCU
Résumé: Cet article discute la manière dans laquelle le politique est

représenté dans les médias. Les points principaux de la discussion sont: les
délimitations conceptuelles, les formes du discourse politique dans les
médias, la présentation des événements politiques quotidiens, le rôle des
médias dans la création de la conscience politique et des configurations
politiques nouvelles.
Keywords: Medias, Political Discourse, Political Configuration,
Dramatization, Personalization
Media: conceptual delimitations This statement is illustrated by two

arguments: One of Francis Balle (1985),
he term „media” – whose French that maintains as correct a definition
T version comes into circulation in
1973 under the name „les média”,
centered in the same time on the sender
and on the ways of expression that it
with its roots in the expression „mass authorizes, as well as on the usage of its
media”, introduced in France in the ’50s, is role: Media represents in the first place a
open to multiple significations and way – an instrument, a technique or an
interpretations. intermediary that allows people to express
Le Petit Larousse Dictionary gives the themselves and to communicate with
term media the following definition: “any others this expression, no matter the object
support for spreading the information or the shape of this expression. A media
(radio, television, written press, books, way defines itself in the same time through
PCs, video, satellite telecommunication, its utility, which defines a role or a function
etc) that forms in the same time a way of that succeeded imposing themselves, as well
expression and an intermediary that as the best means of fulfilling this role or
conveys a message addressed to a group.” this function.
The terminological shift and the hesitation Second definition belongs to
expressed by it over the last decades prove Dominique Wolton (1997), that insists on
that sometimes was taken into the values, references and conceptions of
consideration the support and the channel communication, usually propagated by the
of transmission, sometimes the use and the media. He states that “the existence of a
meaning value produced by it. media way sends always to the existence of
a community, of a vision of the reports
86
between the individual and the collective Politics and the Media
stage and to a certain representation of the In Bernard Lamizet’s opinion (2003),
public eye. the media means are major actors of the
The media should be in the first place political space, giving it its language,
sees as a whole of production technology esthetics, forms and logic through which
and of transmitting messages through a the engagements, political options, decisions
channel, or support (journal, paper, Hertz or debates acquire a symbolic consistency.
waves, cable, etc) towards a terminal Subscribing itself into these stabilized
(receiver, screen, etc) or as a main product frameworks of representation, the political
of this technique (journals, books, shows, fact receives through the media a certain
etc). Secondly, they should be seen as an consistency and signification. As long as
economic, social and symbolic organization there is no discourse and no symbolic
(with its functioning modalities and representation, which supply its substance,
multiple social actors) that treat these the politic has no symbolic consistency
messages and make way to multiple uses. and no significance aside which the public
Assuming the role relies not only in the opinion could situate itself. In reference to
transmission of the messages or as an this, the representation must be conceived
interface with the user, but also in in its two significances: the simultaneous
calculating the entire process from the existence of representations that personify
sender to the receivers. This way, the the political fact in the exercise of its
media has a technical (material) dimension, as mandate and the elaboration of
well as a social (representations) one, that representations that give its consistency
evolves over time, considering the space and significance of constitutive symbolic
and the social groups that make use of it. practices of the public space.
Nowadays, the expression „media” Information represents, nevertheless,
names a variety of supports and enterprises, the primary process of the formation of
which are not, as a matter of fact, a homo- political space; from the moment of
geneous universe, but a pluralist one, well elaboration and spreading the information
differentiated and at times fragmented. regarding the actors of the power zone, we
In reality, this word – often used as are witnessing the birth of the public space
anodyne as well – hides strong disparities in its symbolic consistency (images,
among supporters, sensible differences in discourse, representations) as well as its
the positioning towards the public, real one (media broadcasting assures the
inequalities on the internal scale of legitimacy, presence of information on an entire
as well as a great heterogeneity of professional territory that becomes really a public
environments that encompasses. space). It is understood that for the citizens
To speak about the media generally to acquire a political conscience, to allow
constitutes an ease in facilitating a language them to assure a critical and judgmental
that does not really take into account the functioning, the media must communicate
diversity of objects and situations that this to them ahead of time the information
term actually covers. This approach leads needed for feeding the public space.
not only to underestimating the particularities Media, under its various shapes, hands
of diverse information supports (written or political significance to institutional activities
audio-visual) but even to ignoring the and events that in succession form the
differences of “aiming” recipients. political community life. This becomes,
87
Călin Sinescu
through them, an object of information to build an identity that will distinguish it

placed under public debate. from other media outlets from the public
Through the spreading of information space and makes it militant.
into the public space, media gains a double The Chronicle is another type of
role: on one hand, cuts spreading the engagement, slightly different from the
rumor, stabilizing the information into a editorial, whose author could be or not part
real discourse, known being the fact that of the journal’s staff members. The
once the object of information takes a author’s option represents an option of that
written or broadcasted word or image, the particular journal, the chronicle being
politic gains shape that is no longer placed at a certain distance from the event
transformed by the process of broadcasting. or daily fact it comments. This position of
On the other hand, subscribing the politic a distant commentary confers the chronicle
under the molds of language, make it the statute of a political discourse.
interpretable, in a certain way that it gains The Review for institutions is a
an interpretable consistency of a symbolic discourse about an event, but in this case
system of representations. the event is of political nature and therefore
Media presents in the same time to a needs, basically, a political review. This
large audience the action modalities of review and the narrative discourse of the
political actors, allowing users to form an political life represents for the media
opinion of their own not only on the basis privileged political discourse enunciations,
of presenting events and activities from the while these activities are using specific
public space, but also through the staging political vocabulary and language build on
of representations of actors in the political databases and political information and for
space that by acquiring a certain notoriety initiating an activity of information, which
and media visibility, become real although wasn’t formulated explicitly,
identities, across which one can express a raises the awareness and implication of the
preferential position. readers or audience and, consequently,
builds a type of communication politics.
The Forms of Political Discourse in The Portrait of political actors represents
the Media a type of enunciation whose form and
The Media hold essentially political object are essentially political; through these
discourses that carry in the whole a certain portraits, media produces a representation
orientation and a political commitment, of the political fact, contributing to its
concretized in a number of headlines and staging and imagistic representation.
columns in a journal, or in the sequence of The Media Presentation of the political
moments when we talk about written press actors reveals media’s theatrical political
or the audio-visual. role, as well as the modality in which these
The Editorial text is, by excellence, actors interpret their imaginative roles.
the place where it is announced the
political positioning of the media outlet Media and the Daily Political Factor
and therefore of its identity, fact that Through the regularity of its
justifies its apparition in a specific format apparition, the media inscribes the political
under the signature of the Director or that fact into a daily temporality. Via this daily
of the Editor in Chief. The editorial text becoming, the media acquired the role it
turns the media into a political actor, has today: marks the development of
determining it to express a specific option, political life, renders a certain rhythm by
88
synchronizing with this symbolic temporality, closeness to citizens in the process of

a “temporal media-broadcasting” and acquiring a political conscience. By
building this way a continuation over time elaborating and suggesting modalities of
of the political factor. understanding and interpretation through
This rhythm is necessary for the integration of the discourse on events and
creation of the political mediation that will political facts in an entity of information
allow intelligibility, agreement among aiming at the daily knowledge accumulated,
communication subjects and sociability, as the media proposes means of under-
well as the formation of their citizenship standing the world that will fill it with
on the basis of a real “social divided time”. significance. It catches our attention and
This construction of the political time by raises our anxiety, incites our curiosity and
the media renders visibility to institutional tests our vigilance, turning us into active
life events. The existence of a political life and consequently aware citizens.
calendar allows the integration of political The media diminishes the dimensions
time in social temporality in the same way of the world, making it more familiar and,
in which the rituals inscribe religious time consequently integrating in our political
in daily temporality of believers, for conscience all events, actions and
ensuring their engagement and sense of sociability forms out of which the media is
belonging. made. Political thought is build, due to the
This highlight of the daily fact by the media, in all its complexity of forms and
political life, due to events and implications and therefore we are able to
communication practices, allows everyone understand all the events presented to us,
to take part to institutional life and fully aiming to produce the evolution of the
assume citizenship. belonging to our institutions and in the
end, of our political sociability.
Media and Political Conscience
It is well known the fact that the Distancing from - and rejecting of -
media played an essential role in the the media
formation of political conscience, especially The distancing of the subject of
around the end of the 18th Century and the communication from the media corresponds
beginning of the 19th. Due to their actually to the lack of interest manifested
diffusing and penetration in the social by the public in what the media is concerned
space as a whole, the media contributed to and especially toward the political event it
it’s closer positioning to the mass of carries. This disgust or boredom that the
citizens, turning the political communication reproducing or interpreting of a political
into a common one, a regular activity of fact produces makes also reference (in B.
symbolic life, like all other preoccupations Lamizet’s opinion) to a cultural lack among
we have, that mark our everyday life. audiences, unprepared to receive the
Through this daily highlight of information, nature of information, as well as the lack
through relating this way to the facts of all of its political engagement desire.
social life events, a true political culture Given the conditions, media will
could be build practically, a political proceed to a re direction of the political
perception of the constitutive events of discourse, pushing it away from the
sociability as a whole. citizen’s engagement and from the
This way, the media participates at the political fact, with the purpose of regaining
formation of the political thought and at its
89
Călin Sinescu
the attention of the audience eager to no longer reduced to simple communication

receive the message. technologies, capable of affecting the
Although this distancing of the audience functioning of democracy and to transform
means also a distancing of the media itself modalities of expression belonging to
towards the political space, sometimes it public debates.
tries to regain the reader’s interest. This In Remy Rieffel’s opinion (2005),
way, the birth of a new kind of printed there is a new configuration in which one
press took place – that of the further step is made from a game reduced
miscellaneous events and so called general to only two actors (political figures and
information, without explicit involvement citizens) to a more complex one, with four
(which does not exclude any type of participants: political figures, polling
engagement) and without an open political institutes, journalists and citizens.
discourse. This way, the predictions are Between the political stage protagonists
that we are going to witness a split in two there is a fluctuating level of battle force
of the public space, further and further that incites to the precise noticing of the
from one another: one of the information actor that leads/dominates the game. This
and public debate and a second one of the game not only defines the fight or the
entertainment and sensation. existent cooperation between various
The distancing from the media and the interventionists acting on the political
political fact has a lot to do also with the arena, but also the one organized on a
rejecting attitude manifested by the political symbolic level, starting with the current
actors. The rejection of communication and representations on the recent electoral
their mistrust in the media and journalists stage.
could be closely tied to the scandals or This presents itself (in J. Gerstlé’s
excesses provoked by the so called opinion) like a privileged sequence of the
investigating journalism, that aims explicitly political reality construction to which all
at the privacy of high political figures. This actors contribute, in proportion to their
distancing is also associated with some resources and interests… Political people
sort of embarrassment or difficulty that look to impose the domination of their
they might have when exposed to the definition through a series of symbols, like
threat the media represents, for being words, images, movies, stories and
evaluated, misjudged and rejected by those arguments, speeches, phrases, pictures,
and by other actors of communication. posters, video clips, books, professions of
Finally, the rejection of the media could be faith, written materials, music, etc. The
owed to its refusal to see the politics other characters/protagonists – journalists,
reduced to the dimensions of a show the people doing the polls or even simple
without any engagements, implications or citizens – issue judgments themselves or
significance. suggest images, becoming at their turn,
vectors of a different or antagonistic
Media and the ew Political interpretation.
Configuration Following the same thought pattern,
The estimation of the media influence the electoral communication at stake
in political matters presupposes a new would resume itself to a competition with
approach, achieved first in Radio and TV the purpose of controlling what the general
studios, and under an entirely new public perceives as events developing and
perspective in which these instruments are what they understand from the political
90
battles through the media or in a media technique of communication for

confrontation of definitions, where every better organize their interventions, making
single one of them intends imposing their use of media logic. In the same time, the
domination, for having more credibility in growing professionalism of the political
the perception of the electoral campaign in profession is mentioned, conjugated with
development. the accelerated protrusion of the media and
In this context, we have to mention the intensification of the convention
that the mediated variable cannot be between the elected ones and journalists,
presented on its own, but in a relational transforms the perfecting of political life,
logic, interpretable jointly with the other as well as the media strategies in force.
actors of the political arena, exposed to the
same modifications or interferences, Personalization, dramatization, esthetics
specific to the current situation. As per Remy Rieffel, the accent
The enunciation of these introductory placed on the psychological characteristics
elements brings in discussion the issue of of candidates shifted the borderlines
the role and real importance of the media between public and private, contributed to
in today’s political life. In this framework, the appreciation of certain character traits
some possible questions arise: is the media (like open, easygoing, energetic, warm,
turning into a determining tool of the etc) and underlined the intimacy of the
democratic life of a country or in a political figure/character ( photographs and
secondary variable – definitely important – videos with family members: spouse,
but not decisive, for the well functioning children, etc). Such a strategy forces the
of the public debate? Who would then politicians to build themselves a character,
hold the supremacy of the communication- legitimizes their decasualization and
politics binomial? neglects the political stakes, which are
The debate is not final yet, because taken out of context, reducing the electoral
clear cut, true/false issues are a rarity in campaigns to simple fight between
this field, with the exception of a single personalities.
element of diagnosis that reveals Raising the awareness of the general
unanimity: media exerts pressure and such public on less known politicians’ life
high fascination on the actors of power, events, even character traits and preferences,
that, without any doubts, influences the passions and hobbies, without any
political discourse and behavior. particular importance themselves, brings
them closer to the electors, making them
Media Influence on Political Practice more human, creating the illusion that they
Two recent affirmations made in the are closer to the people. Encouraged by
French specialty literature come to fully communication specialists (consultants,
confirm the issues discussed: „ The media image advisors, experts in political
pressure on political people is very communication), which beside necessary
powerful” (Luc Ferry) and „ to be able to advising organize media training sessions,
govern well means over 50% to be able to devise electoral posters and interpret polls,
communicate well” (François Baroin). In politicians find themselves in the situation
this context, it is mentioned that the of being forced to adopt new political
growing potential of television during the conducts, if they really want to convince
1995 electoral elections in France, electors.
determined all candidates to utilize mass
91
Călin Sinescu
Making a referral to the progressive Fragmentation of political messages

transformation of political shows during becomes a natural consequence of it. It is a
the ‘80s, Erik Neveu (1995) underlined the presentation of facts and stakes under the
posture changes recorded during that shape of an „information-capsule”; in the
period of time for French political leaders capacity of fragmenting the problems in
of the era, highlighting the fact that the adopting the clip type effect, meaning to
television started occupying a center stage react instantaneously to certain questions
in their strategies. asked by journalists; to accept the
Some shows stood out in this context, reduction of the speech time even to a
taking advantage of the principle of couple of phrases or small formulae, and
interviewing the guest in scenery imitating to be capable of producing speeches that
agora and the interaction with the viewers summarize thoughts in 30 seconds or 2
through instant polls; they intruded in the minutes, as per the pattern imposed by the
intimacy of highly placed politicians, by moderator.
presenting them during their private This way, we can say that the rhetoric
everyday life, contributing this way to the of politics became the art of small
psychology of politics; it was favored a sentences, of the capitation and seduction
certain diluted climate of politics, in which of the viewer through an associative
the actors of power are incited to talk – rationale and not with a hypothetical-
generally – about that particular week’s deductive one. This policy encourages a
political events, sometimes without having speech that addresses everybody in the
all the data concerning the latest same time and that is not meant to
developments, etc. displease anyone. Christian Le Bart (1998)
This valorization of the political brings up a hypothesis that states that the
personalities’ benevolence and the revealing audio-visual media accelerated the
of their personal intimacy weren’t – it homogeneity of political discourse.
seems so – sufficient for giving a plus Given today’s contexts, the political
of intelligibility to the political issues of discourse acquires more and more a drama
the day. Television constraints politicians to dimension, because the social actor – the
continuously adapt to the media political figure – must build itself – as per
patterns, exerting a real constraint on Erving Goffman (1959) – a self image, a
their communication practices. In this “façade”, often in conformity with its
context, one could say slightly public’s expectance. Considering all this,
exaggerating that if the media doesn’t would be wrong to believe in the complete
have any influential power on viewers, newness of this political communication or
definitely has it, without question, on in the perfect unity of the seduction and
politicians. persuasion techniques utilized by the
Dramatization of political life means contemporary political leaders, under the
to assimilate the politics of a show. This media effect. In this case, specialists say
way, it is mentioned that the scope of the that it is a matter of originality rather than
political show became so big that started intensity, in the context in which some
producing confusion among citizen’s practices must be evoked, especially the
perceptions, made to perceive more and personality and theatrical effect existed
more of the candidate’s competencies, in always.
proportion with their performance in front
of the camera.
92
Personalization of Politics Referring to the influence that this

One interpretation – somewhat similar kind of policy-show exerts on the TV
to the problematic approached, but with spectator- citizen, we can say that the
local pertinent nuances - makes Maria scarcity of the investigations concerning
Luisa Pasella (2004). In connection with the reception of such transmissions
the given issues, the author underlines the impedes the formulation of precise
following important aspects: conclusions in this respect. At the same
- In latest years, the television became the time, it is to mention that there isn’t an
principal tool of political communication, unanimity of views in this sense.
essentially contributing to the re- Consequently, Eric Neveu (1995) asserts
dimensioning of the local electoral that the mediated form becomes a
debate factor and to the advancing into guarantor of the civic fond and encourages
the spotlight of the political candidate, a depoliticizing of the public, because of
whose personal qualities become the its tendency to excessively vulgarize the
essential content of the political proposal political activity. Other more optimistic
and therefore the central/core element of authors as Kees Brants (2003) declare that
the electoral communication. these transmissions contribute directly to
- Television is considered responsible for the enrichment of the political competence
the process of leadership personalization of the citizens. His thesis has the merit to
that favors the diffusion of individual be based on an European comparative
symbols of power and the transformation study, without being reduced to a strictly
of personalities involved in subjects of national vision. At his turn, Jay G. Blumler
the political power; this personalization (1995), unlike some of his colleagues, that
created a situation of complex governing, signal out a crisis of the popular
in which only certain individuals are in communication, under the influence of the
the position and condition of operating commercial television, considers that the
selections in the name of a collectivity, penetration force of the infotainment is
tied to the institutions through a strong relative and much more ambiguous than
bond of trust. we can believe, suggesting that this
- Charismatic leaders of the current mixture of détente and serious discussion
political arena are presently considered which can be found in the talk-shows
to be „figures” that can generate consensus, could reconcile both popular and political
due to a wise image construction, gained element.
through a political marketing strategy at
the basis of which is the important From the party campaign to the
conviction of the importance of the candidate’s campaign
spectacular and of the necessary The disappearance or the decline of
personification of it, as a specific internal the impersonal character of the party
component of the political game. image brought to forefront the leader
- This personification of the electoral figure and to his progressive superposition
political communication constitutes a with the party image. This process is a
phenomenon that marks and will result of an ascending mediation, that led
continue marking the Italian political to an erosion of the party fidelity, to a
process, on the background of a more privilege of image personalization and
accentuated emerging of the leader. finally the attraction of spectator interest.
93
Călin Sinescu
In Italy, the first sign of this mutation One of the main missions belonging to
of a linguistic order appeared on the the political communication in this context
occasion of 2001 elections, when a series is its capacity to build up the candidate’s
of electoral lists were countersigned with a ,,story” and to reproduce it coherently by
proper name: Italia dei Valori – Di Pietro, the communicated content. In a
Democrazia Europea – D’Antoni etc. In competition for obtaining the largest
this case, the proper name tends to electoral consensus, the opposition among
substitute to the abstract one, indicates, in candidates simplifies a dispute that
fact an idea of membership, representing sometimes could be interpreted as difficult.
an indicator of link between the leader and This candidate’s role is obviously pointed
his sustainers. out during a campaign aiming to obtain a
Another proof of this link of fidelity personal power position, without a direct
which is created by the intermediary of reference to the party, which remains
language is the transformation of the somewhere on a second plan.
proper name in epithet. In the campaigns centered on the
Words like berlusconiano, bosiano, candidate the relevance report between the
prodiano make in fact reference to the candidate and the party is inverted and it
potential destiny of the political leader could happen to have a candidate imposed
produced by media. by himself, without a party or to have the
All these changes could be interpreted party as a candidate. Consequently, the
as an adaptation of the Italian policy to the personalization appears as the most
existing style, according to which elections characteristic result of the new epoch and
are rather a challenge between two persons the relation with the electorate isn’t more
than an ideas debate. This passage from we mediated by the society, but directed to
to I represents a change in the political and consumed by the intermediary of
structure, because it implies a re dimension media, which warrants it by a system of
of the party roles and of their decision concepts accessible to the large public. In
organs in the favor of the individual consequence, the author considers that
responsibility of the leader, as well as in these modern electoral campaigns can be
the communication field. The passage faced and could lead sometimes to the
from the competition of programs to that victory, counting on the opportunities
of persons, implies a series of consequences offered by media systems, which benefit
on the political communication, on the of all these useful elements for positioning
way the candidates present themselves in the candidate on the electorate market. In
front of the electorate, gain its confidence this context, the party, situated somewhere
and succeed to convince it. Consequently, behind the scene, could even not exist:
the role of the political communication in a what is fundamental is the existence of
personalized situation is to act in order to media and especially of television.
create that confidence.
The personalization of the political Bibliography :
communication requires the necessity to Balle, Francis (1992), Médias et société.
demonstrate that policy is the only way to Presse, audio-visuel, télévision, Paris,
achieve one’s personality and consequently Montchrestien.
to conquer his right to govern by his own Blumler, Jay G., Michael Gurevitch, The
actions. crisis of public communication, London,
Routledge.
94
Brants, Kees & Els Debens (2000), ,,The Le Bart, Christian (1998), Le discours
status of TV Broadcasting in Europe”, in: politique, Paris, P.U.F
J.Wieten , G. Murdock & P. Dahlgren Neveu, Erik (1995), ,,Les émissions
(eds), Television across Europe: a politiques à la télévision: les années
comparative introduction, London, Sage, quatre-vingt ou les impasses du spectacle
pp.7-23. politique”, in Hermes, Nos. 17-18, pp.
Brants, Kees (1998), ,,Who’s afraid of 145-162
infotainment”, European Journal of Pasella, Maria Luisa (2004), La
communication, 3(3), 315-335. communicazzione politica in Italia. I
Gerstlé, J. (2004), La communication messagi autogestiti nelle elezione politiche
politique, Paris, Dalozz. 2001. Due strategie a confronto, 2004,
Goffman, Erving (1959) The presentation www.baskerville.it
of self in every day life, London, Random Rieffel, Remy (2005), Que sont les
House, Inc. médias, Paris, Gallimard.
Lamizet, Bernard (2003), La G. Wolton, D. (1997), Penser la
communication politique, Lyon, Institut communication, Paris, Flamarion.
d’Etudes de Lyon.
95
Statistical Evaluation of Events in the

Mixing Models
A. IOESCU, M.R. COSTESCU
Résumé: Cet article continue l’étude dans le domaine du mixage turbulent

et il est fondé sur une technologie vortex, réalisée par des recherches
interdisciplinaires concernant l’aérodynamique et la biologie végétale.
L’installation consiste d’un tube vortex qui est une version modifiée, à basse
pression (environ 0,1 bar), d’un tube Ranque-Hilsch. A l’extrémité close on
realize une structure vortique annulaire où la période de rotation (vélocité
tangentielle/vélocité axiale) atteind son maximum. La modélation
mathématique d’un flux complexe (non périodique) à plusieurs phases créée
dans l’installation implique une évaluation de l’intensité du mixage turbulent
qui est fondée sur quelques relations mathématiques de l’effort – déformation
kinématique de l’environement déterministe. Le calcul numérique a montré
que l’efficience du mixage en longueur et déformation hausse avec le temps
dans les premiers moments du mixage, fait confirmé par les experiments. On
a étudié très peu de cas statistiques pour le cas non périodique (environ 60).
On a réalisé une comparaison avec les cas périodiques. Les conclusions
fournissent des informations utiles concernant la fréquence des événements
rares, dans les cas périodiques aussi bien que dans ceux non-périodiques.
Keywords : Vortex Phenomena, Turbulent Mixing, Stretching, Folding, Rare Event.
1. Introduction (1) x = Φ t ( X ), X = Φ t =0 ( X )
In the continuum mechanics the
T he turbulence term can be defined as

"chaotic behavior of far from
equilibrium systems, with very few
relation (1) is named flow, and it must be a
diffeomorphism of class Ck.
Moreover, (1) must satisfy the relation:
freedom degrees". In this area there are  ∂x 
two important theories: (2) 0〈 J 〈∞ , J = det i 
∂ X j 
a) The transition theory from smooth  
laminar flows to chaotic flows, where D denotes the derivation with
characteristic to turbulence. respect to the reference configuration, in
b) Statistic studies of the complete this case X. The relation (2) implies two
turbulent systems. particles, X1 and X2, which occupy the
The statistical idea of flow is same position x at a moment. Non-
represented by the map: topological behavior (like break up, for
96
Statistical Evaluation of Events in the Mixing Models
example) is not allowed. by decomposing the velocity gradient in its

The basic measure for the deformation symmetric and non-symmetric part.
with respect to X is the deformation We say that the flow x=Φt(X) has a
gradient, F: good mixing if the mean values D(lnλ)/Dt
 ∂ xi  and D(lnη)/Dt are not decreasing to zero,
(3) F = (∇ X Φ t (X ))T , Fij =   for any initial position P and any initial
∂ X j 
  orientations M and .
where ∇ X denotes differentiation with As the above two quantities are
respect to X. According to (2), F is non bounded, the deformation efficiency can
singular. The basic measure for the be naturally quantified. Thus, there is
deformation with respect to x is the defined [1] the deformation efficiency in
velocity gradient. length, eλ= eλ (X,M,t) of the material
The above relations allow the definition element dX, as:
of the basic deformation for a material D(ln λ ) / Dt
(9) eλ = ≤1
filament and for the area of an infinitesimal (D : D)1/ 2
material surface [1]. and similarly, the deformation efficiency in

Let us define the basic deformation surface, , eη= eη (X,,t) of the area element
measures: the length deformation λ and dA: in the case of an isochoric flow (the
surface deformation η, with the relations [1]: jacobian equal 1), we have:
(4) λ = lim
dx
, η = lim
da D(ln η ) / Dt
(10) eη = ≤1
dX →0 dX dA → 0 dA (D : D) 1/ 2
which are obtained from

(5) λ = (C : MM )1 / 2 , η = (det F ) ⋅ (C −1 : )
1/ 2 2. Experimental modeling
The modeling is based on a
with C (=FT·F) the Cauchy-Green deformation technology, which concerns the investigation
tensor, and the length and surface vectors of turbulent mixing in a “Tornado” vortex
M, defined by installation, and is able to process the
dX dA polluted fluids and to provide new useful
(6) M = , = materials. The installation consists of a
dX dA
vortex tube which is a modified version, at
The relation (5) has the scalar form: a low pressure (approx. 0.1 bar) of a
Ranque-Hilsch tube. The application area
(7) λ 2 = Cij ⋅ M i ⋅ & j , η 2 = (det F ) ⋅ Cij −1 ⋅ M i ⋅ & j is very large, including collecting, separation
and aggregation of the particles [2, 3].
with ∑ Mi2=1, ∑&j2=1, the condition for
The spatial and temporal scales proved
the versors.
that the domains can vary, from the
In this framework the mixing concept
laboratory domains to dissipative ones
implies the stretching and folding of the
(corresponding to fine structures).
material elements. If in an initial location P
Three specific applications were
there is a material filament dX and an area
performed as fluid waste management:
element dA, the specific length and surface
- the agglomeration of short fibers
deformations are given by the relations:
(aerodynamic spinning);
(8) D(ln λ ) = D : mm, D(lnη ) = ∇v − D : nn - the retention of particles under 5µm
Dt Dt without any material filter;
where D is the deformation tensor, obtained - the breakout of cell membranes of the
97
A. Ionescu, M.R. Costescu
phytoplankton from polluted waters  dx1

and the providing of a cell content  =G * x2
solution with important bio-stimulating (11)  dt , − 1〈 K 〈1
 dx 2 = K * G * x
features.  dt 1
One end of the tube is completely closed
with the velocity axis (the z-axis) constant.
and the air is tangentially introduced by the
The calculus was quite complex, involving
aspiration operating at the other end of the
large expressions for the length and surface
tube. The air enters the installation through
deformations. There were studied very few
the tangential entries and leaves it by the
statistical cases (about 60) for the non–
exit to the aspiration source. It is worth noting
periodic case [4]. Calculating the efficiency
the air enters the tube as a swirling flow.
of mixing provided few rare events, since
Near the closed end an annular vortex
the interruption of the simulation program
structure generates, where the swirling
matched the event of break up of the
ratio number (tangential velocity /axial
material filaments. A very important fact is
velocity) attains its maximum. We have to
that the mixing, and especially the
mention this particular swirling flow control
turbulent mixing, occurs at irrational values
by comparison to the cyclones, centrifuges
or other generators of swirling flow. 2 , 3 , 5 of the parameters and versors. This
Special results were obtained by is not surprising, since 2 , 3 , 5 etc can
processing the biological fluids, namely be considered themselves as random values.
using a aquatic algae – Spirulina Platensis. Therefore, the approaching of random
The basic effect of the vortexation refers to distributed events is favorable for the vortex
the fragmentation, at very small spatial phenomena and the turbulent mixing.
scales, of the biological material. The
gradual fragmentation was performed in 3. Results
the vortex tube ad an appropriate In order to study the qualitative
parameter [3, 4] allows the representation features of the turbulent mixing, a recent
of the degree of fragmentation depending target is to compare the behavior of non
on the non-dimensional parameter, for periodic and periodic flows, namely the
various experimental results. issue of rare events for 3D and 2D flows.
Going further with the vortexation Two-dimensional flows increase their
time, the cell membrane was broken out length by forming two basic kinds of
and a homogeneous solution of cell structures: tendrils and whorls and their
contents was obtained. That’s what we combinations. In complex two-dimensional
named rare event. It is worth noting that, fluid flows we can encounter tendrils
in addition to the cell wall breaking, this within tendrils, whorls within whorls, and
type of vortexation is able to mix the all other possible combinations. A
processed liquid and to provide a widespread periodic flow is the tendril-
homogeneous solution. whorl flow (TW). Introduced by Khakhar,
The mathematical modeling has confirmed Rising and Ottino (1987), it is a
the experiments [4]. The mathematical discontinuous succession of extensional
model associated to the vortex phenomena flows and twist maps. In the simplest case
is the 3D version of the widespread all the flows are identical and the period of
isochoric two-dimensional flow [1] alternation extensional/ rotational is also
constant. The physical motivation for this
98
Statistical Evaluation of Events in the Mixing Models
flow is that locally, a velocity field can be  2 ⋅ exp(− 2ε ⋅ Text ) ⋅ & 22 

(17) eη = 2 ⋅ ε ⋅ 1 − 
decomposed into extension and rotation. [1].  exp(− 2ε ⋅ T ) ⋅ & 2 + exp(2ε ⋅ T ) ⋅ & 2 
 ext 2 ext 1 
In the simplest form of the TW model,
the velocity field over a single period is with the versor conditions:
given by its extensional part: M 12 + M 22 = 1, & 12 + & 22 = 1 .
v x = −ε ⋅ x The above differential equations were
(12)  , 0 〈 t 〈 Text analyzed from a qualitative standpoint. There
v y = ε ⋅ y were considered few sets of equal irrational
and its rotational part: values for the length and surface versors:
v r = 0  1 
(13)  , Text 〈 t 〈 T ext +Trot a) (M 1 , M 2 ) = (& 1 , & 2 ) =  −
1
;
vθ = − ω (r )
, 
 2 2
where Text denotes the duration of the
 1 2 
extensional component and Trot the duration b) (M 1 , M 2 ) = (& 1 , & 2 ) =  , 
;
of rotational component. The model consists  3 3
of vortices producing whorls which are  1 2 
periodically squeezed by the hyperbolic c) (M 1 , M 2 ) = (& 1 , & 2 ) =  , ;

flow leading to the formation of tendrils,  5 5
and the process repeats. The function ω(r)  1 6
d) (M 1 , M 2 ) = (& 1 , & 2 ) =  ,  .
is positive and specifies the rate of rotation.  7 7
For the beginning it was studied the Furthermore, the parameter 0 〈 ε 〈 1
extensional part of the TW model. The
was taken as ε = 0.05 for the moment and
associated Cauchy problem:
the discrete time behavior of e λ , eη was
v x = −ε ⋅ x
 , 0 〈 t 〈 Text , analyzed.
(14) v y = ε ⋅ y
For each of the above eight cases the
x (0) = X , y (0 ) = Y Maple numeric procedure Dsolve was applied.
has the solution: The discrete values of Text (the duration of
 x = X ⋅ exp(− ε ⋅ Text ) the extensional component) are not very
(15)  ,
 y = Y ⋅ exp(ε ⋅ Text )
few (about 20), but sufficiently for outlining
the linearity/ nonlinearity of the case.
which is much more easier to approach Although the statistical cases are
than the solution of the 3D model. Following much fewer than in the 3D (non periodic)
this solution, the basic deformation tensors case, the distribution of the events is the
F, C and C-1 have been calculated [5]. As same as in the vortex phenomena: a half of
their expressions are quite simple, the the situations are nonlinear. Moreover, it
deformations in length and surface follow can be realized, like for the 3D flow, the
immediately. It was found [5], that the following classification of the flows:
deformations in length and surface are less i) positive linear flow;
complex than for three-dimensional (non ii) negative linear flow;
periodic) flow. Moreover, the expressions iii) mixing phenomena;
in length and surface are quite similar. But iv) rare events.
the likeness does not maintain for the The following table synthesizes the
deformation efficiencies. The expressions comparison between a periodic and a non-
(9) and (10) are in this case: periodic flow, from the turbulent mixing
 2 ⋅ exp(− 2ε ⋅ Text ) ⋅ M12 
standpoint:
(16) eλ = 2 ⋅ ε ⋅ 1 − 
 exp(− 2ε ⋅ T ) ⋅ M 2 + exp(2ε ⋅ T ) ⋅ M 2 
 ext 1 ext 2 
99
A. Ionescu, M.R. Costescu
Table 1
Periodic flow on-periodic
flow
Versor Legth Surface Legth Surface
Value Deff. Deff. Deff. Deff.
eλ eη eλ eη
 1 1  Non-linear Non-linear Linear Rare
 − , 
 2 2 event
 1 2  Positive Neg. Neg. Linear

 ,
 3 3  Non- Non- Non-

linear linear linear
 1 2  Linear Neg. Linear Positive
 , 
  Non- Non-
 5 5
linear linear
 1 6  Linear Posit. Linear Rare
 ,
 7 7  Non- event

linear
(1,0) Linear Linear Non-linear Non-
linear
4. Discussions ω(r) of the rotational component will be

Analyzing the statistical situations for introduced in the analysis, for searching
the periodic and non periodic flow behavior, new qualitative features of the model.
a basic conclusion imposes: although the 5. It must be noted that e λ , eη can be
calculus is easier, the periodic TW flow approached both as differential equations and
exhibits also a far from equilibrium as functions of time and some parameters.
behavior, giving rise to rare events. Some This fact provides new fields of research
remarks are important to outline: both of analytic and experimental standpoint.
1. Both the periodic and non periodic
flow behavior become nonlinear at random References
values of the versors, as it can be seen [1] J.M. Ottino, The kinematics of mixing:
from the Table 1. In these situations the stretching, chaos and transport, Cambridge
turbulent mixing appears and the University Press, Cambridge (1989)
probability of rare events is high. [2] St.N. Savulescu, A special vortex tube for
2. The turbulence appears at small values particle processing flows, Rev. Roum. Sci. Techn.-
Mec. Appl., Tome 43, no 5, p. 611-615 (1998)
of time units (in the model), and also at the
[3] St. S. Savulescu, Applications of
beginning of the experiments. So, one more multiphase flows in a vortex tube closed at one
time, the modeling matches the experiment. end, Internal Reports, CCTE, IEA, Bucarest
3. The above cases are not representing (1996-1998)
all the situations possible. Going further [4] A. Ionescu, The structural stability of
with the test cases, it has been found a Biological Oscillators. Analytical Contributions,
statistical growth of rare event cases, Ph.D. thesis, Bucarest (2002).
which confirms the modeling quality. [5] A. Ionescu, Some qualitative features of
4. More accurate properties will be turbulent mixing for far from equilibrium
established for e λ , eη , when taking into phenomena, Acta Universitatis Apulensis
(Mathematics-Informatics), no 11, p. 19-29
account more irrational versor values, and (2006)
also more values for ε. Also, the function
100
The Impact of the Financial Politics on the

Electorate’s Behaviour
Daniel TOBĂ, Laurențiu DRAGOMIR
Résumé: La politique financière est le résultat de la conception doctrinaire

de la force politique dominante à un certain moment. Après avoir appliqué
les mesures concrètes du telle ou telle politique, il est essential d’évaluer leur
impact pour savoir comment conserver ou, au contraire, réviser les
programmes politiques en vue des elections à venir.
Keywords: Economical System, Political System, Ideology, Electors.
very party, movement or formation The programme accepted by the

E with a political character elaborates
its own programme that establishes
legislative forum establishes the economical,
social and of other nature objectives, which
the directing lines of its activity with the are to be realized by the governmental
purpose of arriving to power or of keeping team during the period for which it was
and consolidating it. The political programme invested, the necessary means for their
defines the objectives followed by the realization, as well as the measures to be
respective party, the means and the taken for this purpose. In other words, the
methods, which it intends using for their governmental programme defines the state
accomplishment, the social categories politics, both on the internal and the
(groups) to which it addresses and their external level.
interests that it defends: the position As part of the internal politics, a
towards the internal and international main special place occupies the economic and
problems of the moment. social objectives:
The programme of a party, elaborated • the rhythm of the economical growth
in view of the elections, outlines the in the immediate and further perspective;
alternative offered by it to the electorate, • the proportions and the direction of
for the solving of the problems with which the raw capital investments;
the country fights at the respective • the consumption dimension in the
moment. The programme of the party that reference period;
wins the elections (or the parties that form • the relations between the public and
the governmental coalition) becomes the the private sector;
government party and that is why it must • the unemployment curve;
be submitted to the Parliament debate. • the index of prices and costs;
101
Daniel Tobă, Laurențiu Dragomir
• the evolution of salaries, pensions and organs and regulations used by the state
other population fixed incomes; and social relations, in a determined stage,
• the foreseen actions to be realized in forms the components of its financial politics.
education and instruction, medical The study of the government’s
defence and social protection, etc. performances, of the public options
At these are added the objectives and politics and of the multiple aspects, which
the actions linked to the national defence, are supposed by the process of adopting
the growth of the efficiency of the activity decisions, has always been a main
carried on by the discipline organs, civil objective of the fight for power. Political
security and administration. power favoured the appearance, the
On the external level, there are defined development and the decline of economical
the political, economical, technico- systems, the promotion of democracy or,
scientifical, cultural, military and of other on the contrary, the protection of dictatorship,
nature relations with the neighbouring states, the instauration of the competitive spirit or
with the other states from the continent and its miming, the taking place of more or
other regions on the globe; the intentions of less free elections. Political relations take
collaboration and co-operation, the attitude place, every time, in a system of political
to the economical unions, military alliances institutions and organizations, on the basis
and other international organisms; the adopted of a political consciousness and behaviour,
position in the problems regarding the through the entire mechanism of direct and
peace maintaining, the diminishing of the mediate relations between leaders and
tension in the hot areas of the globe, the subjects, on the basis of political decisions
under-development abolishment, the environment and juridical rules.
protection on the planetary scale, the fight Studying the interdependences between
against terrorism and drug traffic, etc. the political and the economical domains,
The accomplishment of the foreseen it appeared the question if the economical
objectives supposes, beside the insurance decisions are determined by the political
of the necessary public financial resources, influences, and the political decisions
the state intervention in economy with the depend on the economical factors. Thus, in
help of the economical levers and of the the specialty literature, it was built a model
instruments, institutions, financial organs of politico-economical interdependence, in
and regulations. The concrete methods and which the economy state influences the
means concerning the obtaining and the elector’s decision to vote, as it may be
directing of the financial resources, as of observed from the following scheme:
for influencing the economical processes
the instruments, institutions, financial
102
The Impact of the Financial Politics on the Electorate’s Behaviour
In this way, two American specialists Thus, the votes get an economical
(A. Down and, afterwards D. Black) dimension. “The economical value of
develop a theory of the political voting votes is confirmed by the selling and
process. Although we have an important buying of the individuals’ activity, in cases
realization of these specialists, the model of corruption, but the models founded on
in itself doesn’t have a complex character, this kind of immoral behaviour weren’t
because it simplifies the analysis of the considered useful in the analysis of the
political phenomenon, limiting its economical political behaviour.”2
way; the two American’s opinion is in In other words, we appreciate that the
accord with the earlier statement of the study of the economical side of votes
French economist Löic Philip1 according doesn’t necessarily have to have a negative
to which, “from a historical point of view, basis, generated by a climate of
the fight for financial power confounds misunderstanding and dishonesty.
with the fight for political power”. The individuals’ votes have an economical
We consider that this conceptual value, because they are materialized in
superposition is right from a certain point collective decisions, which have effects on
of view when, before the elections, the the population’s incomes and wealth, over
political forces are conscious that, once the time, which makes that the political
they are arrived at government, they will interest to be connected to the economical
also manage the state finances. So, they one and the other way around.
will automatically get, beside the political In the big political entities, the institutional
power, also the financial power. That is why manifestation of active promotion of economical
we think that financial power is conditioned interest consists in the pressure group.
by the obtaining of the political power, Even the reason of the existence of
even if, in the electoral campaign, it is these groups lies in their capacity to
necessary, beside a remarkable political promote and advance, through the political
force, a particular financial force, to cover option processes, the represented private
the inherent expenses. functional interests. Although its presence
In this way, in the elections process, compromises the public interest or the
not everybody wins, the stake is extremely general wealth, the importance of the
high, because, in case of victory, the pressure group has greatly raised in the last
political formation will obtain complete half a century. This has on its basis a
power, both political and financial (fiscal, certain decline of the public moral,
budgetary and control over public finances). determined by the “anticipated gains” in
If we take into consideration the rule the political process by the functional groups.
of the vote of a majority, the minority of Other groups of interests, observing
electors is forced to accept actions that the success of the firsts, will gain the
cannot prevent and for which it cannot courage to make known their points of
even pretend compensations, in the view, their complaints, ending by investing
eventuality of damages registration. That is significant resources in the political
why, it can be stated that the political organization of society.
process resembles with the economical The pressure groups influence more
one, in which the competition facilitates and more the process of taking decisions,
the success of the most skilful inclusively in the financial sphere.
businessman, realizing a selection of the The importance of the group’s interest
economical agents, a real social Darwinism. in the economical politics and, implicitly
103
the financial one has also increased The satisfaction of the “public
because of the devaluation of some concepts, interest” compromises the group interest:
as “social wealth”, “common well-being”, “Although less probably and without
“public interest”. The bankruptcy of socialist considerable historical validity, we can
societies in the Central and Eastern imagine a government that makes only
European countries demonstrated that the those activities that offer general earnings
postulates of the complete equality of for all individuals and all groups and that
chances, of the co-proprietor of the big and are financed from general income taxes. In
unique state propriety are just simple these conditions, it would be a relatively
ideals, impossible to touch. small stimulus for the private individual
Although “social wealth” or “public groups, to be organized in associations
interest” exist as something particular and destined to obtain special advantages,
independent of the special group’s through governmental action.”3
interests, it cannot be ignored J. Buchanan’ The public-private conflict from the
statement, according to which “the group’s economical sphere influences the way of
interest is what the individuals say it is”. governing and, implicitly, the financial
Though the function of “social wealth” politics.
puts, on the hierarchical system, in a The financial politics is the resultant
conceptual way, all the possible states of of the doctrinarian concept of the leading
the society and takes into consideration the political force in society at a certain
best alternative, it can be realized only moment. After the application of the
respecting the following: financial politics measures, it is important
• to be ignored the extreme opinions in to be analysed their impact on the former
a group; electors citizens, if their efficiency was
• there are “the best” only those high or, on the contrary, if a failure was
modifications that are noticed to be registered.
approved unanimously by all the According to the results, the politicians
group members; are ready to adjust their politics, to revise
• any change that obtains the their government programmes, while
unanimously support is, clearly, waiting for some favourable reactions
“desirable” and we can say that it is from their electors.
for the “public interest”; “Four united institutions: the economy,
• for any change for the public interest it the electors, the government and the
can be obtained unanimous support; in bureaucracy form a closed circle of the
other words, all persons can improve interaction between politics and economy.
their living standard, through any The electors evaluate the economy
modification that generates sufficient performance and express their satisfaction
improvements to facilitate the or insatisfaction towards the party that has
reciprocal advantage; the power. On the other hand, the
• “the public interest” has sense only government and the bureaucracy establish
from the perspective of the decisions the instruments of economical politics,
taking rules functioning; or, the which affects the economy state and their
decisions are adopted on the basis of way of use.”4
some option rules characterized by the The success or the failure of a
lack of unanimity. financial politics puts its mark on the re-
election. Generally, all politicians want to
104
The Impact of the Financial Politics on the Electorate’s Behaviour
be re-elected and thus they create a pre- to speak about a system of the political
electoral economical boom, thinking that competition or, in other words, the
this helps them to remain in their competition result is the democracy,
functions. because the power of decision between
The electorate’s vote has a fundamental competitors is in the electors’ hands.
importance in the promotion and the Thus, any political party that has or
support of a certain financial politics. But, doesn’t have the power, tries to convince
it remains unpredictable, although the the electors that it deserves their trust.
entire population wants in fact, the According to the economical theory of the
obtaining of a certain living standard. democracy, every government that collects
Generally, the electors support those the incomes and makes public expenses in
political formations that have managed to a manner in which it can maximize its
improve certain economical indicators at a chances at the future elections.
macro-economical level. Public expenses and incomes are the
At the same time, the political parties main components of the financial politics
are different from the point of view of the of governments and that is why they are
own economical politics desiderata; the prepared to increase their efficiency. Thus,
right-wing parties declare in favour of low the leading of a party begins from the
levels of fiscality and inflation, of modest budget, and, in this context, there are
and levelled budgets; they oppose to the deduced three models of budgetary
equality of incomes and prefer to raise the behaviour of the government:
rate of unemployment, to keep the inflation 1. Governments tend to re-distribute the
at a low level. The left-wing parties, in incomes from rich to poor people.
contrast, favour the equality of incomes This strategy has as purpose the votes’
and the reduction of unemployment, prefer maximization hoping for a re-election,
big budgets (although, implicitly, a high the poor ones being numerous and so,
volume of public expenses) and accept the possibly to be won as allies. But the
raise of the inflation rate to reduce the government cannot be sure of the fact
unemployment. that the proportion of the resources’
In this context, it is considered that the re-distribution will make it more
economical politics and, implicitly, the popular towards the electorate.
financial one are influenced at a macro 2. Governments have the tendency to
level by the economy state, but also by the favour the producers to the prejudice
ideology of the party that has the power. of the consumers’ interests. If we
The economical doctrine puts its mark suppose that the respective economy
on the financial politics put into practice is a market one, based on the demand-
by the formation that governs a country or offer proportion, we don’t have to lose
that intends to accede to this, no matter if from our sight the fact that the
we have or not a state by right. To thus majority of the population has an only
insure the sovereignty and the legitimacy source of income, and so, it must have
of the public power, it is necessary that the its interests protected.
elections to take place freely. 3. The critic of the actual budget, starting
The democracy in itself realizes through from the fact that the size of the
elections, opposing, in this way, to the budget doesn’t always correspond to
Marxist economy, in which it has a minimum the real necessities of the economy.
role. To speak today about democracy means As a rule, the notion of “right budget”
105
is used to put into inferiority the actual otes

1
budget. To catalogue a budget as Philip, L., Finances publiques, Troisième
being “too small” or “too big”, it’s not édition, (Public Finances, Third edition), Cujas,
sufficient to analyse the way for the Paris, 1989, p. 115.
2
resources’ distribution. But, the Buchanan, J., Tullock, G., Calculul consensului.
Fundamente logice ale democraţiei
electors are directly interested by this
constituţionale, Editura Expert, Bucureşti,
thing because they want that the 1995, p. 133.
money paid under the form of 3
Buchanan, J., Tullock, G., op. cit., pp. 299-300.
incomes and taxes to be spend in the 4
Lessman, S., Budgetary Politics and elections.
best way by the winning party, and An investigation of public expediturea in West
even to obtain certain benefits from its Germany, European University Institute, 1987,
budgetary strategy. p. 55.
106
The Public Opinion and its Role in the

Electoral system
Călin SIESCU
Résumé : Le concept d’opinion publique est lié a une telle compréhension

scientifique de la société, compte tenu pas surtout de la fréquence de son
usage scientifique, mais plutôt de sa connexion avec les sondages et avec le
système électoral. C’est pour cela que les spécialistes dans le domaine ont
largement présenté tout une série d’opinions pour ou contre l’utilité des
sondages. Cette étude est structurée en deux parties, l’une concernant la
notion d’opinion publique et l’autre les conséquences de l’utilisation des
sondages dans la vie publique.
Keywords : Opinion, Public Opinion, Public Space, Polls.
Definitions and interpretation of the or questions with pre-established form in

public opinion an interview circumstances, or in another
acceptance, the public opinion doesn’t
T he concept of public opinion is

indissolubly linked to a certain
theoretical understanding of the
represent the denomination of something,
but a classification of an entire series of
,,something”, which shows from a
society which became obvious in various statistically point of view, and after
moments of history. The studies initiated distributions of frequency, states or
in this field unanimously ascertain a quantitative proportions arousing attention
certain paradox that this term engenders, and interest. This difficulty of defining the
due to the contrast between the frequency term is also mentioned in the International
of its scientific and political utilizations Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences (1968),
and the difficulties provoked by its own in which the specialized editor W. Phillips
definition. It is very relevant, in this Davison shows that ,there isn’t a definition
respect, the registration in a manual from generally accepted of the public opinion,
the mid of 60’s, entitled ,,Public Opinion” although the term is increasingly used
and belonging to Harwood Childs, of no since it entered in the popular speech,
less than 50 definitions granted to the during the French revolution, as well as in
respective term, from which some were the Encyclopaedia Universalis, where it is
partially irreducible or confounded, as specified that the opinion is part of the
plastically E. Noelle-Henmann said, barometer social, apparently obvious, phenomena but
with weather. Thus, the public opinion which eludes analysis when it aims the
consists of individuals’ reactions to assertions scientific precision.
107
Călin Sinescu
Another relevant example that leads - a criterion of publicity, according to

this time to the beginning period of the which the public opinion is (or should
exact sciences is linked to a round table be) a concerted opinion;
organized in 1924 by ,,The American - a criterion of effectiveness , which
Association of Political Sciences” at the makes appeal to the organized character
end of which, after an agitated meeting, of the public opinion;
given the absence of an agreement - a criterion of authenticity, according to
concerning the definition of the public which the public opinion is (or should
opinion and especially of an instrument be) a spontaneous opinion;
that could measure it correctly, the The analysis of the arguments
participants decided to avoid, as much as accompanying all these criteria makes
possible, in the future the use of the obvious the existence of a critical essence
respective term. of the public opinion, that has nothing to
Among the attempts to define and do with the public opinion measured by
measure the public opinion, Loïc Blondiaux the poll. A historical approach of the
(1997) mentions the existence of another concept of public opinion with the aim to
paradox that finds its origins in the arbitrate or to cut the controversy
American politician’s assertion Ph. engendered by its definition and evolution
Converse (1987), according to which this outlines a complex image of the respective
vulgar directing of the individual opinions term. Patrick Champagne (2002) mentions
(denounced by the critics) routinely in this respect the three states of the public
carried out by the polls imposed itself by opinion that are in closed relation with the
consensus all over the world as a basic successive structuring of the political field
definition of the public opinion. Arguing and define spaces of public debate more
that in the academic world there is no and more extensive, the concept of public
consensus regarding this definition and opinion delimiting, in fact, the legitimate
that the Gallup’s postulate according to participants to the political game. The first
which public opinion is nothing else but state of the notion, that lasts, generally,
what the polls measure is purely a from the French revolution up to the
challenge, Blondiaux declares firmly second half of the 19-th century sends to a
against this interpretation. The paradox very restrictive sense linked to the logic of
invocated by the French author can be the qualification vote, which dominated in
found in his firm assertion according to that time the political environment. The
which the polls don’t measure the public term of political opinion which appeared
opinion and their successful outcome is in the political life at the end of the 18-th
due to the fact that the measurement century, designated, in a way, the opinion
doesn’t regard at all this opinion. of social elites in the field of the open
In his approach respecting the ,,critical political fight and of the electoral
essence’’ of the public opinion concept, competition for nominating the representatives
Blondiaux considers that its defining in the legislative meetings and aimed, in
elements, with regard to the polls could be fact, to legitimate the political presence of
grouped together around four criteria: a new social section, that of intellectual
- a criterion of rationalization, in which bourgeoisie. Consequently, the public
the public opinion is (or should be) a opinion represented the opinion of those
conscious and collective opinion; chosen by the people and had two main
characteristics:
108
The Public Opinion and its Role in the Electoral System
- firstly, it was the political elites opinion, In P. Champagne’s vision, the answers
that considered as legitimate only an obtained in the opinion investigations have
opinion sufficiently formed, without taking not a peculiar scientific signification and
into consideration the spontaneous, describe rather the unusual relationship
unprocessed opinions which are related established by an investigation and
to prejudices; collaterally the political logics than what
- such an opinion is not conceived as a the investigated individuals do really think.
simple gathering of authorized individual In change, the polls have of their own the
opinions; it results from the discussions entire force of the political, democratic
of those people whose opinions deserve space and are legitimate because they are
to be made public. Therefore, we assist presented as a form of direct democracy,
at a filtration and retranslation of the permitting, at the same time, a
people voice taken over, interpreted and rationalization of the strategies in the
then assumed by elites in their own social space.
interest and for the nation sake. During Despite the criticism of scientific
the second half of the 19-th century such order that could be addressed to the poll
a vision will be modified by the direct policy, the public opinion would represent,
implication of the people in the political politically speaking, a positive fact, being
game, by its participation to the vote and invoked in this respect the conception of
the development of some collective some analysts, concerning the role of the
forms of protest, as an expression of public opinion in the regulation of the
popular will and of journalist’s, in political life.
defining the public opinion. The power A historical approach of the public
of building up such an opinion is opinion notion needs, naturally, to signal
strongly linked during the second ,,state” out some notable moments in the matter.
to the radio development, becoming thus In this respect, it is to mention that in the
the product of a struggle developed Anglo-Saxon literature from the end of the
among three different actors: the 19-th century up to the Second World War
politicians, the journalists and the voters. a classic philosophy of the public opinion,
The third state comes after the years impregnated with an ideal of the public
50’s, at the same time with the apparition space characteristic to the 18-th century,
of the poll institutes and especially during makes its way in Europe and finds one of
the presidential elections from France, in his best correspondents in the person of
1965, when these institutes will be known James Bryce (1888). According to this
by their operations of estimating the poll interpretation, James T. Young (1923)
results. They granted in fact a precise and another American researcher noticed that
practical content to the notion of public the public opinion is a social judgment
opinion, thanks to the technological progress made by a community conscious of itself
and the social sciences (the sample and the on a question of general interest, after a
questionnaire theories). The polls, whose rational and public discussion.
scientific content is very low are not An alternative model of public opinion,
intended to answer a scientific question inspired from The Crowd Psychology (Le
and neither to realize a proper opinion Bon and Tarde) is offered by the Walter
inventory but only to offer answers to Lippmann’s studies (1922, 1925). Referring
some questions linked to opinion. to these studies, (Blondiaux, 2003) asserts
that the image of the opinion as presented
109
Călin Sinescu
by this author is that of an isolated, conversation and implicitly the sharing of

indifferent instable, incompetent, public the same opinions. Consequently, the
entirely submitted to the disposal of media, linear model proposed by G.Tarde for
which built up the world for him and to illustrating the relationship communication
whom he is blindly obedient. In the -society, in which the public becomes more
American sociology, immediately after the and more active, could be represented in
war, more attempts are signaled out, trying this way: Communication – Conversation
to classify the respective concept, on the – Option – Action.
basis of an opposition between societies of J. Habermas (1989) analyzed, at the
publics and mass societies(Mills, 1981), or beginning of the 18-th century, the
between the notion of public and that of apparition of the ideal type of bourgeois
mass (H.Blumer, 1948). ,,public sphere” in Great Britain, France
The term „masse”, is scientifically and Germany and demonstrated the role of
used for the first time by Robert E. Park the printed works in the transition to the
(1904) , for designating a social state liberal-democrat regimes and in the
characterized by heterogeneity, absence of articulation of a critical public opinion ,
conducting rules and traditions, in which underlining that the modern society is
the numerous and isolated individuals characterized by a new category of
don’t interact and don’t communicate influence named ,,mediating power”. He
among them. In his opinion, the ,,mass” considers this ,,public sphere”, structured
was passive and represented a force with and dominated by mass-media, transformed
relevant characteristics, among which the itself in a private arena of power, in the
amplitude, the heterogeneity and the framework of which there is a fight for
anonymity. For Blumler, the term of influence and for an efficient directing of
„public” should be used for designating a the communication flux. (apud Petcu,
group of people who is confronted with a 2001). In Habermas vision, the modern
certain stake, who are divided on the societies engender and develop two processes:
modalities to resolve it and are engaged in producing, from the communication point
a discussion over this stake. of view, legitimate power and mono-
At its turn, ,,the mass” would be polizing the mass-media power in order to
composed by anonymous individuals, who create a mass loyalty to the political
don’t interact each other and who are existing system.
weakly organized. The analysis of the relationship
In the G.Tarde’s opinion, the concept communication-society, realized by C.W.
of public could be defined as a desperate Mills (1981) shows that the problem of the
crowd, in which the influence of some so-called public is due in the western
spirits on the others became a distance society to the transformation of the
action and the opinion, as a resultant of all traditions and the conventional consensus
these distance or contact actions has for of the medieval society, reaching today its
crowds or publics the same signification culmination in the idea of the mass society.
as the thought for the body. (apud Petcu, In this respect, what in XVIII-XIX century
2001). In this situation, even if it is a was called ,,publics” is on the point to
matter of individuals separated by become a ,,mass society”. The author
distance, they have in common the realizes a fundamental distinction between
consumption of the same type of messages public and mass, but at the same time
and some common views that facilitate the considers that in a modern society ,,public”
110
and ,,mass” could be reversible, depending correspond to the affirmation of an ideal

on the concrete, specific conditions. The and another one that answer an implicit or
notion of „public”, long time in use in the explicit criticism of a perverted reality.
literature of specialty, has its roots in the In this framework, a special analysis
XIV century and defined the state activities of the public opinion concept, but not
and, respectively, those separated from the taken out from the context, is offered by
public zone. Later, „public” meant „open” Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann (2001), with
or at the ,,public disposal“. her ,,spiral of silence”.
Concerning the notion of ,,public On the basis of her theory, there
opinion”, it was used for the first time in would be, in the author’s vision, a
1792, being initially identified as a reaction conception of the public opinion as form
to a problem. The term changes then its of social control, whose activation is due
meaning to ,,attitude”, for signifying later to people capacity to feel the dominant
the behavior of a social group confronted opinions manifested around them at a
with a problem x or with a number of x certain moment. These opinions influence
problems. At present, in one of its modern and model behaviors, in the sense of
interpretations, (M. Petcu, 2001), the homogenizing the personal opinion and
public opinion represents a common state the personal behavior with that group of
of consciousness in which the constant or dominant opinions. In her approach, the
the continuity of the social attitude blends author insists not only on the social notion
with the momentary and discontinuous but also on the pressure the social
reactions faced with phenomena and environment exerts on the individual,
socio- economic and political processes . which tries to project a favorable light on
Regarding the theories that we tried to the conformist, imitative behavior and the
present, it is difficult to find a specific tendency of ,,being in fashion” or of
constant to the public opinion, given the ,,taking into consideration what will
different conditions and moments that people say”. In Neumann’s opinion, these
generated these definitions. Consequently, tendencies, even if they are despised or
L. Blondiaux suggests us to find the truth considered with arrogance are appreciated
of this notion in ambivalence or as essential for the surviving of the
contradiction, underlining that this complexity community.
of the public opinion offers a large space When she is referring to the public
to approach some aspects concerning the opinion, the author takes into consideration
number of individuals involved in the the ideas of ,,consensus”, ,,average”,
formation process of the public opinion, ,,agreement”: public opinion refers to
their competence to entering the public ,,opinions and behaviors that you can
space, or aspects of autonomy or proceedings. publicly have, without producing
In consequence, the difficulty of isolation”. When old traditions, morals and
debating the notion of public opinion in norms of the society are at stake, public
the light of the above theories results opinion means those convictions and
especially from the necessity of using two behaviors which you must publicly express
forms of discourse concerning the phenomena or adopt, in order to avoid the risk of
specific to this notion: a type of discourse isolation. In fact, the public opinion plays
that justify the intervention of the people the role of a real trial, of an ,,anonymous”
into the course of the public action and instance, permanently open, which manifests
another one that denounce it; one that
111
Călin Sinescu
too little consideration or affection for the represent, obviously, an efficient measure,
individual. if not the most justified measure of the
For a better understanding of the public opinion. On the other hand,
German author’s approach, we present a because, if we proceed to an analysis of
,,minimum” guide that she conceived for the constitutive elements of the polls, we’ll
testing the public opinion, which is known find that no one corresponds to the senses
under the name of the ,,spiral of silence”. assigned to the public opinion, resulting
According to this guide that indicates what that the polls don’t measure at all the
would be necessary to know for analyzing public opinion .
the public opinion, it must be established: According to Loïc Blondiaux (2003),
how are distributed the population’s given the actual conditions, it is difficult to
opinions, on a certain theme, by using the sustain that the polls measure or reflect the
means of an ordinary investigation; public opinion. In fact they only realized to
- how is estimated the opinions climate, in outline this opinion, making especially an
the sense of What the most of us are appeal to the primary sense of the term,
thinking about this?, fact that can lead to namely, presenting as a concrete reality
the apparition of an entirely new image something that doesn’t exist but in the
of the respective problem; mental representation of the individual.
- how is considered the future evolution Underlining the low scientific interest
into a certain controversy(e. g.): what of the polls, Patrick Champagne (2002)
side will be the winner/ what side will be asserts that they represent rather a
in the decline? political collecting than scientific of the
At the same time: opinions and that they do not aim to
- in certain public situations, it is necessary surprise the opinions of the investigated
to have a control on the expression individuals and to understand their
availability and to keep silence on the foundation but to produce from one day to
respective matter; on the other hand, it another political information, according to
must be verified if the emotional charge the logic of the political game and destined
of the theme corresponds to the moment to come back again to the politics.
or is associated with moral judgments, At their turn, the investigated people
because otherwise, without a valuable aren’t asked about what do they think in
charge, the necessary pressure specific connection with a certain subject, but to
to the public opinion and consequently approve or disapprove a certain opinion,
to the spiral of silence won’t be produced; already formulated which is proposed to
- it must be established what are the most them, like to the elections. It is to mention
influent mass-media and which side is that the questions are put in such a way
supported by them, given the assistance that anybody could answer something,
they could offer to other journalists or to resorting exclusively to the technique of
the supporters of a certain side and the the closed questions, which strongly
consequences of this action on the restrict the participation of the investigated
public opinion process. person, reduced to a simple reaction of
approval or refuse, without knowing,
The polls and the public opinion consequently, the concrete reference of
The analysis of this matter in such a this reaction.
context could seem rather strange. On the This interpretation makes reference to
one hand, because sometimes the polls the Pierre Bourdieu’s (1970) remarks, who
112
noted in this respect that the simple fact to criticism of he polls, especially by the
ask a closed question, reflecting the political actors, could engender a series of
opinion of a representative sample of problems, inclusively the risk of criticizing
population implied the existence of three the democracy. Since the polls suppose
postulates that couldn’t be verified by facts: finally to vote, it seems that the political
- to ask everybody an opinion question it people don’t remain indifferent to the
is to suppose that everybody can have results provided by these investigations,
personal opinions, that is to confound which can offer a certain idea about the
the right of having an opinion with the electoral tendencies at the future elections.
capacity to use this right; This belief in the scientific character of the
- to ask an opinion question it is to polls explains in a way their ascension as
suppose that the investigated people are an instrument of political legitimacy,
asking themselves the same question and because they permit, apparently, to know
are using the same terms in formulating the will of the people. In these
it. But the pure verbal understanding of a circumstances, the journalistic field became
question doesn’t imply either its the major strategic place where this symbolic
practical understanding or that of the struggle, of a new type is carried out,
practical meanings of the stakes; whose results are registered by the polls
- the gathering of the answers and their and where ,,the public opinion” is made.
presentation under the form of a In spite of the scientific criticism that
percentage means to estimate that all the can be addressed to the poll practice, the
opinions have a social value; if we take public opinion created by the poll
into consideration only the facts, we operators would remain, from a political
must assert that the gathering of the point of view, an useful thing, in
answers, without knowing the concrete proportion as it would play a role of
meaning of the question they make regulation of the political life. In this
reference to, and without noticing the context, it is to mention that the poll
social and cultural characteristics of the operators contributed to the creation of a
investigated people, means to suppose new space of game- the market of the
that all the answers formally identical public opinions- that pushes the different
are effectively identical. But it is to actors of the dominant political class to a
mention that in this concrete situation public debate, in order to convince the big
the facts contradict such a vision, the public, placed, generally in a position of
opinion having a share that depends of simple spectator. At present, the political
the social or the political importance of people cannot govern if they declare
the individuals. against this opinion measured by the poll
In the framework of this complex operators. They must rend clear and
relation between the public opinion and acceptable by the people their decisions,
the polls they say that the polls have on because this political work leads in a
their side the proper force specific to the compulsory way to public debate, that is
democrat political field. They are bringing the major aspects of a matter in a
legitimate, because a form of direct public space. The democrat formation of a
democracy, and they permit, at the same public opinion could be situated in the
time, a rationalization of the strategies in center of the public space, where the
the social space, based on the election universal suffrage meant, practically, for a
system with majority of votes. The direct long time, the only means of public
113
Călin Sinescu
measurement, and the elected assemblies Bibliography

or the parties the representation of this
phenomenon. Causes or effects, the 1. Blondiaux Loic (1997) Ce que les
massive practice of the polls and the role sondages font à l’opinion publique
of popular mass-media in the political (1997), Politix no. 39, pp.117-136; see
information accompanied the crisis of also, La communication politique. État
representativity in the system. des savoirs, enjeux et perspectives (dir.
The increasing of the social visibility Gingras, Anne-Marie), Presses de
of the public opinion seems to attest an Québec, 2003
enlargement of the public space, although 2. Blumer, H. (1948, 1981) ,,L’opinion
the legitimacy of the production and publique d’apres les enquetes par les
diffusion forms of the public opinion sondages”, in J.G. Padioleau (dir.),
continues to remain a problem. In this case L’opinion publique: examen critique,
could we say, for instance, that the democracy nouvelles directions, Paris, La Haye,
is better defended if the decision factors try Mouton, p. 145-16.
to convince a majority of citizens, even by 3. Bourdieu, 1973, L’opinion publique
the intermediary of a poll, and on its duration, n’existe pas, in Les Temps Modernes,
about the pertinence of their decisions? no. 318, p. 1292-1309 cu (2004).
Which would be then, in the created 4. Bryce, James (1888), The American
framework, the best variant of analyzing or Commonwealth, vol.2, New York,
interpreting the public opinion? Macmillann.
That offered by Pierre Bourdieu, according 5. Champagne, P. (2002),Opinie publică şi
to which the public opinion doesn’t exist? dezbatere publică”, in vol. Spaţiul public
The D. Wolton’s conception, according şi comunicarea (dir. Isabelle Paillart),
to which the public opinion represents the Polirom, Bucureşti, pp.137-158
relatively true reflection of the different 6. Chelcea, S. (2002), Opinia publică-
currents of opinion that are crossing the Gândesc masele despre ce şi cum vor
contemporary society and the most elitele?, Editura Economică, Bucureşti.
democratic means of regulating the choice 7. Childs H, “Public opinion”: Nature,
made by the citizen? Formation and Role, Princeton,Van Nostrand.
Or to share the P.Champagne’s idea 8. Converse, Ph. (1987) ,,Changing
according to which the public opinion is Conceptions of Public Opinion in the
the resultant of the opinions built up in Political Process,” Public Political
various social fields, by the reproduction quarterly, vol.51, no 4, p.12-14.
of their social function? 9. Drăgan, I. (1996), Paradigme ale
Whatever variant of approach or comunicării de masă, Bucureşti, Ed. All.
interpretation of the public opinion, or of 10. Habermas, H (1989) ,,The The Public
the dichotomy public opinion-poll would Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article”, in S.
be in discussion, the multiple possibilities E.Bronner and D.M.Kellner, Critical
offered by the social casuistry in an ever Theory and Society: A Reader, New
larger and more complex public space York, p.136-142 Routledge .
enrich permanently the debating framework 11. Lippmann,W. (1922) Public Opinion,
of the problem. New York, Macmillan.
12. Lippmann,W. (1925) Phantom Public,
New York, Macmillan.
114
13. Marinescu, V. (2003), Introducere în 16. Park, E R. (1904,1972), The Crowd and
teoria comunicării, principii, modele, The public and Other Essays, Chicago,
aplicaţii, Tritonic, Bucureşti. The University of Chicago Press.
14. Mills, C.W., (1981), Les publics et la 17. Petcu, M. (2001), Opinia şi opinia publicã-
société de masse, in J.G. Padioleau (dir.), atestãri româneşti, Revista Psiho-
L’opinion publique: examen critique, sociologia & Mass media nr.4/2001.
nouvelles directions, Paris, Mouton et et 18. Tarde, G.(2001), l’Opinion et la foule,
Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Alcan, Paris-Young T. James (1923)
Sociales, p. 164-177. The New American Government and its
15. Noelle-Neumann, E. (2001), Spirala Work, New York, Macmillan.
tăcerii. Opinia publică – învelişul nostru 19. Wolton, D, (1997, 2005), Penser la
social, comunicare.ro, Bucureşti. communication, Paris ,Flamarion.
115
E UROPEAN S TUDIES
Public-Private Partnerships and the New Public

Procurement Directive
Cătălina Maria GEORGESCU
Résumé: Le Parténériat public-privé est un type d’arrangement contractuel

qui est apparu dans les relations entre les autorités publiques et les
opérateurs économiques dès le début des années ’90. Les autorités publiques
tirent des bénéfices de cette coopération car elle peuvent surpasser les
contraintes budgétaires qui empêchent leurs activités et, en même temps,
elles utilisent l’expertise du secteur privé. Les autorités publiques
reconnaissent que le PPP peut devenir un bon moyen pour améliorer la
compétitivité et la qualité des services d’utilité publique, il va réduire les
couts généraux des projets et, en même temps, il va créer de revenus
additionnels pour les entités activant dans le secteur privé. Cet article
présente la nécessité d’un cadre juridique du PPP au niveau européen qui
pourrait contribuer au développement de ce type de coopération. Ainsi, la
Commission européenne a fait les démarches pour combiner les trois
anciennes directives concernant les travaux, les fournitures et les services
publiques, dans un seul acte, la directive 2004/18/CE du Parlement européen
et du Conseil du 31 mars 2004 relative à la coordination des procédures de
passation des marchés publics de travaux, de fournitures et de services .
Keywords: Public Authorities, Private Entities, Cooperation, Contractual
Arrangement, Legislation.
he transition to market economies of services and products found one of its

T the Central and Eastern European
countries has put to the test the
solutions in the area of Public-Private
Partnerships.
ability of the central and local public Public authorities acknowledged that
authorities to adapt to the new economic, fostering Public-Private Partnerships could
political and social environment which is become a means of improving both the
constantly evolving. The public authorities competitiveness and quality of public
had to find new resources to cope to the utility services, a means of reducing the
reality of a changing world that struggled costs of projects as a whole, while, at the
to deploy the Western pattern in an effort same time, these types of partnerships
to attract sustainable growth. Thus the aim could generate additional incomes for the
of increasing the ability of public authorities entities operating in the private sector.
to better respond to domestic demands for None the least, Public-Private Partnerships
116
EUROPEAN STUDIES
Public-Private Partnership and the New Public Procurement Directive
have proven their capacity to inflict a public interest3, by resorting to PPPs, they
speeding up in the delivery of the final will be able to ensure the accomplishment
services and in the accomplishment of the of the public utility project turning to
programed infrastructure projects. private sector resources. At Community
Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) are level, PPPs not only foster the dialogue on
a type of contractual arrangements that services of general interest, but are also
have been spreading in the relations between commited to the achievement of the
the public authorities and the economic European Innitiative for Growth and of the
operators since the beginning of the 1990s. trans-European transport networks4.
The public authorities benefit from this At international level, promoting PPPs
cooperation as they can surpass the translates into three main trends: increasing
budgetary constraints which hamper their investments in infrastructure, boosting the
activities, while, at the same time, gain efficiency of financial resources, increasing
access to the private sector know-how. the rate of return of the funds invested. The
Public authorities also derive profit from financial return of the investments appears
this type of contractual arrangement since to be a key issue for the success of the
the PPPs effect certain savings as they deal promotion of this cooperation between the
with the particular project from the early public and the private sectors, as it represents
phase of design till the last phase of a major risk that normaly would have to be
reaping the full benefits of the project. undertaken by the private investor alone
Moreover, the increase in the desire of for certain public utility services. National
the private sector to embark upon a series authorities also take into account the possible
of responsibilities and risks on the one externalities when considering wether to
hand, and, on the other hand, the desire of embark upon a PPPs as oposed to private
the public sector to privatize some of the operators, thus increasing the chances of
public utility services has been translated these public authorities to start a project of
into an escallation of the efforts to consider general utility no matter the level of the
the solution of Public-Private Partnerships financial return5.
to the issue of achieving economic and However, it has been argued for the
social goals in our country. This merge necessity of a specific legal framework for
between PPPs and the need to provide Public-Private Partnerships at European level
some efficient public utility services constitutes which would contribute to the development
a new dimension in the discussion on the of this type of cooperation between the
margin of the role of national authorities, public authority and the economic agents
as they evolve from the posture of direct from the private domain. The European
operator to the position where they merely officials thus launched a public consultation
systematize, regulate and controll the through the 1996 Green Paper on public-
political, economic and social sphere1. private partnerships and Community law
However, “relevant authorities in Candidate on public contracts and concessions6 on
Countries and Member States have the the manner in which to expand the climate
final responsibility for deciding on whether of competition and legal transparency in
to use PPP or other financing vehicles”2. which the PPPs operate. This consultation
Notwithstanding the fact that public was aimed at collecting opinions on topics
sector organizations embarking upon this such as the framework of the procedures
type of contractual arrangement still have for selecting the private partner, the
to manage the proposed objectives in the establishment of private initiative PPPs, the
117
EUROPEAN STUDIES
Cătălina Maria Georgescu
contractual framework and any changes sort of organizational culture, as it is centered

made in the course of a PPP, sub-contracting, on dealing with the social demands, the
the importance of effective competition in excessive bureaucracy, the respect of the
the case of institutionalised PPPs, best law, punctuality etc. This set of cultural
practices7 etc. values has been inflicted in the public
system since its formation. This is why the
Risks of Public-Private Partnerships public system is characterized by a great
The need for legal transparency also deal of rigor, conservatism, rules, procedures,
had a second justification materialized in constraints, be they budgetary or of a
the need to control the possible risks that different nature, the perpetration of its
might occur. The fact is that it is impossible structures, the resistance to change.
to predict with absolute certainty that a This type of hierarchical and centralized
contractual agreement of this size, length system is centered on control, thus showing
in time and value operates without the little tendency of cooperation, coordination
menacing perspective of a future risk. The or consultation with the public. As it is
risks that might appear in the unfolding of oriented towards the protection of its
a PPP contract are defined as facts, events status-quo, the public system obstinately
or influences which threaten the accomplishment avoids risks and making mistakes10. On the
of a project at a desired time, cost and/or other hand, the private environment is
quality. That is why a huge part in the more dynamic, as it has some market
success of a PPP project is allocated to the objects established, profitability, economic
ability to predict and obviate any possible supremacy, competitiveness, the quality of
risk. Also, the capacity to share the the services rendered, efficiency, increased
perspectives and costs of any possible risk speed of reaction etc.
between the two partners – public As a result, that part in the PPP project
authorities and private entities – represents a most capable of handling any risk that
major step forward in the establishing of a might occur is the private one. Consequently,
climate of confidence and transparency most risks are transferred to the private entity.
that allows the carrying out of the project This operation has multiple advantages:
in the best circumstances. However, it is some costs are decreased, the quality of the
not always easy to share the perspective of services that are to be provided is increased,
a risk and also the part which is most the prediction of all future expenses is eased,
capable of assuming and administering it the part is compensated through diverse
does not always wish to assume that risk. stimulants in order to reach the assumed
Ideally, that entity, be it public or private, obligations etc. However, “the preliminary
which has the capacity to handle any allocation of risk should reflect the specific
future inconvenient of this sort, should also characteristics of the project and the underlying
assume it8. strengths and capacities of each party. The
Most often, it is the private part that degree of risk transfer to the private sector
has that ability to cope with the lack of will vary on a project by project basis and
predictability in the business environment will be informed by the precedent reviews
because of its more flexible structure and and analysis and the selected PPP
its orientation towards change, thus being relationship”11.
able to innovate, to assume any risks and As a result, the parts involved in the
to constantly improve its structure9. The public-private cooperation are likely to
public system is characterized by a different encounter one or several of the following
118
EUROPEAN STUDIES
risk categories. Firstly, the risks associated by the risk of hidden protectionism which
with PPPs projects are that more important most often results from the lack of
as they are most often associated with confidence in foreign contractors. Moreover,
severe financial implications. Thus, there regardless the numerous regulations on PPPs,
is the risk resulting from the recovery of they might encourage the appearance of
the investment, the lack of guarantees and private interest groups in the detriment of
the level of use and tariff being invoked in others.
this case. This risk of income achievement Fourthly, one acknowledges the risk
from the exploitation of the leased public of public acceptance as it is sometimes
services can also result from possible difficult, if not impossible, to integrate a
future fluctuations in the currency course. project within the community if the
Moreover, there is the risk of not population is unwilling to pay for the
remaining within the anticipated costs, in services provided through the project.
terms of overpaying due to the increase in Also, the condition of the pre-existing
prices. Another error occurs when short- infrastructure systems results in a risk of
term projects are chosen in the detriment latent deficiency.
of long-term, high-value projects, which Finally, there is still another issue that
involve a serious strategy. Short-term few accnoledged as constituting a real menace
projects are preferred because of the false for the evolution of this cooperation between
conception that the investment will be the public authorities and the private
more rapidly recovered. Further, there is economic operators, that of possible legal
the risk that one of the partners abandons loopholes. Efficient regulation was required
the partnership in an advanced phase of the so that the objectives of both the public
project, when heavy investments have and private organization meet within a
already been deployed. common denominator12. Still, this alledged
Secondly, there is the risk of choosing insuficient legal certainty13 was considered
the partner from the private sector in terms by some as being in fact too complicated
of incompetence and/or incapacity, or, on arguing for the merge of the three former
the contrary, in terms of governmental directives on public works, supplies and
involvement, the risk of weak participation services into a single piece of legislation.
of the representatives of the national public Some were convinced that this lack of
authorities. Also, there are disadvantages legal certainty resulted from the fact that
resulting from the inability to assume the PPP projects are in fact very numerous and
necessary responsibility by the public all have their peculiarities and specific identity.
administration. Again, in case of exceptional Thus, this sort of contractual arrangement
situations, one of the parts can opt for not complicates the economic climate as,
respecting the obligations stipulated in the regardless of the fact that are all styled as
contract which leads to a difficult coordination being forms of public procurement, not all
of the project. projects from the ever growing number of
Thirdly, there are political risks, arriving PPPs can be included within the limits of
from the stability of institutions and fiscal the legislation – the New Procurement
policies, and environmental and archeological Directive – which stipulates explicit definitions
risk, resulting from the environment protection and treatments for public contracts, works
and the importance of archeological sites, concessions and services concessions14. In
which could hamper the unfolding of the fact it was the European Commission that
project. A project might also be affected expressed its concerns on the fact that in
119
EUROPEAN STUDIES
Cătălina Maria Georgescu
the initial phase it is difficult to frame a to a regulatory regime covering all

project as being either a public contract or contractual PPPs, irrespective of whether
a concession15 and that there where cases these are designated as contracts or
in which negotiations led to changes in the concessions. Therefore, the Commission
initial definition16. Moreover, the European does not envisage making them subject to
Commission accnoledged that “the consultation identical award arrangements”17.
revealed significant stakeholder opposition
Previous Directives
• Directive 98/4/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 February 1998
amending Directive 93/38/EEC coordinating the procurement procedures of entities
operating in the water, energy, transport and telecommunications sectors.
• European Parliament and Council Directive 97/52/EC of 13 October 1997 amending
Directives 92/50/EEC, 93/36/EEC and 93/37/EEC concerning the coordination of
procedures for the award of public service contracts, public supply contracts and public
works contracts respectively.
• Council Directive 93/36/EEC of 14 June 1993 coordinating procedures for the award of
public supply contracts.
• Council Directive 93/37/EEC of 14 June 1993 concerning the coordination of
procedures for the award of public works contracts.
• Council Directive 93/38/EEC of 14 June 1993 coordinating the procurement
procedures of entities operating in the water, energy, transport and telecommunications
sectors.
• Council Directive 92/50/EEC of 18 June 1992 relating to the coordination of
procedures for the award of public service contracts.
ew Directives for supply, services implemented in the Member States within
and works a period of 21 months.
On January 2nd, 2004, following the The new Public Sector Directive as it
conciliation agreement on simplified and is currently styled gathered the three
modernized legislation, two Directives existing Directives for public works,
were adopted: Directive 2004/18/EC of the supplies and services into a single piece of
European Parliament and of the Council of legislation which kept most of the basic
31 march 2004 on the coordination of provisions of the three former Directives.
procedures for the award of public works Yet, new articles have found place so that
contracts, public supply contracts and to reconcile the modern procurement
public service contracts18 and Directive methods and developments in best practice.
2004/17/EC of the European Parliament Thus, each Member State can opt for one
and of the Council of 31 march 2004 of the following new procedures and
coordinating the procurement procedures techniques for the award of each contract:
of entities operating in the water, energy, competitive dialogue, framework agreements,
transport and postal services sector19. The central purchasing bodies, new electronic
Directives came into force by their purchasing systems or electronic auction20.
publication in The Official Journal (OJ) on New general and explicit provisions focus
the 30th of April 2004 and had to be on the following issues: the creation of a
normative product and service nomenclature,
120
EUROPEAN STUDIES
8
the appearance of additional selection “The vast majority of PPP approaches fall in the
criteria, the specification of award criteria, middle of spectrum, with risks and responsibilities
shared between the public sector and its private
the establishment of a national specification
partners according to their strengths and weaknesses”,
system for enterprises, the possibility to make source: Guidelines for successful Public-Private
public certain pieces of information on special Partnerships, European Commission, Directorate-
national conditions, the introduction of some General for Regional Policy, March 2003, p. 13.
9
minor adjustments to the threshold values etc. From the Bureaucratic to the Post-Bureaucratic
Article 1 (11c) stipulates the definition Organization, source: Kenneth Kernaghan,
of competitive dialogue: it represents “a Sandford F. Borins, Brian Marson, The &ew Public
Organization, Institute of Public Administration of
procedure in which any economic operator Canada, 2000, p. 3.
may request to participate and whereby the 10
Ibidem.
contracting authority conducts a dialogue 11
Guidelines for successful Public-Private
with the candidates admitted to that Partnerships, p. 88.
12
procedure, with the aim of developing one Ronan McIvor, op. cit., p. 34.
13
or more suitable alternatives capable of Michael Burnett, Beyond the &ew Public
Procurement Directive – The Future of Public
meeting its requirements, and on the basis
Private Partnerships (PPP), EIPA Scope 2005/3,
of which the candidates chosen are invited Maastricht, pp. 21-25.
to tender”. Article 29 (1) stipulates that this 14
Ibidem, p. 22.
15
procedure can be preferred for the existing In case of concessions the European
open, restricted and negotiated procedures Commission's Interpretative Communication on
in case of very complex contracts where concessions under Community law [Official
the open or restricted procedures will not Journal C 121 of 29 April 2000] stipulates on the
obligations of the national public authorities when
result in the award of the contract, by selecting the applicants to whom concessions are
permitting the dialogue of alternative granted as there are no stipulations on concessions
solutions in the discussion phase of the in the European directives on public procurement.
16
tender process with short-listed bidders Michael Burnett, op. cit., p. 22, citing a
before calling for final bids21. conclusion of the European Commission from the
Green Paper on public-private partnerships and
Community law on public contracts and
otes concessions COM(2004) 327, European Commission,
1
Green Paper on Public-Private Partnerships April 2004, p. 12. Moreover, Burnett argues that “in
and Community law on public contracts and the new Directive works concessions are less
concessions, source: http://europa.eu/scadplus/ leg/ regulated than public works contracts, while
en /lvb/l2201 2 . htm service concessions remain entirely outside the
2
Guidelines for successful Public-Private scope of the Directive and are governed only by the
Partnerships, European Commission, Directorate - need to apply EU Treaty principles”.
General for Regional Policy, March 2003, p. 10. 17
Communication from the Commission to the
3
Ronan McIvor, The Outsourcing Process: European Parliament, The Council, The
Strategies for Evaluation and Management, European Economic and Social Committee and
Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 34. the Committee of the Regions on Public-Private
4
http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb /l22012. htm. Partnerships and Community Law on Public
5
Ecmt, (Paris) European Conference of Ministers, Procurement and Concessions, COM (2005) 569,
Key Issues for Transport Beyond 2000: Introductory European Commission, November 2005.
Reports and Summary of Discussions, Source 18
OJ L 134/114.
OECD (Online service), 2002, p. 256. 19
OJ L 134/1.
6
Green Paper on public-private partnerships and 20
Leif Raun, EU Working Group Public
Community law on public contracts and Procurement, EIC Aarhus, Denmark, May 2004.
concessions COM (2004) 327, European 21
Directive 2004/18/EC, Article 29.
Commission, April 2004.
7
Ibidem.
121
E UROPEAN S TUDIES
Lisbon 2007: Advance or Regression in Europe?
Lucian PÎRVU
Résumé: En décembre 2007, les chefs d’états et de gouvernements des 27

pays membres de l’UE ont signé, a Lisbonne, un nouveau traité qui fait
quelques pas dans la direction de la construction d’une identité politique
européenne. Bian que les progrès soient assez timides, le nouveau traité a un
grand avantage par rapport au projet antérieur: on n’employe plus le mot
constitution pour désigner un document qu n’est, en fait, qu’un traité
international. Plusieurs auteurs ont consideré que l’adoption d’un tel traité
est une „révolution tranquille”.
Keywords: Treaty, European Constitution, European Institutions, Identity.
urope is not the same place it was came to an concord on a new

E 50 years ago, and nor is the rest of
the world.In a constantly changing,
constitutional agreement. The signature of
the Agreement of Lisbon will reach a long
ever more interconnected world, Europe is process of pitfalls and suspense in the EU
grappling with new issues: globalization, after the rejection, for the Frenchmen and
demographic shifts, climate change, the Dutches of the project of European
need for sustainable energy sources and Constitution that became ratified by 18
new security threats. These are the States after his signature in Rome in
challenges facing Europe in the 21st October, 2004.
century. In December 13, 2007, in Lisbon, the
Borders count for very little in the heads of state and of government of 27
light of these challenges. The EU countries member states signed the new agreement.
cannot meet them alone. But acting as one, Romania, one of the last two countries that
Europe can deliver results and respond to joined to UE, confirm once again his european
the concerns of the public. For this, Europe commitment, being between the first
needs to modernise. The EU has recently countries which approved the new
expanded from 15 to 27 members; it needs agreement. The Agreement will have to be
effective, coherent tools so it can work ratified also for all the associates of the EU
properly and respond to the rapid changes before coming into force in 2009, but in
of the world. That means rethinking some this occasion everything indicates that only
of the ground rules for working together. Ireland, which must do it for law, will put
After more than two years of it to the test of a referendum.
institutional crisis, the heads of state and of With it there has been finished to the
government of the European countries, debate concerning badly called European
122
EUROPEAN STUDIES
Lisbon 2007: Advance or Regression in europe?
Constitution, which in the last years had Europe and was offering rules of
caused sour polemics and has made to performance that they could lead to the
cover rivers of ink. Earlier there had never attainment of common targets of wide scope,
happened so openly the deep truth of the as soon as that was talking each other
famous dictum of Julius von Kirchmann:" about a text inspired by beginning universal.
Only one grinder word of the legislator On the contrary, the new agreement is
turns entire libraries into garbage ". clearly imbued with an intergovernmental
The intensely studies and alive scientific logic and suvereign tendencies. Not only
discussions concerning the constitutional there has been extirpated of his text all
and political value - legal transcendental of kinds of references to the constitutional
so called " Treated by that a Constitution is character of the agreement, but also any
established for Europe "have remained put external sign that he makes think, at least
aside and shut up in the quarter of the old remotely, about the possibility of a medium-
useless equipment. Now the Agreement of term improvement of the anachronistic
Reform comes, or Agreement of Lisbon, division of Europe about sovereign States.
one more from those than is added to the
vast set that is integrating the material ew step
constitution from the functionals agreements Finally, in Lisbon a new step backwards
of the 50s of last century. has been staged in the construction of a
political European identity, not so much
Calm revolution for what in his own contains the new
Nevertheless, this agreement presents agreement (that is better than what now
us like an authentic calm revolution, exists), but especially for what he supposes
receiving those elements of the frustrated of wasted occasion and of clamorous
Constitution that turn out to be acceptable resignation.
for all and essential for galvanizing the EU Only a positive thing can be said in
and prepare her for the times that approach. favor of the new agreement with regard to
It is still very early to value if these targets the previous project: at least, the mental
will be really covered across an instrument violence will save us of having to call
as this one, but yes it is convenient to stop, Constitution to what it wasn´t but a new
to reflect on a circumstance: from the point international agreement that was capturing
of view of the project of European the powerlessness of Europe to raise a
integration at all the levels: is it gained or serious alternative to the hegemonic power
gets lost with this agreement, particularly of this encompassed world.
as regards the previous Constitution? With this text, the community associates
think about how to improve and to make
Previous project working his institutions more effective
It is clear that the previous project, adapting them to the new dimensions after
although it was far away from being very the arrival of twelve new members. For
much a real constitutional letter (in the that, it will join, from new 2014, one
measurement in which it was trumping the system of voting, in which the most
basic premise of the existence of one let's inhabited countries – as Germany – gain
give recognizable European as constituent weight. It includes also the elimination of
entity) and was presenting serious technical the right of veto in 40 areas, between them
shortcomings, at least was showing some the political ones of immigration and
distinctive signs of what should be a political police and judicial cooperation. They try to
123
EUROPEAN STUDIES
Lucian Pîrvu
provide also the EU of a major cohesion which supposed a big wear. With
and proper personality at the time of acting everything: attention! – the ratifications of
in the international scene, incorporating the Agreement are absent, in the national
the figure of a permanent president and of Parliaments and, at least in case of Ireland,
a species of the Secretary of State, which by means of referendum. Let's do votes –
formally the main representative will keep and make an effort - so that the worst thing
on calling. To be able to be approved by does not happen. It would be fatal for the
all, to this Agreement of reform there have collective future of the European Union
been eliminated him the denominations and for his exterior credibility.
and difficult paragraphs included in the Meanwhile, and in spite of these
project of Constitution. positive symptoms, this year , 2008, does
not seem of good patronage. The signs of
Shy advances the financial crisis that affects the world
It is true that the agreement contains Stock Exchanges, can drive, with certain
some of the shy of integration advances of probability, to an important economic crisis,
the previous project as the most important: with inevitable reflexes in Europe. The financial
the merger of the current three props in the and speculative capitalism – removed from
Union provided with juridical proper the real productive economy and without
personality, even at the cost of the possible control – it seems to have lost the
disappearance of the noble and evocative head, according to Stiglitz. In fact, it is
name of European Community. causing serious obstacles for the global
Nevertheless, it does not prevent to development, which it affects to the emergent
see cosmetic changes, in the measurement countries as China.
in which they keep on prevailing, elements On the other hand, the social
that leave in hands of the States (or rather inequalities are more deeper, both in the
it would be necessary to say of the rich countries and in the poor countries.
executives of the States) the definition of Hence the tension of many countries and
the main political ones of the Union, the important riots of the population, even
across the functioning of the beginning of in the most developed States. The neo-
subsidiarity and proportionality (very defensive liberalism – an ideology that in the last
at state, but not like that level to European years so many influence reached in the
scale); the demand of unanimity for United States, his cradle, as well as in
performances in so sensitive matters for some emergent countries and in the proper
the citizenship as political social, fiscal and European Union, even in countries which
financial (what leaves in the air the Governments were sending to the social
effectiveness of the proclaimed beginning democracy, to the Labour Movement and
of solidarity); or the authorization of to the democratic socialism – seems to be
numerous clauses of opting out in favor of today in routes of depletion. In spite of
the Member states (even in a basic area as everything, consistent alternatives still will
it is that of the fundamental rights). All not arise and with certain theoretical
this, not long ago believable the existence intrinsic coherence. It is known that only
of an authentic will to advance for the the economic globalization must surrender
route of a major real integration. to the ethical rules and acquire a social and
The European Union, as soon as the environmental dimension, so that a
Agreement of Lisbon was signed,easily catastrophe could be avoided. Nevertheless,
breathed, after a long situation of impasse for it is a necessary political will – and
124
EUROPEAN STUDIES
Lisbon 2007: Advance or Regression in europe?
value - on the part of whom they direct the This way, EU stretches from now on
world. the juridical personality and has the capacity
Before such a panorama, with so of representation as his 27 members.
many current wars and so many worrying We can believe that United Europe
signs – in the economic, institutional and enters in a new stage of evolution once
religious areas – it is very difficult to do with this agreement. That's why, we greet
forecasts. Nevertheless, a sign of hope the Agreement of Lisbon, like an
exists: the fact that there is arising a world expression of the European prosperity, of
informed public opinion, which is getting his progress institutional and in the same
accustomed to comprising the events beyond time, of our own progress, as member-
the appearances. This opinion starts being state of this „big family”.
able to demonstrate and counting in the
complicated strategic world balances. Sources: The Spanish daily „El Pais”, the
With all this, the majority think that spanish daily „El Mundo”, the site of
Europe went out of his intitutional crisis European Committee (ec.europa.eu), the
and is ready to confront with the new site of the Rumanian government (www.
provocations of the future. The new gov.ro), The European Parliament, the site
agreement brings some new elements that of European Union (http://europa.eu).
will form the engine of the institutional
reform of the European Union.
125

Revista de Stiinte Politice NR 17

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Revista de Stiinte Politice NR 17

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

r.

GHEORGHE VLĂDU łESCU (Romanian Academy), ALEXANDRU BOBOC (Romanian

© 2008- Editura Universitaria

CEZAR AVRAM, ROXANA RADU, Competence, participation and Political

ION DEACONESCU, Russia and the Binominal of Power 32

CRISTINA PIGUI, A Strategy for the Conservation of the Participative

CĂTĂLINA MARIA GEORGESCU, Public-Private Partnerships and the &ew

Competence, Participation and Political Loyalty in the

Cezar AVRAM, Roxana RADU

Résumé: Dans les circonstances créées par la chute du communisme, la

the pan-European economic, political, process and through treaties ratification

distinction between sovereignty-substance juridical nature of community competence

principle because, in federal states (Germany, of the sea; environmental policy,

high enough. Through adopting the trade otes

Fundamental Changes in Romanian Trade Policy

Elena TOBĂ, Dalia SIMIO

Résumé: L’article présente les changements arrivés dans la politique

he adoption of EU trade policy by e. transformation of Romanian from a

T Romanian on multilateral, interregional,

new activities destined to development of In the list of transition periods included

Government’s Role in Coordination of Decision-

Résumé: Cet article discute le rôle du Gouvernement dans la formulation

ne of the ideas that seem to be Constitutional Framework of the

more complex, governments have become 3. To exercise the general management

and its organizational structure consists of well as to ensure better regulatory

Russia and the Binominal of Power

Résumé: La Russie est la principale victime de l’implosion du système

The New Democracy and Market Reforms

Ioana ALBU, Andrew TOLETT

Résumé: Cet article propose un débat sur la démocratisation de l’Amérique

from which intellectuals are of European years imposed an emergency measure of

national development, blaming the nization. A series of social-economic

2008 US Presidential Elections: The Iraq War,

Anca Parmena OLIMID

Résumé: La guerre d’Irak est le principal facteur de la campagne

CBS ews/ew York Times Poll, December 5-9, 2007

USA Today/Gallup Poll, ov. 30-Dec. 2, 2007

Extremely important Very important Total

The Role of Malta in a Unified Europe

One whole story about survival be important to guarantee existence at least

are normally unsung, unacknowledged, novel is a question. Then revision comes

dutifully followed by a silent day of issued by Mireva Publications. I have

The South is permanent

Arabs and Palestinians in Israeli School Textbooks.

Résumé: En partant de l’idée que les programmes et les manuels scolaires

I ntelligence services of countries in

Nations Relief and Works Agency for the A Radical Change

The directive contained a detailed Active Preparation for Coexistence

so if he justifiably thinks his opponent's more in Islamic thought – as Islam has

The Implications of the Commercial Transactions

Résumé: La tendance de passer de l’internationalisation à la globalisation

transactions, modifying the rapports of

national economy in the productive and Developing the commercial relationships

economic failure of the command at economic regional integration. If these

global state, the world market in ensemble. of the importance of intra-industrial

globalizing the business relationships: the

Terrorism – Motivation or Violation of Human

Introduction in the League of Nations, it supported the

A Strategy for the Conservation of the

Résumé: Après la chute du régime communiste roumain,

T he engagement of the national

and to achieve a vision for a coherent participatory process, mentioned below as

otes c. the dilemma of the scald : policy of

high enough. Through adopting the trade otes

otes c. the dilemma of the scald : policy of

is used to put into inferiority the actual otes