CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND TURBULENCE WITH

APPLICATIONS TO WIND CODES

Dan Lungu
(1)
and Pieter van Gelder
(2)
(1) Technical University of Civil Engineering, Ministry of Education, Lacul Tei 124,
Bucharest Sector 2, 72302 Romania
(2) Delft University of Technology, Room CT-3.87, PO Box 5048,
2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT. Wind turbulence data is required for engineering calculations of gust speeds
and mean and fluctuating loading. Spectral densities are required as input data for methods
used in assessing dynamic response. In this paper we concentrate on two representations of
spectral densities used for describing wind turbulence (Solari and von Karman). The integral
length scales of turbulence receive special attention in the analysis. The influence of terrain
roughness, reference velocity and height above the terrain on the spectral densities is studied.
POWER SPECTRAL DENSITIES FOR ALONG-WIND GUSTINESS
From numerous proposals for the spectral density of along-wind gustiness: Karman (1948),
Panovski (1964), Davenport (1967), Harris (1968), Flicht (1970), Kaimal (1972), Simiu
(1974,1975), ESDU (1976, 1985), Naito (1978, 1983), Kareem (1985), Solari (1987,1993)
were selected that of Solari and von Karman. This paper contains a comparative study of these
spectral densities. In characterizing wind turbulence, the length scales of turbulence play an
important role. The length scales of turbulence are a comparative measure of the average size
of a gust in appropriate directions and are important scaling factors in determining how
rapidly gust properties vary in space. Three different length scales of turbulence were selected:
the length of the integral scale of turbulence from Couniham, used by Solari for EC1 (denoted
by L
u
C
) and the length of the integral scale of turbulence after the old and new ESDU
documents (denoted by L
u
old_ESDU
and L
u
new_ESDU
). The formulae of both the spectral densities
and the length scales of turbulence are summarized in Table 1.
nG
u
(n)
F
2
u
'
6.868x
(1%10.32x)
5
3
(1)
nG
u
(n)
F
2
u
'
4x
(1%70.8x
2
)
5
6
(2)
0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0
0
5 0
1 0 0
1 5 0
2 0 0
2 5 0
3 0 0
z [ m ]
I
n
t
e
g
r
a
l

l
e
n
g
t
h

s
c
a
l
e
C o u n i h a m a n d E S D U i n t e g r a l l e n g t h s c a l e s
C o u n i h a m
O l d _ E S D U
Table 1. Power spectra of the along-wind gust velocity.
Solari in
Eurocode 1
von Karman in
JCSS and CIB codes
x=L
u
C
n / V(z),
where:
L
u
C
=300(z/300)
0.46+0.074lnz0
(3)
x=L
u
n / V(z)
where L
u
is either
L
u
C
=300(z/300)
0.46+0.074lnz0
(3)
or
L
u
old_ESDU

=25z
0.35
z
0
-0.063
(4)
in which:
nG
u
(n)/F
u
2
is the normalized spectrum (i.e. unit area) and n the frequency in Hz.
L
u
is the integral length scale (after Couniham or ESDU) and the mean velocity at height z
is given by V(z). In figure 1 the Couniham and ESDU integral length scales are compared.
Figure 1. Comparison of two integral length scales.
INPUT DATA
The main factors that affect turbulence in the neutral atmospheric boundary layer are:
(i) surface roughness parameter z
0
,
(ii) the height above the zero plane z,
(iii) 10 min. mean reference wind speed V
ref
.
Typical values of the roughness parameter z
0
are 0.01 for open sea and flat areas, 0.05 for
open country, 0.3 for suburban and urban areas, and >1 for large city centers. In this paper,
the height above the zero plane z will be ranged from 10 to 100 m and the mean reference
wind speed will be fixed to 30m/s.
HIGH FREQUENCY RANGE
The von Karman equations (2)-(3) and (4) have been generally accepted as a very good
analytical representation of isotropic turbulence over the whole frequency range. The effect
of departure from isotropic turbulence near the ground can be allowed for by the variation
with height and surface roughness of the appropriate variance F
u
2
and length scale parameter
L
u
since they typify the intensity and size of eddies constituting turbulence. However
measurements have shown that the von Karman spectral equations give underestimates of the
spectral density in the high frequency region. A modified version of the von Karman spectrum
can correct this underestimation, which is shown in the next paragraph.
NEW VERSION OF THE VON KARMAN SPECTRUM FOR THE HIGH
FREQUENCIES
In the 1993 ESDU-document 85020 the Kolmogorov representation of the von Karman
spectrum in the high frequency range (nz/V(z)>0.1) is given:
nG
u
(n)
F
2
u
'Ax
&2/3
(5)
in which:
nG
u
(n)/F
u
2
is the normalized spectrum and n the frequency in Hz.
The parameter A, the integral length scale L
u
and the mean velocity V(z) are given by:
A=0.115(1+0.3151(1-z/h)
6
)
2/3
;
x=L
u
n / V(z) with
L
u
=A
3/2
(F
u
/u*)
3
z / (2.5*kz
3/2
*(1-z/h)
2
(1+5.75*z/h));
V(z)=2.5u* (log(z/z
0
)+5.75z/h-1.875(z/h)
2
-1.333*(z/h)
3
+0.25*(z/h)
4
).
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
0
0.1
Frequency [Hz]
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m
vref=30m/s, z0=0.05m, z=10m
10
-2
10
0
10
2
0
0.2
Frequency [Hz]
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m
vref=30m/s, z0=0.05m, z=100m
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
0
0.1
0.2
Frequency [Hz]
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m
vref=30m/s, z0=0.3m, z=10m
10
-2
10
0
10
2
0
0.2
Frequency [Hz]
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m
vref=30m/s, z0=0.3m, z=100m
In these formulae, we have the following parameters:
S=72.9*10
-6
; the angular rotation of the earth (rad/s),
M=53; the angle of latitude (degrees),
N=M2B/360 the angle of latitude (rad),
k
4
=0.188; a constant,
f=2Ssin(N); the Coriolis parameter (rad/s),
u*=v
10
/(2.5log(10/z
0
)); the friction velocity (m/s),
0=1-6fz/u*; p=0
16
;
F
u
=(u*7.50(0.538+0.09log(z/z0))
p
)/(1+0.156log(u*/(fz
0
)));
the standard deviation of the u-component at height z,
h=u*/(6f); the boundary layer height,
z
c
=0.39h(u*/f/z
0
)
-1/8
;
k
z
=k
4
*(1-(1-z/z
c
)
2
)
0.5
; the Kolmogorov parameter.
GRAPHICAL COMPARISONS
In figures 2-5, the four spectra are plotted. In solid is plotted the new von Karman spectrum
(NVK), the dotted line is Solari spectrum with Couniham integral length scale (SC), the
dashdotted line is the Von Karman spectrum with Couniham integral length scale (KC), and
the dashed line is the von Karman spectrum with old ESDU integral length scale (KE).
Figure 2-5. Graphical comparisons of the four spectra.
For every combination of input values (V
ref
=30m/s, z
0
=0.05..0.3m, and z=10..100m), the
same ordening in spectra is found (from high to low): KE, SC, KC and NVK. However, this
result looks as being in contradiction with the ESDU-result which says:
Measurements have shown that the old von Karman spectral equations give underestimates
of the spectral density in the high frequency region. The new version of the von Karman
spectrum can correct this underestimation.
Of course the comparisons are performed with the normalized (i.e. unit area) spectra. To get
the actual spectra hierarchy one has to multiply the ordinates of the normalized spectra by the
variance F
u
2
.
NORMALIZATION
All the spectra are normalized by the factor F
u
2
and comparison of the spectra should in fact
be performed on basis of the actual spectra (i.e. multiplied by the normalization constant F
u
2
).
The normalisation constant in the Solari spectrum is given by:
F
u
2
=$
u
2
u*
2
in which $
u
2
=4.5-0.856log(z
0
).
In the case of V
ref
=30m/s, z
0
=0.05m and z=100m, we find F
u
2
=36.24 according to the Solari
spectrum and F
u
2
=38.19 according to the new ESDU spectrum (i.e. a value of only
38.19/36.24=1.05). Therefore, it remains curious that in the normalized case the new von
Karman spectrum is the lowest for the high frequency ranges in comparison with the other
spectra.
NEW VON KARMAN SPECTRAL EQUATIONS FOR COMPLETE FREQUENCY
RANGE
The spectral equations of the new von Karman spectrum for the complete frequency range
are given by (ESDU document 85020):
nG
u
(n)
F
2
u
'$
1
2.987n
u
/"
[1%(2Bn
u
/")
2
]
5/6
%$
2
1.294n
u
/"
[1%(Bn
u
/")
2
]
5/6
F
1 (6)
in which:
F
1
=1+0.455exp[-0.76(n
u
/")
-0.8
],
n
u
=nL
u
/V(z),
"=0.535+2.76(0.138-A)
0.68
,
$
1
=2.357"-0.761,
$
2
=1-$
1
.
At high frequencies, equation (6) reduces to the simple form of equation (5).
In figure 6, a comparison is made between the four spectral densities over the whole frequency
range at z=100m, v
ref
=30m/s and z
0
=0.05m.
1 0
- 4
1 0
- 2
1 0
0
1 0
2
0
0 . 0 5
0 . 1
0 . 1 5
0 . 2
0 . 2 5
0 . 3
F r e q u e n c y [ H z ]
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m
v r e f = 3 0 m / s ; z 0 = 0 . 0 5 m ; z = 1 0 0 m
Figure 6. Comparison over the whole frequency range.
PEAK FACTOR
The spectral peak factor is directly related to the first two spectral moments. Calculating the
spectral moments are done in most cases numerically. Van Gelder and Lungu, 1997, showed
that the choice of integration interval and in particular the cut-off frequency is extremely
sensitive in the calculation of spectral parameters such as the bandwith measure ,, the zero-
upcrossing rate <
0
, the peak factor
g
and the standard deviation of the peak factor F
g
.
Eurocode 1 proposes a peak factor of 3.5. This corresponds more or less to the mean plus one
standard deviation of the peak factor. The peak factor however can be obtained artificially
high by increasing the cut-off frequency (Van Gelder and Lungu, 1997).
CONCLUSIONS
A comparison has been performed of the following spectral densities with integral length
scales:
(i) Solari with Couniham,
(ii) Von Karman with Couniham,
(iii) Von Karman with old ESDU,
(iv) New von Karman.
The range of application of each spectral density is summarized in table 2:
Table 2. Range of application per spectrum.
Spectrum Range of application
SC Under 200m according to EC1 document
KC/KE For isotropic turbulence according to the ESDU document over 150m; but
the proper integral length scale still has to be determined
NVK Everywhere according to ESDU-1993 document
In normal situations the Solari spectrum with Couniham integral length scale is prefered.
However the refinement of the procedure for special problems using the new version of the
von Karman spectrum from the ESDU1993 document might be considered as well. It remains
curious however that in the normalized case the new von Karman spectrum is the lowest for
the high frequency ranges in comparison with the other spectra. Both the Solari and the von
Karman spectra need the harmonization of the intergral length scales to be used in the
equations. In a companian paper of Van Gelder and Lungu, 1997, a comparitive analysis is
performed on spectral parameters in which the cut-off frequency appears to be a very sensitive
parameter.
REFERENCES
[1] Solari, G., "Gust buffeting, I: Peak wind velocity and equivalent pressure", Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol.119, No.2, February, 1993.
[2] Solari G., 1993. Gust buffeting, II: Dynamic along-wind response. Journal of Structural
Engineering, Vol.119, No.2, p.383-398.
[3] CEN, European Committee for Standardization, "Eurocode 1: Basis of design and
actions on structures, Part 2-4: Wind actions", ENV1991-2-4, Brussel, 1994.
[4] Sanni, R.A., Surry, D., Davenport, A.G., "Wind loading on intermediate height
buildings", Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol.19, p.148-163, 1992.
[5] Vanmarcke, E.H., "On the distribution of the first-passage time for normal stationary
random processes", Journal of applied mechanics, March, 1975.
[6] Walsche, D.E.J., "Wind-excited oscillations of structures", National Physical
Laboratory, London, 1972.
[7] CIB-Report, "Actions on structures, Windloads", 6th Draft, May, 1994.
[8] ESDU-Report, Characteristics of atmospheric turbulence near the ground, Part II: single
point data for strong winds (neutral atmosphere), No. 85020, April 1993.
[9] Lungu D., Rackwitz R., 1996. Section 2.13 Wind, part 2 Loads, Joint Committee on
Structural Safety Probabilistic Model Code, Third draft, Oct. 1996.
[10] Pieter H.A.J.M. van Gelder and Dan Lungu, Properties of Gust Spectra with
Applications to Wind Loading Codes, Submitted to ICOSSAR97 Conference, Kyoto,
November 1997.