Beruflich Dokumente
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A Project Report on
By
NUST CADET SYED HASSAN MAHMOOD WASTI (060901)
NUST CADET MOHAMMAD USMAN USMANI (060906)
NUST CADET HUMAYUN YOUSAF (050803)
NUST CADET MUHAMMAD ALI
(060904)
NUST CADET BILAL (060907)
69EC
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COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
PAF ACADEMY, RSIALPUR
By
NUST CADET SYED HASSAN MAHMOOD WASTI (060901)
NUST CADET MOHAMMAD USMAN USMANI (060906)
NUST CADET HUMAYUN YOUSAF (050803)
NUST CADET MUHAMMAD ALI
(060904)
NUST CADET BILAL (060907)
69 EC
APPROVED
(**************)
(**************)
Project Advisor
Contents
List of Tables..........................................................................................................7
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List of Figures.........................................................................................................7
CHAPTER I............................................................................................................8
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................8
Definition of Ultra Light Aircraft..................................................................................8
Objective................................................................................................................8
Methodology followed..............................................................................................8
Market Surveys and Research...................................................................................8
Conceptual Design..................................................................................................8
Aerodynamic Evaluation...........................................................................................9
Detailed design & CAD modeling...............................................................................9
Full Scale Fabrication...............................................................................................9
CHAPTER II.........................................................................................................10
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN............................................................................................10
Introduction..........................................................................................................10
Phases of Aircraft Design.......................................................................................10
Conceptual Design Process....................................................................................11
Selection of Specification........................................................................................12
Mission Profile......................................................................................................12
Base Structure......................................................................................................13
Wing Geometry Selection.......................................................................................13
Airfoil Selection.....................................................................................................16
Engine Location....................................................................................................18
Landing Gear........................................................................................................19
Propeller Selection................................................................................................19
Engine Cooling System..........................................................................................19
Horsepower to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading.........................................................20
Aircraft Final Specifications.....................................................................................21
Three Dimensional Conceptual Model......................................................................22
CHAPTER III...........................................................................................................23
AERODYNAMICS....................................................................................................23
Lift Slope Curve....................................................................................................23
Profile Drag..........................................................................................................23
Induced Drag Factor..............................................................................................24
Thrust Available and Thrust Required.......................................................................25
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CHAPTER IV........................................................................................................26
DETAILED DESIGN..................................................................................................26
Fuselage..............................................................................................................26
Cockpit................................................................................................................28
Flight Instruments..................................................................................................29
LANDING GEAR ANALYSIS...................................................................................42
Firewall................................................................................................................47
Safety..................................................................................................................47
Control Surfaces...................................................................................................47
Buckling Analysis..................................................................................................53
Bolt Size Calculation..............................................................................................55
POWER PLANT SELECTION.................................................................................57
Modifications:........................................................................................................58
Alternative engine suggestions:...............................................................................60
PROPELLER DESIGN...........................................................................................61
Results................................................................................................................62
Conclusion:..........................................................................................................66
Solid edge view of the designed propeller:................................................................66
Fuel system..........................................................................................................67
CHAPTER V.........................................................................................................68
FABRICATION.........................................................................................................68
Material Selection..................................................................................................68
Fabrication of Connectors.......................................................................................71
Fabrication of Custom Designed Joints and Hinges....................................................72
Fuselage Construction...........................................................................................74
2d Truss Construction............................................................................................82
Wing Construction.................................................................................................85
Empennage Assembly...........................................................................................88
Control Surfaces...................................................................................................92
Fabrication of Landing Gear....................................................................................99
Fabrication of Aircraft Skin Covering:......................................................................103
Solid Edge Figures..............................................................................................104
CONCLUSION....................................................................................................109
CONCLUSION
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List of Tables
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
1: Aircraft Specifications...................................................................................7
2: Airfoil Comparison......................................................................................11
3: Wing Loading and HP/W..............................................................................14
4: Aircraft Final Dimensions............................................................................15
5: Loads Estimation........................................................................................23
6: Top View showing wing spars and major ribs of the wing...........................24
7: Side View showing wing spars and struts...................................................24
8: Fuselage Truss members............................................................................60
9: Wing members...........................................................................................63
10: Horizontal Tail members...........................................................................66
11: Vertical Tail members...............................................................................68
12: Landing Gear members............................................................................76
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Ultra Light Aircraft
1.
The definition of ultra light aircraft varies from country to country the aviation
regulatory body of the country decides the weight of an aircraft to be classifies as ultra
light aircraft. However, the civil aviation authority of Pakistan has no such definition for
ultra light aircraft. As a result we selected the empty weight of our aircraft closer to that
used in India and set it to 800lb.
Objective
2. The aim of the project is to design and fabricate a full scale ultra light aircraft using
in-country resources.
Methodology followed
a) Market Surveys and Research
b)
c)
d)
e)
Conceptual Design
Aerodynamic evaluation
Detailed Design, CAD modeling
Full scale fabrication
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Aerodynamic Evaluation
5.
Aerodynamic characteristic of the aircraft were evaluated using theoretical
aerodynamics and final configuration was set.
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CHAPTER II
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
Introduction
1.
Airplane is the intellectual engineering process of creating. Aircraft design is a
separate discipline of aeronautical engineering different from aerodynamics,
structures, propulsion and controls. The job of a designer involves a lot of capabilities
including knowledge of the above disciplines, his experience, talent, good approach,
hard work and utilization of available resources and tools.
2.
A good aircraft design seems to miraculously glide through subsequent
evaluations by specialists without major changes being required. Somehow the landing
gear fits, the fuel tanks are near the center of gravity, the structural members are simple
and light weight, overall arrangement provides good aerodynamics, the engines
installed in simple and clean fashion and a host of similar detail seems to fall in space.
II.
Preliminary Design: A preliminary design begins when major changing is
over. During this phase the areas of interest are structures, landing gears and
control system. Testing is initiated in areas such as aerodynamics, propulsion and
stability and control parameters. The ultimate objective during this phase is to get
full-scale development
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Selection of Specification
6.
Ultra light aircrafts are usually used for recreation and therefore loiter time rather
than the range is more important. As no design requirements were given therefore a
survey was conducted and the specifications were selected accordingly.
7.
Mission Profile
Figure 2: Mission Profile
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Base Structure
8.
Taper Ratio
High Taper Ratio
Low
Ratio
Weight
High
Low
Tip stall
Good
Poor
Manufacturin
g
Easy
Difficult
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Taper
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Hence, it was decided to have a straight wing as flow separation downstream from
the root region causes buffeting as it flows over the horizontal tail, thus providing
stall warning to the pilot. Moreover, as the wing tip still has attached flow control
surfaces would still be operatable. Besides, a straight wing is cheaper and easy to
manufacture. However, special efforts would be made in manufacturing as Lift
distribution is such that the centroid is away from the root causing greater bending
moment.
II. Wing Location
High
Mid
Low
Interference drag
Poor
Good
Poor
Dihedral effect
Negative
Neutral
positive
Visibility
Good
Good
Poor
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
I.
Monoplane/Biplane
Monoplane
Bi - plane
Cantilever
Braced
Weight
High
Low
Very low
Profile Drag
Low
High
Higher
Interference Drag
Low
High
Higher
For less weight and greater structure strength, braced wings would be used and to
make sure that drag is not very high, monoplane was preferred over biplane. More
importantly from manufacturing point of view monoplane construction is much easier
than biplane.
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II. Wing Sweep
None
Sweep
High
Low
Low
High
Poor
Good
Stall
Good
Poor
Good
Poor
Wing weight
Low
High
No sweep was selected as it gives lower weight, better performance at low speed
(our regime) and gives better stall characteristics(assuring safety).
III. Wing Dihedral
Effect
angle
of
Dihedral
Positive
Negative
Spiral stability
Increased
Decreased
Decreased
Increased
Increased
Decreased
Ground
wing
clearance
of
As Ultra light aircrafts are supposed to be stable therefore a small positive dihedral
angle would be used.
IV. Wing Incidence
Large
Small
Cruise drag
High
Low
Cockpit visibility
Good
Average
As incidence angle would increase drag therefore it was decided to use zero
incidence angle.
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V. Wing Thickness
Low t/c
High t/c
Wing weight
High
Low
Low
High
Poor
Good
Maximum Lift
Poor
Good
As greater thickness ratio increases lift as well as decrease weight, we will use
higher t/c but greater than 12 Cl max starts to deteriorate, thus , we will use t/c less
than 12.
VI. Aspect Ratio
HIGH LOW
Induced Drag
Low
High
Lift-curve Slope
High
Low
High
Ride in Turbulence
Poor
Good
Wing Weight
High
Low
Wing Span
Larg
e
Small
Due to higher L/D, higher aspect ratio is selected. But higher value is limited by
increasing weight with aspect ratio. Thus, a trade off is carried out and aspect ratio
of 6 is finalized.
VII. Twist
Large
Small
Induced drag
High
Small
Tipstall
Good
Poor
Wing Weight
Mildly lower
Mildly higher
To decrease complexity and to improve induce drag as wing span is already very
large, we will use no twist.
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Airfoil Selection
Airfoil
CLmax
CLARK Y
1.65
1.65
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Engine Location
Tractor configuration
Advantages
1. CG moves forward. Improving stability and allowing a shorter and smaller tail
2. Propeller works in an undisturbed free stream
3. More effective flow of cooling engine
Disadvantages
1. The propeller slipstream disturbs the quality of air over the wing
2. Skin friction increases over the wing
Pusher configuration
Advantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
Disadvantages
1. CG shifts back which causes stability problem
2. Propeller damaged by FODs
3. Engine cooling problem more severe
After considering the pros and cons of both the configurations it was decided to use the
more conventional Tractor configuration. The major factor in making this decision was
the use of an automobile engine. As we have modified the engine therefore, it would be
a huge risk if we are using the pusher configuration as any cooling problem could result
in a crash.
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Landing Gear
Tricycle
Tail dragger
Groundloop behavior
Stable
Unstable
Good
Poor
Floor attitude
ground
on
the Level
Not level
Weight
Medium
Low
Good
Poor
Takeoff rotation
Good
Good
Although the Tricycle landing gear has more advantages but the tail dragger
configuration was selected as:
Propeller Selection
Three practical constraints would be kept in mind while buying the propeller:
1. Propeller tip must clear the ground
2. Propeller tip should not reach supersonic speeds. As compressibility effects
would ruin the propeller performance.
3. Propeller must be large enough to absorb engine power. The power absorption
of propeller is increased by increasing the diameter.
The final choice of propeller used would solely depend on the availability of propeller as
they are not easily available.
Engine Cooling System
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Updraft cooling system is used as it, unlike downdraft cooling system, flows the
cooling air upward through the cylinders and exits it into low pressure air above the
fuselage, creating more efficient cooling flow due to a suction effect.
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W/S
4.7941
HP/W
0.08
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Control Surfaces
Length
17
Aileron
Width
2.5
Chord
0.25 of wing
Height
4.25
Span
0.45 of wing
Wing
Elevator
Span
28
Chord
0.9 of stabilizer
Chord
4.66
Span
0.45 of stabilizer
Span area
130.33
Rudder
Sweep
Chord
0.4 of fin
Aspect Ratio
Span
0.9 of fin
Taper ratio
Flaps
Dihedral
Chord
0.25 of wing
Span
0.55 of wing
Cl design
0.75136
Horizontal Tail
Chord
3.2
Span
9.5
Weights
Span area
29.7
payload
200
Lht
10.2
Structural weight
302
Aspect Ratio
Engine weight
150
Taper Ratio
0.6
Maximum
loaded)
Vertical Tail
weight
(fully 652
Clean Configuration
Chord
3.5
0.066306
Span
4.1
Cdo
0.033043
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Span area
14.2
Take Off
Lvt
10.2
Cdo
0.048043
Aspect Ratio
1.2
0.070726
Taper Ratio
0.6
Landing
Power plant
Power required
60 hp
Fuel required
32 lbs.
Fuel
required
volume 20 litres
Propeller Diameter
4.3 ft.
Cdo
0.098043
0.075778
286.1
Sldg
390
Tires
Diameter
12 inch.
Width
4.2 inch.
Table 4: Aircraft Final Dimensions
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Front View
Side View
Top View
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CHAPTER III
AERODYNAMICS
Lift Slope Curve
Cl alpha versus Mach No:
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Drag Polar
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CHAPTER IV
DETAILED DESIGN
Components of the Aircraft
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Wing
Fuselage Cabin
Fuselage Truss
Horizontal Tail
Vertical Tail
Flaps
Control Surfaces (Ailerons, Elevators, Rudder)
Engine Mount
Wing Mount
Connectors/Joints
Landing Gear
Control System
Fuselage
Fuselage is responsible for the largest portion of overall drag for most of the airplanes.
Thus it should be sized and shaped accordingly for minimum drag. It contributes to
various drags:
Friction drag.
Profile drag.
Base drag.
Compressibility drag.
Induced drag.
If fuselage length is decreased, for the same level of static stability, tail size can be
decreased, thus, decreasing the friction drag. Thus, the optimum fineness ratio is 4 to 8.
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As we can see in figure, drag does not increase much up to the upsweep of 15
degrees.
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Our proposed design:
Upsweep
12.5 degrees
Fineness ratio 4
Cockpit
The basic idea behind the cockpit design is to provide comfort to the pilot besides easy
excess to the all vital controls and accessories without diverging the pilots attention.
Cockpit design especially for homebuilders:
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airspeed indicator
altimeter
magnetic compass
tachometer
oil pressure gauge
oil temperature gauge
fuel quantity indicator
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The lift and drag of horizontal tail is estimated to be 20% of that of the wing. So, lift and
drag of horizontal tail becomes 340 lbs and 34 lbs respectively.
Since the vertical tail has similar configuration as half of the horizontal tail, so we can
take the side force and drag of the vertical tail to be half of the lift and drag of the
horizontal tail respectively. Thus, the side force becomes 170 lbs with a drag force of
17 lbs.
The following table summarizes the load estimation. These loads will be used to
analyze the design.
Member
Wing
Horizontal Tail
Vertical Tail
Vertical Loads
(Lift, lbs)
1700
340
--
Horizontal Loads
(Drag, lbs)
170
34
17
Lateral
Loads
(Side Force, lbs)
--170
28 ft
3.5
ft
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All the members consist of Al pipes. An iterative trial and error structural analysis will
determine the dimensions of these pipes.
Determination of Dimensions of Pipes
In order to determine the outer diameter and thickness of the pipes, the proposed
design was analyzed in ANSYS using different combinations of available diameters and
thicknesses. The best combination was then selected as the final dimensions of the
pipes.
Procedure of Analysis
The basic geometry was predetermined and the variable parameters were outer
diameter and thickness of the spars, ribs and struts as well as the span wise location of
the struts. So, the basic geometry was generated in ANSYS and arbitrary values of
outer diameter and thickness were given.
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Dimension
Spar Outer Diameter
Spar Thickness
Strut Outer Diameter
Strut Thickness
Major
Rib
Outer
Diameter
Major Rib Thickness
Strut Location
Value
2.00 in
0.78 in
1.50 in
0.75 in
2.00 in
0.78
Mid Span
For the above combination, plot of von Misses Stress is shown below:
Since, we have already multiplied the applied loads with 1.5 as a FOS, so the actual
FOS will be 1.5 X 1.03 = 1.54.
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for the lower surface to get a flat bottom, as designed. The upper surface will be given
the required curvature by using a bended pipe.
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Horizontal Tail
Dimensions
As per Conceptual Design, the horizontal tail dimensions are:
9.50 ft (114
in)
Span
Root
Chord
3.25 ft (39 in)
Length
Taper Ratio
0.60
Sweep Angle
15 Deg
Keeping in mind the above dimensions, the following geometry is proposed for the
horizontal tail.
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ANSYS and arbitrary values of outer diameter and thickness were given. The geometry
was then meshed with element type of PIPE16. Loads were applied as estimated before
at 06 Hard Points. It is assumed that the loads are equally distributed among these
points. The Load Step was solved and von Misses Stress was plotted and maximum
stress was noted. These steps were repeated until a satisfactory result was obtained.
Result of the Analysis
The analysis showed the following combination to be best suited which was selected as
the final dimensions.
Dimension
Outer
Diameter
Thickness
Value
1.50
in
0.75
in
For the above combination, plot of von Misses Stress is shown below:
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Since, we have already multiplied the applied loads with 1.5 as a FOS, so the actual
FOS will be 1.5 X 1.05 = 1.58.
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Vertical Tail
Dimensions
As per Conceptual Design, the horizontal tail dimensions are:
04 ft (48
in)
Root
Chord 2.5 ft (30
Length
in)
Taper Ratio
0.60
Sweep Angle
15 Deg
Span (Height)
Keeping in mind the above dimensions, the following geometry is proposed for the
horizontal tail.
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Since, we have already multiplied the applied loads with 1.5 as a FOS, so the actual
FOS will be 1.5 X 1.12 = 1.69.
The Factor of Safety came out to be 1.69 which is quiet acceptable. So, the same pipes
will be used for vertical tail.
Dimension
Outer
Diameter
Thickness
Value
1.50
in
0.75
in
Fuselage Truss
Dimensions
The fuselage truss must be 9.5 ft (114 in) long. The other dimensions are as shown
below.
Value
1.50
in
0.75
in
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Procedure of Analysis
The basic geometry was generated in ANSYS and the values of outer diameter and
thickness were given as 1.5 in and 0.75 in respectively. The geometry was then meshed
with element type of PIPE16. Loads were applied at the attachment points of the
horizontal and vertical tail as well as the rear landing gear. The loads at these points
were obtained from previous analysis of horizontal and vertical tails. An estimated
vertical load of 140 lbs was applied at rear landing gear attachment point. The loads
are summarized below:
Loads
HT Point 1
HT Point 2
VT Point 1
VT Point 2
Rea LG
FX (lbs)
FY (lbs)
FZ (lbs)
21
75
26
15
96
-26
15
-28
97
21
28
74
-140
--
The Load Step was solved and von Misses Stress was plotted and maximum stress
was noted.
Result of the Analysis
The analysis showed that the lateral displace of the truss structure is very large. The
displacement came out to be 20 in which is not acceptable. So, design must be
modified to restrict the lateral diplacement of the tail. Plot of lateral displacement is
shown below.
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Result of the Analysis
Lateral Displacement: The lateral displacement of the tail of the modified truss
structure came out to be about 4 in. this value is acceptable if the stress does not
exceeds the strength of the material used. Plot of lateral displacement is shown below.
von Misses Stress: The maximum von Misses Stress came out to be 26, 385 psi which
gives a FOS of about 1.70. So, the design is safe and can be accepted. Distribution of
von Misses Stress is shown as under:
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Fuselage Cabin
Fuselage cabin is the part of aircraft where most of the components get jointed. Wing,
landing gears, engine mounts and fuselage truss are connected to the cabin. It also has
the provision for installment of flight instruments and control system. It will also serve as
the cockpit to house the pilot. The following figures show the sketch of fuselage cabin.
Front View
Side View
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Figure 25: Fuselage Cabin
However, most discussion forums on the internet suggested that forces up to 3gs could
be experienced during poor landing and hence vertical loads were selected accordingly.
The corresponding loads used were:
Dimensions Selection
Dimensions were selected on the following requirement:
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ANSYS ANALYSIS
The greatest challenge we faced during the analysis was the non availability of damping
coefficient and spring constant value of dampers. Although spring constant could be
found. It was impossible to calculate the damping coefficient without proper
experimental setup. Therefore, it was decided to find the loads in the rods connecting
the dampers and hope that a damper could be found with the required load rating
inscribed on it.
The element used for landing gear analysis was Pipe 16:
Uniaxial element with tension-compression, torsion, and bending capabilities
The element has six degrees of freedom at two nodes: translations in the nodal
x, y, and z directions and rotations about the nodal x, y, and z axes.
Material Used
Steel 4130 N is used. Use of steel also means that the structure can be easily welded
therefore analysis of welded structure was done.
Density [kg/dm3]
Elastic modulus E [GPa]
Poissons ratio
Thermal conductivity [W/mK]
Thermal expansion (1/K)
Ultimate Tensile strength (Mpa)
7.9
200
0.28
31.4
20 e-6
730
PROCEDURE
As we couldnt get the values of k and c for the shock absorber and the design
papers were only specified for oleo shock absorbers therefore they couldnt be
used
Hence it was decided that if individual load in the member where shock absorber
is to be installed could be found then the shock absorber can be selected
The maximum stresses in each member were found.
The load was then calculated by multiplying with area
These loads were then used to find a suitable shock absorber
Usually FOS of 1.5 is used but I have used 2 as the local material might not have
perfect strength
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Firewall
Stainless steel or galvanized iron sheet of minimum thickness .015 inch (according to
FAR 23) is installed between cockpit and engine to prevent pilot from engine heat.
Safety
For the safety of pilot, cabin should consist of :
Ballistic Parachute
Fire Extinguisher
Control Surfaces
Flight control systems can be divided into primary and secondary flight control systems.
Primary control systems:
Based on their design, flight control systems are further divided into:
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In an Irreversible flight control systems (hydraulic or electrical), when the cockpit
controls are moved, the aerodynamic surface controls moves and not vice-versa.
Another way of stating this is to say that in an irreversible flight control system an
actuator moves the aerodynamic surface controls. The pilot merely signals the actuator
to move. This signaling process is usually an irreversible process.
Major advantages associated with reversible flight control system are:
Simplicity.
Low cost.
Reliability.
Relatively maintenance free.
In laying out a reversible flight control systems, the following important design aspects
need to keep in mind:
Major design problems associated with reversible flight control system are:
Cable stretch.
Cable slack.
Friction.
Weight.
Handling qualities.
Elastic control system deformation.
Flutter.
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Cable stretch:
To prevent cable stretch l/s >6.
Cable slack:
Turnbuckles are used to prevent cable slack and to prevent cables from leaving pulley,
cable guards are used.
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Friction:
To prevent too much friction, following rules to be considered:
For every cable turn, additional pulley is needed which introduces extra weight and
extra friction.
Elastic control system deformation:
Make sure pulleys are attached to stiff structural components. Do not attach them to flat
plates, they deform easily.
Flutter
The solution to the control surface flutter is :
To make sure that centre
of mass not behind hinge
line
try to have chordwise cg at
hinge line
prevent any play in the
linkages
Design consideration:
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Primary flight control system cables should have a diameter greater than .11inch
(2.8mm) according to FAR 23.
Rotation efficiency is highest if the angle between the cable and the driving
sector is 90 degrees with the system in its neutral position.
Kinematic feasibility.
Mechanisms A and B are kinematically sound, the quadrangles ABFE and CDFE
remain parallelograms when the system is used. Mechanism A is better than B
because of its higher rotation efficiency. Mechanism C and D are unworkable
because the cable lengths AB and CD do not remain constant after some rotation.
Thus mechanism C and D are undesirable.
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Side View
Top View
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Buckling Analysis
Our aircraft cabin contained vertical members that would take compressive stresses at
landing as indicated by ANSYS Analysis therefore buckling analysis was necessary. As
we had chosen pipes for constructing cabin therefore we had the added advantage in
Buckling as a circular pipe is the most efficient column section to resist buckling. This is
because it has an equal radius of gyration in all directions and it has its area distributed
as far away as possible from the centroid.
For the purpose of Analysis a long column with central loading case was considered.
Euler column equation was used and the equation was formed by using boundary
condition for the case where both ends of the column are fixed. For obtaining the Euler
column formula we began by assuming a pipe of length l loaded by a force P acting
along the centroid axis as the bar is bent a negative moment is required, and hence
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Fig. showing pipe bending under compressive loads
M = -Py
Comparing with the beam deflection formula d2ydx2=MEI we get the equation
d2y P
+
y=0
2
dx
EI
Solving the differential equation for initial conditions gives us the final buckling analysis
4 2 EI
Pcr =
l2
Since the maximum compressive force to be experienced by the pipes is known we
need to keep all variables constant while finding out one variable. In our case P, E, l is
known. We decided to keep pipe thickness and internal diameter constant and find out
the minimum required outer diameter to keep the pipe from buckling. The Moment of
Inertia of pipe is given by
( d o 4 di 4 )
I=
64
Substituting in Euler Equation and solving we got the final equation:
2
16
P
l
d o 4 = 3cr + di 4
E
All the variables were substituted in the equation the result we got for minimum outer
diameter requirement was 1.42 inch. Hence it was verified that a pipe of outer diameter
1.5 inch, thickness 2mm would not buckle under the given loads. As with aviation rules
a Factor of Safety of 1.5 was also kept in mind while doing calculations.
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( l k)
= 82.3
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Fig. (a) Crushing failure (b) tearing failure (c) shearing failure
In our case the Crushing or bearing failure is the bolt size determining factor. In order to
prevent pipes from crushing during tightening a small 3 in piece of wood was inserted in
the pipe before drilling. Hence, the bolt passed through the wood sandwiched between
aluminum pipe of thickness 2mm.
To calculate the bolt size software, MITCALC was used however two calculations were
also done manually and the answers matched with the software to validate MITCALC.
Pc=t.d.c
Where,
t= pipe thickness
d= diameter of the bolt
c= safe permissible crushing stress
Member/ connections
Cabin connections
6 mm
8 mm
4 mm
Truss-empennage connections
6 mm
8 mm
Engine mount
8 mm
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Lock nuts were used with bolts. These nuts are not manufactured locally and are
imported. However, at the moment lock nuts for size smaller than 6 mm were not
available. As a result we were forced to use only 6mm and 8mm bolts.
The carbon steel bolts selected were of highest available grade of 12.9. Allen Key bolts
were selected as Hex Bolts of the specified grades were not available. Bolts of length
2.0 and 2.5 inch were used.
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Car
Engine name
Rpm
Hp
Torque (Nm)
Weight (lb)
Cultus
G-10
5100-5500
50
65
139
Cuore
ED-10
5500
48
83
N/A
Alto
SS80
5500
62
87
N/A
City
5500-6000
100
128
N/A
Corolla
2NZ-FE
6000
80
119
N/A
However, all these engines were water-cooled and added weight. Therefore it was
decided to use air-cooled engines and hence it was decided to use VW engines another
advantage of an original VW engine is that VW claims that its engines can automatically
adjust fuel requirement with altitude. An extensive search for VW engines was carried
out and a list of VW engines available in Pakistan was made:
Production Date
Displacement
1200cc
1300cc
1300cc
1600cc
1600cc
1600cc
1600cc
1800cc
1300cc
1800cc
1800cc
1300cc
1800cc
1800cc
Engine
Number
1, 2, 3
FO
E low comp
HO
H5 low comp
L
H1
B
AC
AE
AD
AR
AS
AJ
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Horsepower
36
50
37
53
50
50
53
57
44
60
65
48
60
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After the survey it was decided to use 1800cc VW engine or 1600cc engine produced in
1966 or 1969. For this purpose the five major VW mechanics and engine suppliers were
contacted in Karachi in May and they provided us with surety that the engine would be
provided. The estimate engine cost was Rs 20,000/-.
Modifications:
For engine modifications local mechanics and ultra light aircraft owners were consulted.
Although help was also taken from internet but local mechanics were unfamiliar with
most of these foreign techniques as a result following modifications were finalized:
Removal of gear box: As our aircraft would operate at a constant rpm therefore
gearbox use was judged irrelevant.
Fig. the removal of bulky gear box would significantly reduce weight
Double carburetor: This would allow the pistons to work differentially allowing
for a much better and efficient compression
Engine Overhaul: As these engines are about 30 years old therefore engine
overhaul is necessary to ensure optimum performance.
Replacing flywheel: The standard and heavier steel flywheel would be replaced
with Al. flywheel. This would cause significant weight reduction.
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Rotax engine: A second hand dual carburetor Rotax 503 engine was available in
Peshawar at a cost of Rs 2 lakh. The engine had flown for 40 hours. It provided
47 hp but at the same time its weight was 85 lbs which is almost half the
estimated weight of VW engine. Propeller specifications for Rotax engines are
directly available on the internet. For Rotax 503 carrying a weight in the range of
700-850 lbs the propeller specs are: 56x32 where 56 is the diameter and 32
degrees is the pitch.
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PROPELLER DESIGN
Initially it was decided that a propeller would be bought directly from the market for the
ultra light aircraft. However, no ready made wood propellers were available for sale in
the market leaving us with no choice but to fabricate the propeller. A manufacturer was
contacted and he asked for the diameter and pitch of the propeller.
For propeller design a free software javaprop was used. The software is based on
Adkins, C. N.: Design of Optimum Propellers, AIAA-83-0190. The main improvements
were:
Momentum losses due to radial flow can be estimated by either the Prandtl or
Goldstein momentum loss function.
In the analysis portion "Blade Element Method" is used and it uses the same
airfoil polars as the design procedure
The influence of blade number and tip loss are taken into account by the "Prandtl
Tip-Loss Factor
Four major design criterions were kept in mind while carrying out propeller design:
THE NUMBER OF BLADES
The number of blades has a small effect on the efficiency only. Usually a propeller with
more blades will perform slightly better, as it distributes its power and thrust more
evenly in its wake. But for a given power or thrust, more blades also mean more narrow
blades with reduced chord length, so its difficult to manufacture.
DENSITY:
The density of the fluid has no influence on the efficiency of a propeller, but strongly
affects its size and shape. As the forces and the power are directly proportional to the
fluid density. Aircraft operating at high alt. usually need a smaller diameter then those
operating at low alt.
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PITCH
Large pitch propellers may have a good efficiency in their design point, but may run into
trouble when the have to operate at axial velocity. In this case, the blades tend to stall.
Usually the best overall propellers will have a pitch to diameter ratio in the order of 1.
DIAMETER
The propeller diameter has a big impact on performance. Usually a larger propeller will
have a higher efficiency, as it catches more incoming fluid and distributes its power and
thrust on a larger fluid volume.
Results
The software javaprop is a very user friendly software a six step procedure was
followed to come to final result.
Number of Blades
Diameter
Rpm
Thrust at design condition
Efficiency at design condition
Blade angle at 75% R
Geometric Pitch
2 blades
4.6ft
2700
220 lb
65%
25
3.8ft
Airfoils were selected according to the most popularly used airfoils in ultralight
propellers
At r/R=0 MH 126
Fig. MH 126
MH 126, this airfoil was designed for the root section of a full size propeller. It covers a
wide angle of attack range without separation and has the required thickness for this
region.
At r/R=0.33 MH 112
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Fig. MH 112
MH 112 16.2%, this airfoil was designed to follow the root section. It covers the typically
needed range of lift coefficients for the inboard region.
At r/R=0.67 MH 114
Fig. MH 114
MH 114 13%, this airfoil is well suited for the middle part of the propeller halfway
between root and tip.
At r/R=1.0 MH 116
Fig. MH 116
MH 116 9.8%, this airfoil can be used for the tip of propellers operating at tip Mach
numbers of 0.6 and below.
Then the front and side view of propeller was found
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The thrust graph was then imported to MS Excel and required thrust vs available thrust
graph was made
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Next Cl, Cd plots were made against r/R. As desired the Cl value is greater than Cd
throughout the blade diameter
A chart showing the velocity of the slipstream of propeller was also made. Vx is the axial
velocity, V is the inflow velocity. The graph shows that the flow has accelerated by
about 80%.
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Conclusion:
The propeller design was satisfactory as it was close to common propeller results for
ultra light aircrafts with 50hp engine as shown in the table below
Commonly used
propeller
52 56 59
55.2
Pitch (degrees)
28
25
Thrust (lb.)
158
230
The propeller efficiency is 65% which is less than the ideal 80%. However the efficiency
is dependent on a number of factors like HP, RPM, Diameter, Velocity etc.In our case
the HP is fixed. The rpm and diameter are also restricted with the thrust requirement
and the need to keep the tip velocity below 0.75 Mach. All these restraints have resulted
in a lower efficiency. An iterative method was used to get the best combination of
Diameter and Rpm.
Solid edge view of the designed propeller:
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Fuel system
Two types of fuel systems were considered:
Gravity-Feed Systems use only the force of gravity to push fuel to the engine fuelcontrol mechanism. The bottom of the fuel tank must be high enough to provide
adequate pressure to the fuel-control component. This type of system is often used in
high-wing light aircraft. We have preferred gravity fed system as it is simple, does not
need any installation of pump and suits our aircraft configuration i.e. high-wing light
aircraft. However, we need to install two valves to ensure fuel supply at all time
Thus, our fuel tank has two valves to counter for every phase of flight. Fuel from these
valves merged together before entering into the engine.
Fuel System Components:
Tanks
Lines
Valves
Fuel Flow-meters
Filters and Strainers
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Towards
engine
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CHAPTER V
FABRICATION
Material Selection
Before starting fabrication it was imperative to select material which had a high strength
to weight ratio. Al 6061-T6 is the most commonly used material in ultralight aircraft
industry. However, this material is not available locally and hence an alternate Al 6063T6 was used in aircraft structure. A comparison of AL6061-T6 and AL 6063-T6 is given
below:
T 6063
Density (lb / cu. in.)
Specific Gravity
Melting Point (Deg F)
Modulus of Elasticity Tension
Modulus of Elasticity Torsion
Tensile strength
Yield strength
0.098
2.7
1090
10
3.8
42,000 psi (290 MPa)
35,000 psi (241 MPa)
T 6061
0.097
2.7
1150
10
3
30,000 psi (207 MPa)
25,000 psi (172 MPa)
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Tools Used
Fabrication process started with acquisition of tools. Due to unavailability of resources
expensive tooling equipment could not be purchased thats why stress was given upon
using simple and cheap yet effective tools. A few parts needed welding or machining,
and those were farmed out to local professionals. Following tools were used during the
fabrication process.
Tools Used:
Carpenters square
Drill press
Rivet gun
Metal Lathe
Metal Mill
Welding torch
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2) Cutting:
Pipe Cutter was used to cut the larger pipes into smaller precise pieces which
were to be used in different parts of aircraft. Procedure followed for cutting
purpose was to hold the marked pipe in bench vise and provide a support to
keep balance then a straight cut was made which ensured dimensions to be
exact as marked on pipes.
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Fabrication of Connectors
Following connectors were obtained from market directly.
I. 3d Elbow connector
These are 3d joints which were used to join cabin pipes meeting at 90 degree
angles. Mild steel material joints were used due to availability and cost
constraints.
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Fuselage Construction
Fuselage design consisted of two main components
1) Cabin compartment
2) 2d Truss Structure
Both the components were fabricated separately and then joined to complete the
fuselage structure. Details of both the processes are given below.
Cabin Construction:
Cabin is a critical portion of aircraft as it gives places for attachment of wing, rear truss,
engine mounts, and landing gear ,it also houses the pilot and works as a base for
placement of control components. List of members used is given below followed by
steps taken to complete the cabin structure.
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SN.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Members
FC 001
FC 002
FC 003
FC 004
FC 005
FC 006
Length(in)
30
30
54
54
54
54
Diameter(in)
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
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Thickness(mm)
2
2
2
2
2
2
Material
Al 6063
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SN.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Members
FCL 015
FCL 016
FCL 017
FCL 018
FCL 019
FCL 020
Length
18
18
58
58
50
50
Diameter/Widt
h
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
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Thickness
2
2
2
2
2
2
Material
AL6063
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No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Members
FCH 007
FCH 008
FCH 009
FCH 010
FCA 021
FCA 022
FCA 023
FCA 024
Length(in)
30
30
30
30
30
30
35
35
Diameter(in)
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
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Thickness(mm)
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Material
AL6063
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S No.
1
2
3
4
5
Length(in)
50
50
50
50
32
Width(in)
2
2
2
2
2
Thickness(mm) Material
5
AL6063
5
5
Steel
5
5
Connectors Used
S No.
1
2
3
4
5
Connector Type
3d Elbow
3d Tee
90 Clip
Angled Clip
Plate Joint
Quantity
4
2
4
4
2
Material
Mild steel
Mild steel
Al 6063
Al 6063
Al 6063
S No.
1
Part
Flooring
2
3
Windshield
Firewall
Material
Hard Plywood
Plastic
Sheet,Al
pipes
Galvanized
Iron
Length(in)
50
Width/Dia(in)
30
Thickness(mm)
20
32,32
66
24,15mm
54
7
2
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Sheet
Construction process:
Rear portion joints of the cabin were specially designed and custom fabricated to
ensure strength and sleekness of this portion. All the joints were Bolted using
6mm diameter,2 and 2.5 inch length Allen Bolts. Lock nuts were used to ensure
safety and reliability.
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To fulfill this requirement L beam of Aluminum and Stain less steel were used for
Wing and landing gear attachment respectively. These beams were joined to
base pipe structure using nuts and bolts.
Cabin floor is required for mounting of pilot seat, control stick and pedals;
it also provides a base for installment of various subsidiary components.
For construction purpose hard plywood sheet was used. After cutting the
sheet in precise dimensions it was attached to base members (pipes and
L beams) with the help of nuts bolts and washers.
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Wind Shield serves the purpose of protecting the pilot from prop wash,
bird strike and foreign objects .It also gives aerodynamic shape to cabin
front portion thus reducing drag and increasing performance.
It was constructed using plastic sheet which were cut to size. Front portion
of wind shield was bended to give curvature, for this purpose aluminum
pipes of 15 mm diameter were used. Finally sheet was riveted to Cabin
Pipes.
Cabin Firewall is used for thermal insulation or the cabin thus providing a
safety wall between engine and cabin so that engine heat might not injure
the pilot or damage instruments inside cabin.
Galvanized iron sheet was used for this purpose as suggested by Daniel P
Raymer.
2d Truss Construction
Second main portion of fuselage fabrication was construction of rear truss, it provides
connections for Empennage assembly and is structural backbone of the aircraft,
structural analysis showed adequate strength of simple 2d truss and its ease of
construction made it an attractive choice for fabrication. Given below is the list of
members used in fabricating this part followed by the procedure of construction
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Material Used:
No.
MEMBERS
LENGTH (in)
Diameter(in)
Thickness(mm
)
FT 001
114
1.5
FT 002
116.5
1.5
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3
FT 003
23.1
1.5
FT 004
27.6
1.5
FT 005
18.8
1.5
FT 006
28.9
1.5
FT 007
15.6
1.5
FT 008
23
1.5
FT009
10.6
1.5
Members Used:
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FA001
48
0.7
FA002
48
0.7
FA 003
36
0.7
FA 004
36
0.7
Connector Used:
Connecto
r
Quantity Material
90 Clip
02
Al 6063
Assembling Procedure: Assembly was joined first with the help of 90 deg clip
connectors but they were unable to take all the loads acting on truss so to strengthen
the structure members FA001 and FA002 were used which joined the cabin roof L
beams to truss while Elements FA003 and FA004 supported the truss by connecting it
to cabin base members.
Fuel Tank Installation:
Fuel tank provides the engine with required fuel, gravity feed fuel system was used as it
is simple and easy to use there is no need of special fuel pump.
Following component complete the fuel system
I. Fuel Tank
Locally available Fuel tank of 5KVA electric generator which has 25 liter fuel
capacity was used. It is fitted with fuel level indicator.
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Material Required
S No.
member
Length
Diameter
Thickness
material
W 001
13 ft
2 in
2 mm
AL 6063
W 002
13 ft
2 in
2 mm
W 003
13 ft
2 in
2 mm
W 004
13 ft
2 in
2 mm
Rib 001
40 in
2 in
2 mm
Rib 002
40 in
2 in
2 mm
Rib 003
40 in
2 in
2 mm
Rib 004
40 in
2 in
2 mm
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9
Rib 005
40 in
2 in
2 mm
10
Rib 006
40 in
2 in
2 mm
11
40 in
15 mm
2 mm
12
46.2 in
15 mm
2 mm
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Connectors Used:
S No.
1
2
3
4
5
Connectors Used
MS pipes 5 ft long
90 clip
Airfoil ring connectors
U bolts (dia 8mm grade 12.9)
Allen bolts(dia 6mm length 2.5in grade 12.9)
Quantity
2
12
28
8
36
Material
Mild Steel
AL 6063
Mild Steel
Carbon Steel
Carbon Steel
The aircrafts wing span was calculated to be 28ft. however; 14ft aluminum pipes were
not available in the market. As a result 13ft pipes were bought and to join then a 5ft Mild
steel pipe was snugly inserted into the two pipes. This meant that a 1.5ft MS pipe was
inserted into each Spar.
The two main spars were connected with 6 ribs of AL diameter 2 inch while 14 15mm
ribs were also attached. The positioning of the 2 in Ribs was done to accommodate the
control system pulley besides providing strength to the wing. The 2 in ribs were
connected with clip joints and were bolted. Riveting was also an option but since the
aircraft had to be transported to Risalpur therefore Bolts were given preference.
Next Step was the bending of pipe into airfoil shape. For this purpose a full scale airfoil
shape was taken from plotter. Next this shape was cut onto a card board. This template
was given to the pipe bender who accurately bent 14 pipes according to the template.
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Airfoils were connected to main wing spars using specially designed ring connectors
which gave not only ease of installation of rib but also came up as strong and light
weight solution to the problem
Pictures:
Full wing
MS pipe
Clip connector
Welded connector
U bolts
Jig
Empennage Assembly
Empennage
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Horizontal Tail
Horizontal stabilizer is an integral part of any airplane it provides stability to the aircraft
and prevents it from going into spin. As before the material required is tabulated
followed by the joints required and then the fabrication process is mentioned
MATERIAL REQUIRED
S.no
member
Length
(in)
Diameter
(in)
Thickness
(mm)
HT 001 (i)
24
1.5
HT 001 (ii)
24
1.5
HT 002 (i)
29
1.5
HT 002 (ii)
29
1.5
HT 003 (i)
34
1.5
HT 003 (ii)
34
1.5
HT 004
114
1.5
HT 005 (i)
59
1.5
HT 005 (ii)
59
1.5
Qty
Material
AL 6063
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AL 6063
90 clip
AL 6063
Angle clip
AL 6063
40
Carbon Steel
MS Struts
Mild Steel
During Horizontal tail construction it was of utmost importance that the horizontal tail be
kept symmetric. So that during flight the aircraft wont tilt to one side.
At first the 90 clips were attached to HT 004. Afterwards members HT001, HT002,
HT003 were cut accurately and joined with the angle clip to HT 004. During this entire
process it was necessary that the members should be kept perpendicular to HT 004 for
this reason a triangle was kept with the connecting members.
After assembling the horizontal tail a pendulum was used to confirm the symmetry of
the Horizontal tail. The pendulum pointed at the midpoint of HT 004 which confirmed
that the HT is symmetric. For final test of symmetry diagonal length of the HT was
measured from both sides and was found equal.
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The horizontal tail was connected by sandwiching the horizontal stabilizer between the
L beam and plate. It was ensured that the centre of horizontal stabilizer matched the
centre of fuselage truss structure.
As these connections were not sufficient therefore they were enforced by attaching
struts to the horizontal stabilizer.
Pics
Uncut pipes at 90
Full HT
Connectors
Struts
Pendulum hanging
VERTICAL STABILIZER
Vertical stabilizer is an integral part of any airplane it provides stability to the aircraft and
prevents it from going into spin.
MATERIAL REQUIRED
S.n
member Length
Diameter
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o
(in)
(in)
VT 001
18
1.5
VT 002
22
1.5
VT 003
26
1.5
VT 004
64
1.5
VT 005
49.5
1.5
AL 6063
Qty Material
AL 6063
AL 6063
90 clip
AL 6063
Angle clip
AL 6063
Carbon Steel
Horizontal tail fabrication was relatively easy first we joined members with 90 clips at a
distance of 18 in from centre to centre. Afterwards the pipes were cut to size and joined
using angle connectors. It should be remembered that the members were cut at an
angle to fit them in the vertical stabilizer.
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The vertical tail was attached to the truss structure by using two plates of dimension 6x6
in front and by using a 90 connector and 2 L beams at the rear.
Control Surfaces
Four control surfaces were to be fabricated: elevators, ailerons, flaps and rudder. The
construction of control surfaces was relatively easy.
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Ailerons
MATERIAL REQUIRED
S.no
member
Length
(in)
Diameter
(in)
Thickness
(mm)
AL 001 (i)
60
1.5
AL 001 (ii)
60
1.5
AL 002 (i)
60
1.5
AL 002 (ii)
60
1.5
AL 003 (Qty 6)
18
1.5
material
AL 6063
JOINTS USED
Joints Used
Qty
Material
90 clip
12
AL 6063
36
Carbon Steel
The construction of Ailerons was straight forward the Connectors centre was placed at
a distance of 30in from each other. While joining the AL 003 members to AL 001
members it is suggested that first the connector should be placed at the marked position
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and checked for its perpendicularity with member AL 001. Even a slight mishap in this
case would render the whole Aileron useless. Once the AL 003 members have been
joined with AL 001 the members should then be joined with AL 002 members if the
procedure is correctly followed the AL 003 members should automatically come
perpendicular to AL 002.
Flaps
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MATERIAL REQUIRED
S.no
Member
Length
(in)
Diameter
(in)
Thickness
(mm)
FL 001
90
1.5
FL 002
90
1.5
FL 003
90
1.5
FL 004
90
1.5
FL 005 (Qty 8)
18
1.5
material
AL 6063
JOINTS USED
Joints Used
Qty
Material
90 clip
16
AL 6063
AL 6063
48
Carbon Steel
For flaps it was necessary that the flap leading edge be a single piece as it was to be
connected with control system. This would ensure equal and timed movement of the
entire flap. To achieve this Aluminum pipe was bought whose internal diameter was 1.5
inch and hence the two FL 001 members would snugly fit into the pipe both the
members were inserted 1 ft into the Aluminum pipe.
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Once through with the leading edge of the flap rest of the procedure is same with the
connectors joined at a distance of 30 inch from each other and perpendicular to the FL
001 and FL 002.
Rudder
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MATERIAL REQUIRED
S.no
member
Length
(in)
Diameter
(in)
Thickness
(mm)
RR 001
1.5
RR 002
15
1.5
RR 003
21
1.5
RR 004
60
1.5
VT 005
61.34
1.5
material
AL 6063
JOINTS USED
Joints Used
Qty
Material
90 clip
AL 6063
Angle clip
AL 6063
18
Carbon Steel
Rudder fabrication is similar to Vertical stabilizer construction the 90 clips are placed at
a distance of 29 inch from centre to centre. Rest it should be kept in mind that a triangle
should be used while fixing the 90 clip.
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Elevator
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MATERIAL REQUIRED
S.no
member
Length
(in)
Diameter
(in)
Thickness
(mm)
EL 001 (Qty 2)
11
1.5
EL 002 (Qty 2)
15.25
1.5
EL 003 (Qty 2)
32
1.5
EL 004 (Qty 2)
21
1.5
EL 005 (Qty 2)
50
1.5
material
AL 6063
JOINTS USED
Joints Used
Qty
Material
90 clip
AL 6063
AL 6063
AL 6063
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Carbon Steel
Since the hinges designed for the movement of control surfaces did not allow for a
single elevator therefore the two elevators had to be fabricated. The first 90 clip was
positioned at the end while the second was placed at a distance of 20 inch from the
centre of the first.
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Although the lengths stated above are accurate but it is highly suggested that the angle
pipes be kept a bit longer and later cut down after fixing the members. Again it is
imperative that both the elevators be kept symmetric.
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Component
LENGTH (in)
LR001
45
LR002
45
LR003
50
LR004
50
Diameter(in)
Thickness(mm) Material
Mild Steel
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Tires Used:
No. Tire
Diameter(in) Thickness(In
)
TR01 14
TR02 14
TR03
Material
Feature
Lock mechanism
Shock absorber:
No. Tire
1
SA01
SA02
Spring
Constant
NA
NA
800
Fabrication Process:
I. Main landing Gear
a) Connecting Members: In main landing gear design four (04) connecting
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b) Tires: Two tires were selected for main landing gear design, for this
purpose local market survey was done to find the closest match to our
designed landing gear tires. Finally tires were obtained which met the
design specifications and also incorporated the feature of in build shoe
brake system for ground brake purposes These tires were welded to
landing gear rods to ensure strong joints.
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CONCLUSION
Full detail design of the aircraft was carried out which would ensure the integrity of the
aircraft. Every possible aspect of design was taken care off from the selection of Bolt
size to installation of aircraft engine. Due to shortage of time the fabrication could not be
completed. However, the most important part of fabrication, aircraft structure, was fully
completed. Material for aircraft covering and controls has also been acquired while the
propeller has also been fabricated. The entire fabrication process was carried out using
the most economical resources and it was proven that an aircraft can be fabricated in
Pakistan using local resources and that too at an extremely low cost.
It is suggested that this project be continued. Inshallah by next semester this project
would be fully completed and CAE would be able to claim that its students have
successfully designed and flown their own aircraft.
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