APPENDIX 1

TABLES OF DATA SOURCES

Table A1.1 Geometric details of annuli studied

Outer
diameter
(mm)
Inner
diameter
(mm)
Eccenticity Parameters measured
Griffith (1964) 51 17.8, 12.3,
5.9
0 u
TB

Rader et al. (1975) 141, 51 66, 32 0 u
TB

Jensen and Mannov (1974),
Wurtz(1978),
Andersen and Wurtz (1981)
26 17 0 dp/dz, film flow rate,
film thickness, wave
velocity/frequency
Sadatomi et al. (1982) 30 15 0 u
TB

Furukawa and Sekoguchi (1986) 26 20, 16, 10 0 FP,
g
(r)
Kelessidis and Dukler (1989, 1990) 76 51 0,0.5 FP, u
TB

Caetano et al. (1992) 76 44 0, 1 FP,
g
, dp/dz
Hasan and Kabir (1992) 127 48, 57, 87 0 u
TB

Hills and Chety (1998) 140 22 0 u
TB

Das et al. (1998, 1999, 2002) 51, 38, 25 25, 12.7 0 FP, u
TB

Kamei and Serizawa (1998) 30 15 0 Film thickness, wave
frequency

280

Table A1.2a Data from experiments in bends

Source Pipe
diameter
(mm)
Bend radius
(mm)
Bend angle and
Direction
Parameters measured
Golan and Stenning
(1969)
38 115 180 V/V (U,
invU)
Flow patterns
Gardner and Neller
(1969)
90 VupH
George (1971) 13 65 180 H/H (Vup) Flow patterns
Anderson and Hills
(1974)
25 305 180 invU Film thickness,
local drop distribution
Maddocks et al.
(1974)
25 51, 127, 254 30, 45, 60, 90
VupH
Film thickness, film
flow rate , local drop
distribution
Chakrabati (1976) 25 305 180 H/H (H) Film thickness,
local drop distribution
Balfour and Pearce
(1978)
25 485 180 H/H (H) Film flow distribution
Usui et al (1980) 16
24
90, 132.5
180, 135
180 H/H (Vup) Pressure drop
Usui et al (1981) 16
24
90, 132.5,
180, 135
180 H/H (Vdown)
Usui et al (1983) 180 V/V (invU)
Hoang and Davies
(1984)
51 51, 76 180 V/V (invU) Local gas velocity,
void fraction and
bubble sizes
Takemura et al
(1986)
18 116
435
180 V/V (U,
invU)
Flow patterns,
pressure drop, dryout
Yu et al (1989) 44 220 180 H/H (Vup,
Vdown, H)
Local void fraction
Poulson (1991) 13
22.6
39, 95
56.5
180 H/H (Vup) Erosion, mass transfer
Usui (1992, 1993) 24 144 180 H/H (Vup,
Vdown, H)
Local film flow rate,
film thickness
Azzi et al. (2000,
2005)
30 120, 180,
240, 300
90 VupH Pressure drop
Sakamoto et al.
(2004)
24 135 180 H/H (Vup,
45 up, H)
Local film thickness,
drop flow rate


281
Table A1.2b Data from experiments in coils

Source Pipe
diameter
(mm)
Coil diameter
(mm)
Fluids Parameters measured
Rippel et al (1966) 11 200 Air/water,
helium/water,
R12/water, air/2-
propanol
Void fraction, pressure
gradient
Boyce et al.
(1969)
25 300, 750,
1500, 3000
Air/water Flow patterns, void
fraction, pressure
gradient
Banerjee et al.
(1969)
15, 55 150, 225, 300,
450, 600
Air/water, air/Esso
S11295, air/ Esso
S11655
Flow patterns, void
fraction, pressure
gradient
Anglesea et al.
(1974)
12.7 580, 1320,
2360
Steam/water 179 bar. Pressure gradient
Pearce (1979b) 12 610, 1200 Air/water Variation of film
thickness, film flow
rate
Whalley (1980) 20 1000 Air/water Variation of film
thickness, film flow
rate


APPENDIX 2
















A number of the exercises in the following pages are based on the system steam-water at 20 bar. For
convenience, the necessary physical properties of this system are listed together on this sheet. When
significant pressure changes are encountered, outlet values may differ from those given here, and
steam tables should be consulted.

Temperature = 212

l
= 849.3 kg m
-3

g
= 9.997 kg m
-3
.

l
= 1.270x10
-4
kg m
-1
s
-1

g
= 1.603x10
-5
kg m
-1
s
-1

h
l
= 910.7 kJ kg
-1
h
g
= 2797 kJ kg
-1

c
Pl
= 4.563 kJ kg
-1
K
-1
c
Pg
= 3.087 kJ kg
-1
K
-1

= 0.03501 N m
-1



CHAPTER 2

2.1. A steam-water mixture flows in a 1" (0.0381 m) vertical pipe at a pressure of 20 bar. The
mass flux is 500 kg/m
2
s and the mass quality 0.2.
a) Calculate the void fraction and mean density using homogeneous flow theory. Data
for steam-water at 20 bar are given above. [Ans: 0.955, 47.7 kg m
-3
]
b) Repeat the calculation for a mass quality of 0.01 [Ans: 0.462, 461.7 kg m
-3
]


2.2. (i) Repeat the calculation of question 1(a) using:
a) Chisholm's equation, Equation (2.41). [Ans: 0.834, 149.1 kg m
-3
]
b) The CISE correlation, Equation (2.43). [Ans: 0.885, 106.1 kg m
-3
]

(ii) Repeat the calculations of question 1(b) using Chisholm's equation, Equation
(2.41). [Ans: 0.388, 524.0 kg m
-3
]

284
2.3. The pipe of question 1(a) is 10 m long, and the inlet pressure is 20 bar. Calculate the
pressure loss in (a) horizontal and (b) vertically upward flow, using the Friedel correlation
(Equations 2.74 to 2.79) for the two-phase multiplier and the CISE correlation (Equation
(2.43)) for void fraction. The relative pipe roughness may be taken as 0.008, which, for
Reynolds numbers in excess of 10
5
, leads to a single-phase friction factor of 8.8x10
-3
,
independent of Re.
[Ans: (a) Horiz = 0.294 bar, (b) Vert = 0.398 bar].

2.4. A steam-water mixture flows upwards at 1516 kg m
-2
s
-1
in an electrically-heated pipe 1"
(0.0381 m) in diameter and 24 ft (7.315 m) long. Inlet pressure is 86.2 bar and exit mass
quality 0.04866. The total heat input is 114.6 kW, and is distributed uniformly along the
tube. The tube has a relative roughness of 0.002, giving a single-phase friction factor of
5.9x10
-3
at Re > 10
5
. The following physical property data may be assumed:


l
= 712 kg m
-3

g
= 46.1 kg m
-3


l
= 9.115x10
-5
kg m
-1
s
-1

g
= 1.965 10
-5
kg m
-1
s
-1

h
l
= 1347 kJ kg
-1
h
g
= 2751 kJ kg
-1

= 0.0143 N m
-1


Calculate the expected pressure drop, and compare your calculated value with the
experimentally determined 0.505 bar. Use CISE for the gravitational term and Friedel for the
frictional term, and use suitable averaging to allow for the variation of quality along the tube.
[Ans: 0.594 bar]


CHAPTER 3

3.1. 0.5 kg/s of a water-steam mixture flows at 20 bar pressure up a vertical tube of diameter 1"
(0.0254 m). Using the Hewitt and Roberts flow pattern map (Fig. A2.1) determine the flow
pattern to be expected when the mass quality is:

(a) x
g
= 1% and
(b) x
g
= 20%.
(c) Sketch on the map how the operating point would vary if the mass flow rate was
steadily increased at a constant mass quality of 1%.
(d) If 0.5 kg/s of mixture flows up a 1" pipe, what is the minimum quality to avoid the
possibility of pulsating flow (plug/slug or churn)? [Ans: 0.032]

3.2. Repeat 1(a) to (d) on the map of Owen (Fig. A2.2). [Ans for (d): 0.064]

3.3. Repeat 1 (a) to (d) if the pipe is horizontal, using the Baker map. (Fig. A2.3)
A version with log-log grid is attached. [Ans for (d): 0.028]
On Fig. A2.3:


1
2
g
l
air water
=

| |
|
|
\ .


and
285

1
3 2
water l water
water l
=

| |
(
|
(
|
(

\ .


where
air
= 1.23 kg/m
3
,
water
= 1000 kg/m
3
,
water
= 10
-3
kg/ms and
water
= 0.072 N/m.


Hewitt and Roberts (1969)
Annular 'W ispy' Annular
Churn
Slug
Bubbly

u
l l
2
kg.m .s
-1 -2

u
g






g
2
k
g
.
m


.
s
-
1
-
2
10
-1
10
0
10
0
10
1
10
1
10
2
10
2
10
3
10
3
10
4
10
4
10
5
10
6
Owen (1986)
Annular
'W ispy' Annular
Churn
Slug
Bubbly
Churn/Annular

u
l l
2
kg.m .s
-1 -2

u
g


g
2
k
g
.
m


.
s
-
1
-
2
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
-1
10
0
10
4
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
-2






Baker (1954)
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
D ispersed
Annular
Slug
Bubble
or
Froth
Plug
Stratified
m
.
m
.
g
l

m
.
g
/

l
b

h



f
t
-
1
-
2



















286
CHAPTER 4

4.1. Construct a vertical flow pattern map (log u
gs
vs log u
ls
coordinates) for steam/water at 20 bar
in (a) a 0.0254 m pipe and (b) a 0.1 m pipe using the following equations from the notes.

(i) Annular flow occurs for Ku > 3.1 (Equation (4.42) or u
g
* > 1 (Equation (4.43)), with C =
1 as suggested), whichever is the smaller.
(ii) Slug flow occurs for
g
> 0.25 (ie u
ls
less than the value given by Equation (4.6) at low
gas velocities, and at values of u
ls
less than given by Equation (4.16) at high gas velocities).
(iii) Outside these areas, the flow is Bubbly provided that
g
< 0.52 as suggested by Taitel et
al. (This leads to Equation (4.6) with 3 u
gs
replaced by 0.923 u
gs
, since the coefficient is
given by (1 -
g
)/
g
.)
(iv) The remaining region is Churn Flow.

Locate the points (a) and (b) from Question 3.1 on your map, and compare your predictions
with Hewitt & Roberts and with Owen. Try the same mass fluxes and mass qualities in the
0.1 m pipe. Are the flow regimes the same?


CHAPTER 5

5.1. Calculate the void fraction and mean density for a steam-water mixture flowing up a 1"
(0.0381 m) vertical pipe at a pressure of 20 bar. The mass flux is 500 kg/m
2
s and the mass
quality 0.01. Use the Drift flux model, eqn (3.51) with Zuber & Findlay's values for C
0
and
v
gd
. [Ans: 0.352, 554.1 kg m
-3
]


CHAPTER 6

6.1. A water tube boiler consists of 200 tubes, 0.0126 m internal diameter, 3.66 m long. The
water feed rate is 122.4 tonnes/hr and at 69 bar with 31
o
C of subcooling. What is the quality
at the end of the tube if the heat flux is 0.994 MW/m
2
? The fraction of liquid entrained at
this point is 0.5. What are the rates (fluxes) of entrainment and deposition at the end of the
tube?

Properties:

Vapour Liquid
Density (kg/m
3
) 35.8 742.1
Specific heat (J/kgK) 5239 5404
Viscosity (Ns/m
2
) 19 96.4
Thermal conductivity (W/mK) 0.063 0.564
Surface tension (N/m) 0.0179
Latent heat (MJ/kg) 1.51
Saturation temperature (
o
C) 284

ANSWER: 0.45; 1.12 kg/m
2
s; 0.498 kg/m
2
s

287
6.2. Describe the important mechanisms which might affect the rate (flux) of deposition of drops,
entrained in the gas core of a vertical upward annular flow, onto the film covering the
channel walls. Define the deposition mass transfer coefficient.

An experiment to measure mass transfer coefficients for air water flowing in a 0.032 m
diameter vertical tube uses a water feed rate of 0.0255 kg/s and an air feed rate of 0.054 kg/s.
If the film is sucked off 3 m from the feed point and again 0.54 m further down stream, what
is the deposition mass transfer coefficient if the liquid flow rates measured are 0.0177 kg/s
and 0.0023 kg/s respectively?

The gas densities can be taken as 1.8 kg/m
3
.
ANSWER: 0.193 m/s

6.3. A water tube boiler consists of 200 tubes, 0.0126 m internal diameter, 3.66 m long. The
water feed rate is 122.4 tonnes/hr and at 69 bar with 31
o
C of subcooling. What is the quality
at the end of the tube if the heat flux is 0.994 MW/m
2
? The fraction of liquid entrained at
this point is 0.5. What are the rates (fluxes) of entrainment and deposition at the end of the
tube?

Properties:

Vapour Liquid
Density (kg/m
3
) 35.8 742.1
Specific heat (J/kgK) 5239 5404
Viscosity (Ns/m
2
) 19 96.4
Thermal conductivity (W/mK) 0.063 0.564
Surface tension (N/m) 0.0179
Latent heat (MJ/kg) 1.51
Saturation temperature (
o
C) 284

ANSWER: 0.45; 1.12 kg/m
2
s; 0.498 kg/m
2
s

4. Describe the important mechanisms which might affect the rate (flux) of deposition of drops,
entrained in the gas core of a vertical upward annular flow, onto the film covering the
channel walls. Define the deposition mass transfer coefficient.

An experiment to measure mass transfer coefficients for air water flowing in a 0.032 m
diameter vertical tube uses a water feed rate of 0.0255 kg/s and an air feed rate of 0.054 kg/s.
If the film is sucked off 3 m from the feed point and again 0.54 m further down stream, what
is the deposition mass transfer coefficient if the liquid flow rates measured are 0.0177 kg/s
and 0.0023 kg/s respectively?
The gas densities can be taken as 1.8 kg/m
3
.
ANSWER: 0.193 m/s


CHAPTER 9

9.1. Steam and water at 20 bar flow through a 100 mm diameter pipe at a mass flow rate of 3.93
kg/s with a mass quality of 0.2. The pipe contains three bends of radius 300 mm in the
horizontal plain. There are 10 m of straight pipe before each bend and 20 m after the last
288
bend. Calculate the pressure drop. For the bend, k
lo
can be taken to be = 0.1. [Ans: 6866
N/m
2
.]

9.2. The same flow as in Question 1 passes through a sudden enlargement from 100 mm to 150
mm diameter. Calculate the pressure change, using (a) Single phase flow plus Simpsons
multiplier, Equation (9.38); (b) The separated two-phase flow model (Equation (9.22)) and
the homogeneous void fraction; (c) The separated two phase flow model and the CISE void
fraction.
[Ans: (a) 789 N m
-2
; (b) 827 N m
-2
;(c) 741 N m
-2
- all gains (pressure recovery)]


CHAPTER 10

10.1. Vertical annular flow approaches a T junction constructed from 0.051m diameter pipes at
which 20% of the gas is taken off through the side arm. The system pressure is 3 bar.
What is the fraction of liquid taken off calculated using the method of:

(a) Shoham et al
(b) Azzopardi

The gas flow rate is 0.191 kg/s and the liquid flowrate is 0.118 kg/s.
For the Shoham et al. method a film thickness of 3.95 10
-4
m has been calculated. For
the Azzopardi method you can assume an entrained fraction of 0.523 and a film thickness
of 1.92 10
-4
m.

Physical properties are:

Property Gas Liquid
Density (kg/m
3
) 3.6 1000
Viscosity (kg/ms) 0.001 0.000018
Surface Tension (N/m) 0.072

What other mechanisms might affect the flow split?

ANSWER: (a) 0.299; (b) 0.194















289
0 0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Fraction of gas taken off
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

t
o

d
i
v
i
d
i
n
g

s
t
r
e
a
m
l
i
n
e
A















1




0 0.5 1 1.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Dimensionless distance to dividing streamline
A
n
g
l
e

s
u
b
t
e
n
d
e
d

(
r
a
d
)
B











2





0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Fraction of Gas Taken Off
A
n
g
l
e

S
u
b
t
e
n
d
e
d

(
r
a
d
)
C