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A Gendered Analysis of Promotional Issues in Higher Education:
A Case Study of University of Ghana, Legon

Hannah )enedicta *a+lor-,-dulai
'&2
.race Sintim-,dasi
'
/oshua )aa0a
'
'.,ccra Pol+technic& P. ". )o1 5!'& ,ccra 2 .hana
2.3epartment o0 Social and )eha4ioural Sciences& 5ni4ersit+ o0 .hana& 6egon
7 8orresponding author9 h-ta:#;gmail.com

Astract
*he aim o0 the stud+ was to del4e into promotional issues o0 0acult+ in tertiar+ institutions using the 5ni4ersit+
o0 .hana& 6egon as a case stud+ with a 0ocus on ran< at recruitment and current position o0 0acult+. 3ata were
collected using a com-ination o0 structured =uestionnaires and in-depth inter4iews among '42 0acult+ made up
o0 :: women and '#( men. *he 0indings o0 this stud+ indicate that the male 0acult+ were recruited with higher
=uali0ication than their 0emale counterparts and the+ tend to rise up the academic ladder 0aster than their 0emale
counterpart. >hat accounted 0or these di00erences are the role mentors ha4e pla+ed in their academic careers and
the 0act that the+ ha4e stronger support networ<s than their 0emale 0acult+ and ha4e had mentors in the -eginning
o0 their pro0essional career through in0ormal mentors who mentored them. *he 0emale 0acult+ descri-ed
e1periences indicating that the+ were more 4ulnera-le to su-tle discrimination practices than male 0acult+.
!eys"ords: .ender& glass ceiling& ran<& recruitment& promotion& institutional -arriers& leadership

#$ Introduction
.hanaian women o4er the last 0ew decades ha4e attained educational le4els compara-le to those o0 men in man+
countries. Prah?s (2##2) stud+ in 5ni4ersit+ o0 8ape 8oast (588) re4eals an increase in the enrolment o0
0emales in most 0aculties in the 5ni4ersit+ o0 8ape 8oast and population o0 women 0acult+ in the uni4ersit+ o0
.hana shows an increase in the num-er o0 0emale 0acult+. *he introduction o0 a00irmation action in the
5ni4ersit+ o0 .hana& 6egon has e=uall+ seen an increase in 0emale enrolment in ma@orit+ o0 the 0aculties
(8ongregation )rochureA Barch 2##!).
In spite o0 the strides achie4ed& women in the teaching pro0ession in higher education 0ace similar
o-stacles to those in other sectors in terms o0 academic preparation& training& recruitment& opportunit+ 0or
pu-lication& leadership and promotion descri-ed in 8ann et al& '(('A "?6ear+ and Bitchell& '((#A )agilhole&
('((:)A Prah (2##2)& >irth (2##2) and *a+lor?s (2##:) wor<.
Prah (2##2) stud+ shows that women occup+ the -ottom o0 the p+ramid& disproportionatel+ occup+ing
the more @unior and less prestigious positions and this is no di00erent 0rom that o0 5ni4ersit+ o0 .hana and other
institutions o0 higher education in .hana. In .hana& until recentl+ no 0emale (apart 0rom 0ormer %ice
8hancellor o0 588) had risen to the %ice 8hancellorship position. *he a4erage percentage o0 0emale academic
sta00 in the three oldest .hanaian uni4ersities in the '(!#s& C#s& C$#s& and C(#s was ''& (& (& and ': percent
respecti4el+ (Prah& 2##2).
Studies concerning women in education ha4e 0ocused on teachers at the -asic le4el and tend to loo< at
their con0licting roles as mothers and wor<ers& without loo<ing at institutional -arriers that sti0le their progress.
Dor instance& Prah?s (2##2) stud+ was on the 4isi-ilit+ o0 0emale 0acult+ and administrati4e sta00 and the
pro-lems the+ 0ace in 588. *he stud+ was limited to a sample siEe o0 '' and did not include male 0acult+ e4en
though it was titled gender issues in higher education. *his stud+ there0ore augmented Prah?s wor< -+ del4ing
into promotional issues and adopting a gendered anal+sis to identi0+ what might -e descri-ed as a Fglass ceilingG
-+ comparing the progress o0 -oth women and men in their academic careers.

2. Aim of the study
*he aim o0 this paper is to use a gendered lens to compare the progression o0 0acult+ and identi0+ the challenges
-oth gender go through in pursuit o0 a career in higher education.

3. Methods
*he 4arious Daculties& Schools and Institutes in the 5ni4ersit+ o0 .hana were put into clusters& respondents were
chosen 0rom all the clusters& through simple random sampling a0ter strati0+ing 0or genderA 2# percent o0 the
population o0 0acult+ was selected -ased on the proportion o0 -oth 0emale and male 0aculties. *he stud+ was
descripti4e cross sectional using a mi1ed method to collect data. Huantitati4e methods too< the 0orm o0
administration o0 =uestionnaires to '42 0acultiesA made up o0 :: 0emale and '#( male 0aculties. ,nal+ses o0
these were purel+ descripti4e using 0re=uencies. *he =ualitati4e method too< the 0orm o0 in-depth inter4iews
with '# 0acultiesA 0i4e 0emales and 0i4e male were purposi4el+ selected 0or the inter4iew. 5sing content anal+sis&
themes were de4eloped -ased on the research =uestions.
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4. Theoretical Framework
*his stud+ 0ocuses on data that illustrates women?s in4ol4ement in uni4ersit+ li0e. It adapted /o+celin Bassiah?s
('((:) gender anal+sis 0ramewor< de4eloped as the 0oundation 0or esta-lishing indicators 0or planning 0or
women in the 8ari--ean. *he 0ramewor< loo<s at the 4isi-ilit+ o0 women& since the premise or underpinning is
that women are not 4isi-le.Bassiah?s anal+tical 0ramewor< is -ased on three assumptions9
'. >omen and the roles the+ pla+ ha4e traditionall+ -een accorded lower status than men. Related to the
assumption is the proposition that women -ear an une=ual share o0 social reproduction wor< in relation
to menA and that producti4e wor< in e1change 0or cash& in which men are in4ol4ed to a greater e1tent
than women& is accorded higher status than the social reproducti4e wor< o0 women.
2. >omen?s wor< includes economic and non-economic acti4ities& -oth o0 which tend to -e downpla+ed
or ignored. *hus women& their acti4ities& their pro-lems& and their concerns remain largel+ in4isi-le to
polic+-ma<ers& planners& and o0ten& to women themsel4es.
:. *he in4isi-ilit+ o0 women emanate directl+ 0rom a gender ideolog+ which adheres to a hierarchical and
as+mmetrical di4ision o0 la-our in 0a4our o0 males which is mani0ested in 4arious wa+s and in di00erent
spheres o0 acti4it+ (Bassiah '((: cited in Prah 2##2).
*hese assumptions together produce 0i4e interrelated t+pes o0 4isi-ilit+& operati4e at three di00erent
le4els& each o0 which is a precondition 0or achie4ing a higher le4el. Bo4ement 0rom lower to higher le4els in not
necessaril+ unilinear& -ut the direction o0 the mo4ement represents a mo4e 0rom recognition o0 the e1istence o0
gender disad4antage to action designed to reduce or eliminate that disad4antage. *he le4els o0 4isi-ilit+ and the
relationships -etween them are presented in Digure '9
Digure '9 Relationships -etween 6e4els o0 %isi-ilit+.

Source9 Bassiah ('((:) cited in Prah (2##2).

Level #: Conce%tual and Su&ective 'isiility
Bassiah designated this phase as the 0irst and -asic le4el o0 4isi-ilit+ and consists o0 two t+pes o0 4isi-ilit+.
,ccording to Bassiah& and cited in Prah (2##2) conceptual 4isi-ilit+ represents the perception o0 e1ternal
o-ser4ers that a particular se1 is su-@ect to gender disad4antage. *his is e4ident in what has come to -e accepted
as gender ideolog+ o0 societ+& the e1tent to which that ideolog+ is enunciated and the wa+ in which it operates.
In our .hanaian societ+ there is a perception out there that women are less superior than man at the wor< place.
Su-@ecti4e 4isi-ilit+ re0lects the recognition -+ indi4iduals themsel4es o0 the e00ects o0 gender domination on
their own attitudes& -eha4iour& material and emotional circumstances. *he di00erence -etween the two t+pes o0
4isi-ilit+ is essentiall+ one o0 perceptions.

Level (: )heoretical and Statistical 'isiility
*he second le4el Bassiah postulates as consisting o0 theoretical and statistical 4isi-ilit+ made possi-le -+ the
generation and anal+sis o0 =uantitati4e and =ualitati4e data. *his le4el o0 4isi-ilit+ stems directl+ 0rom the
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conceptual 4isi-ilit+ o0 the 0irst le4el. It ma<es possi-le the identi0ication o0 trends& patterns o0 gender
domination and e1plains the mechanisms which perpetuate that domination. *he process o0 understanding how
the gender s+stem operates and what <inds o0 action ma+ -e needed in order to minimiEe elements o0
disad4antage -egins here. Dindings 0rom stud+ ha4e -een -rought to -ear on this le4el o0 4isi-ilit+.

Level *: Socio+Economic,Political and -omestic 'isiility
*he third and 0inal le4el which consists o0 two t+pes o0 4isi-ilit+ has -een descri-ed -+ Bassiah as the socio-
economicIpolitical and the domestic. ,ccording to Bassiah and cited in Prah (2##2)& socio-economic 4isi-ilit+
deri4es 0rom increasing the power resources o0 the disad4antaged& 0rom the remo4al o0 legal and political
-arriers to ad4ancement and 0rom the introduction o0 social policies designed to create an en4ironment 0ree o0
gender domination. *his t+pe o0 4isi-ilit+ 0lows directl+ 0rom action at the indi4idual and the household le4el. It
is re0lected in a changing s+stem o0 gender relations in which male and 0emale roles are structured in a more
egalitarian manner than pre4iousl+. *his is what in academia is descri-ed as meritorious en4ironment. *his le4el
o0 4isi-ilit+ 0lows directl+ 0rom the conceptual and su-@ecti4e and indirectl+ 0rom the theoretical and statistical.
,0ter the di00erent t+pes and le4els o0 4isi-ilit+ ha4e -een identi0ied& the =uestion o0 distinguishing pro-lems
arises. ,s Prah (2##2) indicates& some groups o0 women ma+ -e readil+ identi0ied -+ con4entional statistics. )ut
in the a-sence o0 micro-le4el research& their pro-lems& needs and concerns remain in4isi-le. In e00ect& a group
ma+ ha4e achie4ed a limited amount o0 statistical 4isi-ilit+ (6e4el 2) -ut without the identi0ication and
articulation o0 their pro-lems& and the introduction o0 mechanisms to sol4e them& the chances o0 mo4ing up to
6e4el : 4isi-ilit+ is slim (Bassiah '((:9 2( cited in Prah 2##2).
*o situate the conceptual 0ramewor< within the perspecti4e o0 the stud+& it has -een argue that there
are institutions in .hana that ha4e tried through some polic+ direction to -ridge the gender di00erential in
education and that could -e classi0ied to some e1tent as conceptual 4isi-ilit+. *he choice o0 the research topic
and the 0act that some o0 the researched recogniEe the e00ects o0 gender domination in their li4es correspond to
su-@ecti4e 4isi-ilit+. *his stud+ identi0ies the relationship -etween the statistical 4isi-ilit+ and trends o0 gender
domination at 5ni4ersit+ o0 .hana& 6egon through an e1amination and interpretation o0 rele4ant statistics (6e4el
2) in presenting the pro-lems and concerns o0 women and men academics.

5. Presentations of Findings
*his paper loo<s at institutional -arriers in the conte1t o0 promotion and leadership roles o0 0acult+ o0 the
5ni4ersit+ o0 .hana& 6egon. *he proceeding sections discuss the 0indings o0 the research.

5.1 ualification at recruitment
In academia& recruitment is -ased on merit and uni4ersities loo< out 0or potential 0acult+ who are poised 0or
academic e1cellence and read+ 0or the rigorous nature o0 academic li0e. *o understand the wa+ 0aculties ha4e
progressed o4er the period& the stud+ sought to 0ind out the =uali0ication at recruitment. "0 the :: 0emale 0acult+
mem-ers& ::.: percent were
4
B,I66BIB),IBD,IBS8 holders as at the time o0 recruitment as compared to
2#.' percent male 0acult+A *he degree held -+ 0acult+ mem-ers pea<s at B.Phil 0or -oth genderA 0emale 0acult+
were 42.4 percent as compared to 4#.4 percent o0 their male counterpart. Respondents with the highest degree at
recruitment which is Ph3& Ph3 with B3 and BPH was the ne1t highest 0re=uenc+ 0or -oth genderA 0emale
0acult+ mem-ers with Ph3 and male 0acult+ mem-ers with the same =uali0ication were 2'.: and :$.5 percent
respecti4el+& an indication that there are more =uali0ied male than there are 0emale 0acult+ mem-ers. , t+pical
re0lection o0 what pre4ails in .hanaian higher institutions. *a-le ' depicts the data o0 =uali0ication at recruitment.


4
B,JBaster o0 ,rts& 66BJBaster o0 6aw& BS8JBasters in Science& B),JBasters in )usiness
,dministration& B3JBedical 3octor& BPHJ Basters in Pu-lic Health

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)ale #: .ualification And /an0
H5,6IDI8,*I"N ,N3 R,NK Demale NJ:: Bale NJ'#(
PLR8LN* PLR8LN*
-egree at recruitment
B,I66BIBS8IB),IBD,IB3MBPH
B.PHI6
PH3IB3MBPHMPH3
"*HLRS

::.:
42.4
2'.:
:.#

2#.'
4#.4
:$.5
'.4
/an0 at recruitment
*utor
,ssistant lecturer
6ecturerIRes. Dellow
Senior 6ecturerISenior Res. Dellow

'5.#
!.#
5.$
:.#

2.$
.:
$.2
2.2
Current degree held of res%ondents
B,I66BIBS8IB),IBD,IB3MBPH
B.PHI6
PH3IB3MBPHMPH3
"thers
Current ran0
*utor
,ssistant lecturer
6ecturerIRes. Dellow
Senior 6ecturerISenior Res. Dellow
,ssociate pro0essor
Pro0essor
1o$ of years on current ran0

'5.#
:#.:
4$.5
!.'

!.'
:.#
45.4
42.4
-
:.#


5.5
:#.:
!'.5
#.(

2.$
#.(
5.$
2.5
5.5
5.5
"ne 2 0our +ears
Di4e 2 nine +ears
*en and more +ears
!#.
2$.!
'#.

4#.!
4'.!
'.$


5.1.1 !ighest "egree of res#ondents
3ata on this was collected to compare and contrast how -oth gender ha4e progressed since -eing recruited in the
uni4ersit+. *he highest degree o0 respondents is indicated in *a-le '& 0emale 0acult+ represents the highest
percentage in the lower degrees& e1cept in B3IBPHIPh3 where 0emale 0acult+ accounts 0or '5.# percent.
Demale 0acult+ who held B,I66BIBS8IB),IBD,IB3IBPH at the time o0 recruitment was ::.: percent and
currentl+ stands at '5 percent& whilst male 0acult+ accounted 0or 2#.' percent and currentl+ stands at 5.5 percent.
*his shows that there has -een impro4ement in the =uali0ication as at the time the+ were recruited and the time
o0 the stud+. *a-le ' clearl+ depicts a remar<a-le impro4ement in the =uali0ication o0 0acult+ mem-ers.
Progression o0 0acult+ suggests that comparati4el+ male 0acult+ ha4e impro4ed upon their degrees
hence the highest degree o0 male 0acult+ mem-ers o4er the +ears. >hat account 0or more male 0acult+ pursuing
higher degree compared to the 0emale 0acult+ was captured in the inter4iew with 0acult+. Some male 0acult+
opined that there are e=ual opportunities opened to -oth genders. Demale 0acult+ howe4er& were o0 the 4iew that
the situation in which the+ 0ind themsel4es does not easil+ ma<e it possi-le to ta<e up certain challenges. *his is
what a 0emale 0acult+ had to sa+ with respect to getting 0unding 0or 0urther education9
it is not easy getting funding for PhD, you need to be highly connected and especially when you have
senior members as mentors.
*he+ claimed that lac< o0 mentors and related issues limit access and sometimes pose as a -ig huddle to
their ad4ancement. "n the other hand& some women in spite o0 the challenges ha4e -een a-le to -rea< through
the Cglass ceiling? with the support o0 spouses and 0amil+ mem-ers.

5.2 Promotion $ssues
Promotion is the recognition o0 oneNs wor< through the tangi-le reward o0 mo4ing 0rom a lower positionIran< to
a higher positionIran<. "ne o0 the issues as 0ar as the glass ceiling is concerned is the lac< o0 promotion o0
0emale wor<ers in organiEations that would propel them into leadership positions. ,cademic career demands that
0acult+ mem-ers produce a certain num-er o0 scienti0ic pu-lications and within a speci0ic num-er o0 +ears
-e0ore one is =uali0ied 0or promotion. Demale 0acult+ who indicated that the+ had -een promoted -e0ore was
4!. percent& whilst 42. percent male 0acult+ said that the+ had e4er -een promoted. L4en though more 0emale
than male 0acult+ in the sample said the+ had -een promoted& it does not seem to ma<e them as 4isi-le as their
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male counterparts. ,gain& an indication that e4en though male 0acult+ 0all within the categor+ with the highest
num-er o0 scienti0ic pu-lication& not all o0 them are interested in promotions as asserted -+ some o0 them during
the inter4iews.

5.2.1 %ank at recruitment and &urrent rank
*o situate the pro-lem o0 progression o0 -oth genders it was important to loo< at how 0ar -oth genders ha4e
progressed in terms o0 promotion and what precipitated it. ,gain& *a-le ' gi4es indicate the responses. ,t the
time o0 their recruitment 0emale 0acult+ who were tutors and assistant lecturers accounted 0or a-out 2' percent
and the current ran< indicate that @ust li<e there has -een impro4ement in the =uali0ication& there is also an
impro4ement in the ran<& currentl+ at (.' percent and :. percent 0or male 0acult+& in deed& a remar<a-l+ 4ertical
impro4ement. *he highest ran< pea<s at lectureship and senior lectureship positions. >hat account 0or this
progression has -een pu-lishing papers 2 there is a sa+ing in academic that Ci0 +ou don?t pu-lish& +ou perish?&
hence the need to pu-lish to -e promoted.

5.2.2 'um(er of years s#ent on current rank
"n the issue o0 num-er o0 +ears spent on current ran<& a-out !' percent 0emale 0acult+ had spent -etween one
and 0our +earsA 2$.! percent had spent -etween 0i4e and nine +ears on their current ran< and '#. percent had
spent ten and more +ears on their current ran<. "n the other hand& 4#.! percent o0 male 0acult+ had spent
-etween one and 0our +ears on their current ran<& 4'.! percent had spent -etween 0i4e and nines +ear& '.$
percent had spent -etween ten and more +ears on their current ran<. In general& length o0 time spent on a
particular ran< depends on the indi4idual 0acult+. Howe4er& all male 0acult+ inter4iewed said e4en though the+
were =uali0ied 0or promotion& the+ were pre-occupied with other things the+ considered more important than
appl+ing 0or promotion. "n the other hand& some 0emale 0acult+ inter4iewed complained that the+ ha4e had to
sta+ long on their current ran< -ecause processes 0or promotion were too long& apart 0rom the long processing o0
documents& the+ thought it was a deli-erate attempt to sti0le their e00ort. ,nother 0emale 0acult+ said she has had
to spend so long a time -ecause it was di00icult getting researcha-le topics in her 0ield o0 stud+. "ne o0 the
t+pical e1amples o0 challenges 0aced -+ 0emale 0acult+ in higher education.

)ale (: Promotional issues
Promotional issues Demale NJ:# Bale NJ'#:
Percent ('##.#) Percent ('##.#)
Ever een %romoted
Oes
No

4!.
5:.:

42.
5.:
1o$ of years served efore first %romotion
*wo 20our +ears
Di4e 2 se4en +ears
Light 2 ten +ears
Lle4en +ears and more


2:.'
:$.5
'5.4
2:.#


2.(
5:.5
'4.#
4.!
1o$ of years on Last %romotion
"ne 2 0our +ears ago
Di4e 2 nine +ears ago
*en and more +ears
Oet to -e re4iewed

2.:
:!.4
2.:
(.#

2!.2
:'.#
:$.'
4.
/easons for %romotion
Pu-lication
*eaching
Pu-lication and teaching

'4.:
2'.4
!4.:

2(.5
(.'
!'.4

,mong the 0emale respondents who ha4e e4er -een promoted& 2:.' percent wor<ed 0or -etween two
and 0ours +ears -e0ore -eing promoted as against 2.( percent male respondents 0or the same num-er o0 +ears. In
this situation& i0 the+ were using scienti0ic pu-lications as a +ardstic< 0or promotion then more male than 0emale
would -e promoted since the+ produce more scienti0ic pu-lications. *he num-er o0 +ears wor<ed -e0ore 0irst
promotion pea<s -etween 0i4e and se4en +ears 0or -oth 0emale and male respondentsA :$.5 and 5:.5 respecti4el+.
*he =ualitati4e data presents a di00erent twist to the promotion issue. ,t the glo-al le4el& personal ad4ancement
does not seem to -e a crucial moti4ation 0or men. It pla+ed an important or 4er+ important role in the decision o0
onl+ '5.5P o0 men and 2#.:P o0 women. ,ccording to 6atour and Portet (2##:) women tend to see a -etter
possi-ilit+ 0or personal ad4ancement in a career in academia than men. Indeed& 0emale 0acult+ complained o0
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some undermining with regard to promotion in their department& whilst male 0acult+ who ha4e not -een
promoted e4en though the+ were due 0or promotion said the+ did not see it as a priorit+.
,ccording to the Statutes o0 the 5ni4ersit+ o0 .hana (,ugust 2##4)& promotion o0 0acult+ is -ased not
onl+ on the num-er o0 scholarl+ wor< as e1empli0ied through research or contri-ution to <nowledge through
scienti0ic pu-lication -ut on teaching and e1tension wor< or ser4ice. Demale 0acult+ hea4+ responsi-ilities in the
pu-lic and pri4ate spheres put a hea4+ -urden on them and so the+ are una-le to produce the <ind o0 pu-lications
as male 0acult+. *his was emphasised -+ a 0emale 0acult+ who intimated during an inter4iew that com-ining all
three roles ma<es it di00icult 0or her to produce research wor< li<e that o0 her male colleagues. Her se4en +ears in
academia has +ielded one paper which is under re4iew whilst another male with that same length o0 time has
produced se4eral research wor<s. "n the contrar+ the =uantitati4e data reported more 0emale 0acult+ (!4.:P)
-eing promoted -ased on research and teaching as compared to !'.4 percent o0 male 0acult+. Howe4er& 2(.5
percent male 0acult+ were promoted -ased on researchIpu-lications onl+& as compared to '4.: percent o0 0emale
0acult+. 3ata 0rom the sur4e+ also indicated that male 0acult+ ha4e produced more scienti0ic wor< than their
0emale 0acult+ (0rom peer re4iewed papers Bale 0acult+A (.'P) 0emale 0acult+A (!#.!P)A -oo<sA men - :!.P)A
women 2 (2.:P)A to chaptersA men 2 4#.4PA women 2 2'.'P). *his is a con0irmation o0 Sonnert ('((5)& whose
stud+ 0ound that men in academia produce on a4erage #.5 more scienti0ic pu-lications than women per +ear. *he
=ualitati4e data also con0irms some discriminator+ practices in some departments concerning promotion. ,
0emale 0acult+ whose promotion was due since 2##: at the time o0 the stud+ was +et to -e promoted& e4en
though other male colleagues ha4e had their promotion. *o conclude& the processes 0or promotion in the
uni4ersit+ are somehow di00erent 0or -oth gender. >hilst some male 0acult+ who are =uali0ied 0or promotion are
reluctant to appl+& 0emale 0acult+ who applied long ago ha4e not -een gi4en hearing. *he stud+ 0ound some 0orm
o0 su-tle discrimination against some 0emale 0acult+. *he stud+ del4e into the le4el o0 institutional 0inancial
support gi4en to 0acult+ 0or research 2 whether there is e=ualit+ in allocation o0 resource 0or -oth genders. )oth
gender were highl+ dissatis0ied with support the+ get 0rom the uni4ersit+. *he inter4iews re4ealed that male
0acult+ got 0unding through networ<s whilst 0emale 0acult+ said the+ solel+ 0und their research pro@ects and are
less li<el+ to get 0unding 0rom the uni4ersit+. Dor release time o00ered -+ the 5ni4ersit+ 0or Research& 45.4
percent 0emale 0acult+ said that the+ were dissatis0ied as compared to 44 percent o0 male 0acult+. ,-out 4(
percent 0emale 0acult+ remained neutral as compared to 44 percent male 0acult+. "nl+ !.' percent 0emale 0acult+
said that the+ were satis0ied as compared to ''.( percent male 0acult+. Respondents 4iew on release time 0or
research o00ered -+ the 5ni4ersit+9 Dor opportunities to pu-lish in the uni4ersit+& 2.: 0emale 0acult+ were
dissatis0ied as compared to 4#.: percent male 0acult+. ,-out 5' percent 0emale 0acult+ remained neutral as
compared to 2!.! percent male 0acult+& whilst 2'.' were satis0ied as compared to :: percent male 0acult+.

5.3 )eadershi# $ssue
"n the issue o0 leadership in tertiar+ institutions& a loo< at the academic scene indicates that women are not
4isi-le when it comes to leadership positions. *here is also a stereot+pical perception that 0emale wor<ers are
not committed to ta<ing up additional responsi-ilit+ -ecause o0 their commitment at home especiall+ 0or wor<ing
mothers. Howe4er& 0acult+ mem-ers inter4iewed see the importance o0 ha4ing leadership positions. Bore
0emale 0acult+ than male 0acult+ said that the+ deemed it 4er+ important ha4ing a departmentalIcollege
leadership positionsA 5'.5 percent as compared to :$.5 0or male 0acult+. >hen as<ed whether -oth gender were
willing to ta<e on time consuming tas<s :(.4 percent o0 0emale 0acult+ as compared to 4'.2 percent o0 male
0acult+ said that the+ were willing& an indication that women social responsi-ilities hamper their a-ilit+ to
participate in other time consuming tas<s in the uni4ersit+. Indeed& the inter4iews re4ealed that 0emale 0acult+
were prepared to ta<e on leadership positions and the challenges that come with itA while male 0acult+ 0eel that
the+ were too -us+ with research to add such responsi-ilities.
*he inter4iews 0ound out that onl+ heads o0 department constitute most Cpower0ul? -oards and since
ma@orit+ o0 heads o0 department are male 0acult+ the+ constitute the power0ul -oards such as the ,cademic
)oard. *hus it corro-orates the =uantitati4e 0indings presented in *a-le :. Ser4ing on committees are means to
getting promoted since that is also deemed ser4ice or e1tension wor< 2 and constitute points when assessing
0acult+ 0or promotion. *a-le : shows respondents who ha4e or were ser4ing o0 -oards at the time o0 the sur4e+.

Research on Humanities and Social Sciences www.iiste.org
ISSN (Paper)2224-5!! ISSN ("nline)2225-#4$4 ("nline)
%ol.4& No.'$& 2#'4

5
)ale *: Leadershi% %ositions

L4er ser4ed on the
00. positions9


Demale NJ::

Bale NJ'#(
Percent ('##.##) Percent ('##.##)
University Council:
Oes
No

--
'##.#

4.#
(!.#
Academic 2oard:
Oes
No

::.:
!!.

55.2
44.$
Head of -e%t,Centre:
Oes
No

25.#
5.#

:!.2
!:.$
Head of -ivision,Section
Oes
No

4#.
5(.:

4#.4
5(.!
Chair of a Committee:
Oes
No

'5.4
$4.!

2$.2
'.$

*a-le : indicates that women 0acult+ had made su-stantial gains in terms o0 their representation in leadership
positions& loo<ing at their small population. Howe4er& when as<ed whether the+ had -een undermined in an+
leadership positions& more 0emale 0acult+ reported -eing undermined (5#.# percent) as compared to ('2.5 percent)
male 0acult+. *he inter4iews con0irmed the =uantitati4e 0indings -+ 0emale 0acult+ -eing undermined in
leadership positions. In 0act not onl+ were the+ undermined& the+ were made to 0eel that -eing a woman is
s+non+mous to -eing in0erior and there0ore one cannot e1press one?s mind on issues.

5.4 "iscussions
*his article has -een a-le to del4e into some gender ine=ualit+ in academic& which is hardl+ discussed pu-licl+.
It has -een a-le to con0irm Bassiah?s conceptual 0ramewor< which has -een used e1tensi4el+ in Prah?s wor<&
and used to situate the stud+. *his 0indings also support 6arwood and .ute< ('($) assertion that women?s
career de4elopment does not simpl+ lag -ehind that o0 men& -ut it proceeds in a completel+ di00erent manner.
,gain& the 0indings support Ba4in (2##') stud+ which also stipulates that career o0 women has -een traditionall+
understood as Fan ordered se=uence o0 de4elopment e1tending o4er a period o0 +ears and the introduction o0
progressi4el+ more responsi-le roles within an occupationG. 5nderl+ing this de0inition is the assumption o0
linear upward progression 0or which -oth gender ha4e demonstrated. Howe4er& this de0inition does not 0it in the
career de4elopment o0 most women as the+ con0ront the glass ceilingA especiall+ 0or those women who 0elt their
e00orts ha4e -een thwarted in a -id to see<ing promotion. ,s 0ar as pro0essional career is concerned& -oth 0emale
and male 0acult+ are interested in seeing their academic career mo4e on to a higher le4el. In the mist o0 the
challenges& 0emale 0acult+ are 4isi-le and tend to mo4e 0rom what Bassiah descri-es as conceptual and
su-@ecti4it+ 4isi-ilit+ to the le4el : 4isi-ilit+ which tal<s o0 socio-economic and political 4isi-ilit+& in 0act
women are a-le to -alance -oth pri4ate and pu-lic spheres per0ectl+. *he stud+ also supports the 0indings o0
"N6ear+ and Bitchell ('((#) who opined that there are still 0ar too 0ew women in the academic pro0ession at all
le4els. >ith regards to the num-er o0 pu-lication& the 0indings supports Se4eral 5nited States o0 ,merican
studies which ha4e shown that& o4erall& women scientists pu-lish less than men ()iel-+& '(('A 8ole M Singer&
'(('A 8ole M Quc<erman& '(('A Primac< M "?6ear+& '((:A Sonnert& I((5A Quc<erman& '(('). Demale
respondents were o0 the 4iew that the uni4ersit+ as an institution is so masculine in its structures -ecause when
the colonial masters esta-lished it the+ did not ha4e the 0emale 0acult+ in mind. Demale 0acult+ need to -e
e1ceptionall+ 4isi-le in all spheres to recei4e the same recognition and ac<nowledgement as their male
counterparts. *his stud+ 0ound out that are more 0emales who wereIare willing and actuall+ ta<en up leadership
positions& this is in contrast to )agihole ('((:) 0indings which indicates that women are not 4isi-le in leadership
positions

5.5 &onclusion
Dindings 0rom the stud+ suggest that there are no o4ert institutional -arriers to the ad4ancement o0 women in the
5ni4ersit+ o0 .hana& -ut there e1ist some sort o0 su-tle discrimination against women. *his is -ecause there are
e=ual access to 0acilities and recruitment& -ut those who wield power are predominantl+ male and the+ continue
to reproduce their <ind& leading to more men in the helm o0 a00airs.
Research on Humanities and Social Sciences www.iiste.org
ISSN (Paper)2224-5!! ISSN ("nline)2225-#4$4 ("nline)
%ol.4& No.'$& 2#'4

!
/eference
)agilhole& ). ('((:)& RRSur4i4or in a male preser4e9 a stud+ o0 )ritish women academicsC e1periences and
perceptions o0 discrimination in a 5K 5ni4ersit+NN& Higher Lducation& %ol. 2!& pp. 4:'-4
)iel-+& >illiam *. and 3enise 3. )iel-+. ('((2) "I Will ollow !im" amily #ies, $ender%&ole 'eliefs, and
&eluctance to &elocate for a 'etter (ob.S *he ,merican /ournal o0 Sociolog+& Barch '((2& %(& N5& p. '2-4'.
8ann& /.& /ones& .. and Bartin& I. ('((')& RR)ehind the rhetoric9 women academic sta00 in colleges o0 higher
education in LnglandNN& .ender and Lducation& %ol. : No. '& pp. '5-2(.
8ole& /. R.& M Quc<erman& H. ('(('). Barriage& motherhood& and research per0ormance in science. In H.
Quc<erman& /. R. 8ole& M/. *. )ruer (Lds.)& *he "uter 8ircle9 >omen in the Scienti0ic 8ommunit+ (pp. '5-
'#). New Oor<9 >. >. Norton and 8ompan+.
8ole& /. R.& M Singer& ). ('(('). , theor+ o0 limited di00erences9 L1plaining the producti4it+ puEEle in science.
In H. Quc<erman& /. R. 8ole& M /.*. )ruer (Lds.)& *he "uter 8ircle9 >omen in the Scienti0ic 8ommunit+ (pp.
2-:'#). New Oor<9 >. >. Norton M 8ompan+.
6arwood& 6. and .ute<& ).,. ('($) Wor)ing toward a theory of women*s career development. In .ute<& ).,.
and 6arwood& 6. (eds)& Women*s career development (%ol. :& pp. ''-'$:). New-ur+
6atour L. Portet S. (2##:) .ender and 8areer Paths in Drench 5ni4ersities 2 ,n L-mail Sur4e+ ,N3 )uilding
Networ<s in Drench ,cademia
http9IIcsn.uni-muenster.deIwomen-euIdownload9 (accessed on 'I'2I':)
Ba4in& S. (2##')& FWomen*s career in theory and practice" #ime for change, >omen
in Banagement Re4iew& %ol. '! No. 4& pp. '$:2'(2.
"N6ear+& %. and Bitchell& /. ('((#)& RRWomen connecting with women" networ)s and mentors in the +nited
,tates-N& in 6ie& S. and "s-om& B. ('((4). Polic+ 0orum9 Status and prospects 0or women in science in Lurope.
Science. 2!:(Barch ll)& ':$(-':('
Prah B. (2##2) F.ender Issues in .hanaian *ertiar+ Institutions.G In $hana ,tudies .& Pages $: '22
Primac<& R. ).& M "?6ear+& %. ('((:). /umulative disadvantages in the careers of women ecologists. )ioscience.
4:(Barch :)& '5$-l !5.
Re+ 3e la. ('(($) ,outh 0frican Women in !igher 1ducation. , Re4iew o0 their L1periences. Penguin Dastprint.
Pgs.5-2#
Sonnert& .. ('((5). What ma)es a good scientists 2 Determinants of peer evaluation among biologists. Social
Studies o0 Science. 25& :5-55.
*a+lor H. ).& (2##:). *he nature o0 glass ceiling in a ser4ice industr+A a case stud+ o0 S.I.8. ,n unpu-lished post
graduate diploma dissertation. 5ni4ersit+ o0 .hana& 6egon
5ni4ersit+ o0 .hana& 6egon 2##! 8ongregational )rochure&
>irth 6. (2##'). 'rea)ing through the $lass /eiling" Women in management. .ene4a& International 6a-our
"00ice (pg.25-'4)
Quc<erman& H. 8ole& /. R. M. )ruer /. * (Lds.) ('((') *he "uter 8ircle9 >omen in the Scienti0ic 8ommunit+
(Pg. ''- 2#4). New Oor<9 >. >. Norton and 8ompan+.

Research on Humanities and Social Sciences www.iiste.org
ISSN (Paper)2224-5!! ISSN ("nline)2225-#4$4 ("nline)
%ol.4& No.'$& 2#'4


A%%endi3 #
1o$ of Pulication y res%ondents
Pu-lication issues Demale NJ:: Bale NJ'#(
Percent Percent
1o$ 4f oo0s
Non
"ne
*wo
*hree
Dour and a-o4e

2.
'5.2
(.'
:.#
:.#

:!.
'5.!
!.4
'#.'
4.!
1o$ of %eer revie"ed %a%ers
Non
"ne 2 0our
Di4e 2 nine
*en 2 0ourteen
Di0teen and more

!#.!
2'.2
'5.2
'$.2
!.#

22.(
2.5
'2.$
'!.5
2#.'
Contriutions to oo0s 5cha%ters6
Non
"ne
*wo
*hree
Dour and more

$.$
!.'
!.'
-
(.'

5(.!
.:
'!.5
.:
(.2

A%%endi3 (
Pulications
Scholarl+ -oo<s and articles
pu-lished -+ respondents
Demale NJ:: Bale NJ'#(
Percent ('##.#) Percent ('##.#)
2oo0s authored
Non
"ne
*wo
*hree
Dour and more

5.$
'5.'
!.'
:.#
-

!#.5
2'.'
':.$
2.
'.$
2oo0s edited
Non
"ne
*wo
*hree
Dour and more

5.$
'2.2
:.#
!.'
:.#

$4.4
4.!
.:
#.(
'.$
Articles %ulished in -oo<s
Non
"ne to 0our articles
Di4e to nine articles
*en or more articles

54.5
:!.4
!.'
:.#

!'.5
::.(
4.!
-
Articles %ulished in
&ournals
Non
"ne to 0our articles
Di4e to nine articles
*en or more articles


:!.4
:(.4
:.#
-


2(.:
:2.'
'!.5
22.#


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