HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS

INTRODUCTION
The engineer is frequently called upon to transfer energy from one fluid to another. The
transfer is most often effected by a heat exchanger. A steam power plant, for example, includes
several major heat exchangers: boiler, superheater, economizer, and condenser. t also includes
minor heat exchangers such as the gland exhaust condenser and the lube oil cooler. The principal
heat exchangers in an air conditioning system are the evaporator and the condenser. !ther
applications abound throughout the mechanical industry.
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND THE HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEM
The typical heat transfer problem involves energy transfer from a fluid stream at an
assumed average temperature, through a series of "resistances#, to a destination fluid stream also
at an assumed average temperature. $or transfer through a pipe wall, the resistances consist of,
in order, a thermal boundary layer %T&'(, a scale or soot layer, the pipe wall, another scale layer,
and the destination T&'.
)ach T&' is characterized by a convection %or film( coefficient designated h. *ewton+s
'aw of ,ooling models heat transfer through the T&':
( )
s
T T h q

where:
- q
. heat flux or rate of heat transfer per unit area ( )
/
0 Btu h ft
h . convection %film( coefficient ( )
/ 1
0 Btu h ft R
T

. average temperature of the fluid stream

Ts . surface temperature of the pipe
$ourier+s 'aw governs transfer by conduction through the pipe wall:
dr
dT
k q
where: 2 . thermal conductivity %
1
0 Btu ft h R (
The negative sign results from the decreasing temperature gradient. ntegration yields:
3
( )
( )
3 /
/ 3
ln
/
r r
T T kL
q

where: q . heat transfer rate ( ) 0 Btu h
L . length of pipe through which heat transfer occurs ( ) ft
An experimentally determined fouling factor
( )
44 / 1
0
f
R ft h R Btu

accounts for scale resistance.
3

THE OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
5eat transfer through the various layers can be represented by an overall heat transfer
coefficient, U, such that:
q UAD
where: A . heat transfer surface area based on either the inside or outside pipe surface
U . overall heat transfer coefficient (Btu/h-ft
2
-R
D . log mean temperature difference, derived below
n analogy with electrical resistance, we can express the *ewton and $ourier laws as:
conv
conv
R
T T
q
/ 3

where:
hA
R
conv
3

cond
cond
R
T T
q
/ 3

( )
kL
r r
R
cond
/
ln
3 /

6e can then write:

( )
/ / /
/
3 /
3
3
3 3
/ 3 / 3
3
/
ln 3
h A A
R
kL
r r
A
R
h A
T T
R
T T
q
f f
total
+

+ +

+

7electing either the inside or outside area as a basis, factoring out !/A! %for example(, and letting
A! " 2r!L, we have:
3
#ee, e$g$, ncropera, p 898, for representative fouling factors.
/

( )
3
3 / 3
3 3
3 /
3 / / /
ln
3
f f
q AUD
r r r
r r
U R R
h k r r h

1
+ + + +
1
]
LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
6hat temperature difference is to be used for :; &ecause the temperature varies on each
side of the heat exchanger as heat transfer occurs, we must derive a sort of average temperature
difference. ,onsider a counterflow heat exchanger, which we represent as shown in the figure
below:
'et: T . temperature of the hot fluid
t . temperature of the cold fluid
h . hot fluid
c. cold fluid
,. heat capacity rate
%c &
i . entrance condition
o . outlet condition
: . log mean temperature difference
C
h
T dq T+dT
t+dt t C
c
x
T
1
T
2
dq
dt
dT
T
i
t
o
t
i
T
o
h c
q q q ( )
i o h h
T T & q ( )
i o c c
t t & q TdA U dt & dT & dq
c h

<
( )

,
_

,
_

+
c h c h
& &
TdA U
&
dq
&
dq
dt dT T d
3 3
( )

,
_

/
3
/
3
3 3
dA
& &
U
T
T d
c h
( ) ( ) [ ] [ ]
3 /
3
/
ln T T
q
UA
t T t T
q
UA
q
t t
q
T T
UA
T
T
o i i o
c
i o
h
i o

,
_

,
_

,
_

3
/
3 /
ln
T
T
T T
D
$or multipass and cross=flow heat exchangers, the expression for D is modified by a
multiple ', which depends upon heat exchange geometry, number of tube passes and whether the
fluid is mixed %flow transverse to the fluid direction is not prevented( or unmixed %transverse
flow ix prevented by fins or separate tubes(. The '-factor can be found in the technical
literature.
/
EXTENDED SURFACES (FINS)
)xtended surfaces, or fins, are frequently used to increase the heat transfer rate. $ins can
be justified economically when fin effectiveness, defined by the below approximate equation, is
greater than about /.
/
/
3

,
_

c
f
hA
k(

where: k . thermal conductivity

( . perimeter of fin
h . convection coefficient
Ac . cross sectional area of fin
&ecause the temperature varies from the base of the fin to its tip, an adjustment is made to the
total heat transfer surface area, which consists of the uncovered base area plus the fin area.
>ultiplying the total area, At, by an overall surface efficiency, o,
<
which is less than unity, gives:
/
#ee, e$g$, , ncropera and :e6itt, ? ed, pp. 8@/=@?.
<
7ee ncropera, 7ection <.A.8.
?
( )
f
t
f
) t
t t
o
A
*A
hA
q
q
q

3 3
max
where: * . number of fins
Af . area of a single fin
At . total area including base
f . fin efficiency
qt . total heat transfer rate from At
h . convection coefficient
. Tb = T

T) . base temperature
T
. bul2 temperature
$in efficiency is a function of fin geometry, convection coefficient and thermal
conductivity. Balues of fin efficiency for various shapes can be found in the technical literature.
?
5aving found both fin and overall surface efficiency, the overall heat transfer coefficient
is modified by multiplying each area %fin plus uncovered base( by the overall surface efficiency.
This step results in the following relation for C:
( )
3
3 / 3 / 3 3 3
3 3 3 / / / / /
ln 3
f f
o o o o
R R r r r r r
U
h k r r h

1
+ + + +
1
]
$rom the definition of fin effectiveness, it is deduced that fins with a high thermal
conductivity, low ratio of perimeter to cross=sectional area and small convection coefficient are
desirable. &ecause a small convection coefficient improves fin performance, fins are frequently
placed on the gas side of a gas=to=liquid heat exchanger. Automobile radiators and air
conditioning evaporators and condensers are common examples. $ins are often placed on
economizers in boiler designs.
THE CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
(FILM COEFFICIENT)
?
7ee, e.g., ncropera, p 3/<
8
,onvection coefficients are determined from empirical correlations found in the
literature. ncropera, for example, includes summaries of convection coefficients for external
and internal flow in the bac2 of chapters D and 9. The classical correlation for internal flow is the
,olburn equation:
?0 8 30 <
1.1/<Ee Fr
D D
*u
where:
D
hD
*u
k
%the *usselt number( k . thermal conductivity of fluid
Ee
+D

%the Eeynolds number( . 2inematic viscosity

Fr

%the Frandtl number(

,
k
c

%thermal diffusivity(
A cautionary note. The engineer must exercise care in choosing and using a correlation.
Farticular attention must be given to limits of applicability. s the flow fully developed;
'aminar or turbulent; 6hat temperature should be used to find properties; 6hat are the
applicable ranges for the Eeynolds and Frandtl numbers and the length to diameter ratio;
DESIGN PROCEDURE
7elect an appropriate heat exchanger type.
7elect appropriate convection coefficients.
:etermine needed thermal properties.
7olve the fundamental equations. teration may be required.
h ,
q %c T &

c ,
q %c T &

q UA'D
A