HST Training Manual

History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education The HST Project
-
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European
Teacher Education The HST Project
Training Manual for History of Science and
Technology Courses
General Editor: Bert Sorsby
September 22
1
Contents
!uthor"s# $ages
%ntroduction & !c'no(ledgements
$!)T *
B!C+G),-./ %.0,)M!T%,.

Bert Sorsby 3 !
-nit *
"o##unicating $ith other schools about HST S%ein Hoff& 'anielle (au)ue&
*orge +rroteia& Bert Sorsby&
E#anuel ,asiliu
-./
-nit 2
0nderstanding and accessing European education
progra##es
1ay 2irtley .133
-nit 1
HST in education curricula in si3 European
countries
Bert Sorsby& Peter Ellis& Sa#
Ellis& 'anielle (au)ue& 'aniel
Bensi#ohn *orge +rroteia& S%ein
Hoff& 4ary 56Brien& E#anuel
,asiliu& 4ihai ,asiliu& 4ihai
7echifor& 4aria 8ansari&
9:cr:#ioara Stonescu
3!;<
$!)T 2
%.-SE)2%CE TE!CHE) T)!%.%.G in HST
-nit 3
'e%eloping HST education in your
in your school
Paul "arlile& Sa# Ellis& Bert
Sorsby
</1/.
-nit 4
Teaching and learning online The HST public
$ebsite and 4erlin
S%ein Hoff& Bert Sorsby 1/31/<
-nit 5
Ho$ effecti%e $as the teaching and learning=
"arrying out action research in the classroo#>
Bert Sorsby& 'anielle (au)ue 11/11<
-nit 6
+dditional Tas?s for HST "ourses for Teachers Bert Sorsby 1./1.!
-nit 7
1esources and @nfor#ation
Ahere to loo? for infor#ation about HST
Bert Sorsby& 'anielle (au)ue& 1.B13.
SH,)T B%B8%,G)!$H9 133
.
%ntroduction and !c'no(ledgements
This training #anual has been $ritten for teachers and lecturers $ho $ant to introduce
European di#ensions into their teaching of history of science and technology> @t is one of the
#ajor resources de%eloped during 1<<<.//.C as part of the HST Project $hich $as funded
by the European "o##ission Socrates progra##e through "o#enius 3>1 and "o#enius .>1>
The #anual has been prepared by a group of teachers and teacher educators fro# si3
European countriesC EnglandC (ranceC 7or$ayC PortugalC 1o#ania and @reland> @t $ill be the
core docu#ent to be studied by teachers fro# around Europe $ho ha%e been successful in
gaining a place on one of a series of international inser%ice training courses for teachers> The
first fi%eday course $as run in 4ay .//1 and there $ill be #ore courses fro# .//3 on$ards>
5ther resources produced by the HST Project $hich are designed to be used in close
conjunction $ith this core Training 4anual areD
HST 1esource 4anual&
The public $ebsite at $$$>hib>noEshofEhstintE
The %irtualC online learning intranet en%iron#ent 4erlin at $$$>hull>ac>u?E#erlin

The 1esource 4anual and the Training 4anual are also a%ailable on "'154 and there is
also a boo? to assist the disse#ination of the HST Project6s $or? $hich contains the early
units of the Training 4anual>
+n i#portant feature of the de%elop#ent of the HST "ourse and the resources has been the
strong partnershipsC established bet$een teachers and teacher educators in each of the
countries in%ol%ed in the HST Project> Teacher educators in the project ha%e pro%ided a
distincti%ely broad o%er%ie$ of HST $ith a European di#ensionC and also so#e bac?ground
details of the de%elop#ent of science and technology in Europe> Teachers in each country
ha%e pro%ided specialist insights into $hat is possible $ith pupils and studentsC as $ell as
contributing useful ideas for schoolbased learning and teaching in HST> These ideas are
#ostly found in the HST 1esource 4anual although so#e appear in the Training 4anual too>
The Training Manual
The Training 4anual is then arranged in t$o sections>
Part 1 deals $ith general issues concerning the general bac?ground infor#ation $hich
teachers need to ?no$ $hen considering their $or? in history of science and technology
$ithin a broad European setting> @n 0nit 1 there is help $ith finding and establishing partner
schools in Europe to share in projects and 0nit . pro%ides details of ho$ to apply for funding
fro# the European "o##ission> 0nit 3 gi%es a series of brief o%er%ie$s and state#ents about
HST in a nu#ber of national curricula in Europe as $ell as gi%ing other infor#ation about
the de%elop#ent of science and technology in Europe>
Part . concerns the practicalities of learning and teaching history of science and technology
and the units in this section $ill for# the basis for the facetoface inser%ice courses in HST>
+s teachers and lecturers beco#e #ore fa#iliar $ith the infor#ation technology associated
$ith the HST ProjectC then there $ill be increasing support for the# in their school s and
colleges through the online learning en%iron#ent 4erlin>
+lso in Part . is an introduction to the resources $hich already e3ist for teaching and learning
history of science and technology>
3
$artners and contributors to the HST $ro:ect
England: 'r Bert Sorsby 0ni%ersity of Hull
(HST Project Co-ordinator & Editor)
Paul "arlile (oredy?e Pri#ary School
Sa# Ellis Ho$den School
1ay 2irtley 0ni%ersity of Hull
Peter Ellis P1ETe3t
'r "li%e Sutton British Society for the History of Science
(HST Project Evaluator)
%reland Prof 2ieran Byrne Aaterford @nstitute of Technology
'r Eric 4artin Aaterford @nstitute of Technology
(inbarr 5FTua#a 'epart#ent of Education
4ary 56Brien 'ungar%an
4ichael 2a%anagh >>
4ary 5F'riscoll 2noc?s?eagh 7> School
+nne Beechinor >>
To# 9yons 'arrara 7> School
0rance 'r 'anielle (au)ue 9ycGe Stanislas
5dile *acob
'o#ini)ue +lGcian
Paul 9ogiG
'aniel Bensi#hon
$ortugal Prof> *orge "ar%alho +rroteia 0ni%ersity of +%eiro
@sabel and 4ariana +rroteia Esgueira Pri#ary School
.or(ay +ssoc> Prof> S%ein Hoff (e!"aster) HHgs?olen i Bergen
5dd 7etland
)omania Prof> E#anuel ,asiliu I0ni%ersitea JPolitehnica6
Prof> 4ihail ,asiliu IBucuresti
4ihai 7echifor >>
9acra#ioara Stoenescu I"olegiul 7ational J'#itrie
4aria 8ansari I"ante#ir6 Bucuresti
!c'no(ledgements
+ll partners gratefully ac?no$ledge the financial support of the European "o##ission for the
Socrates progra##e grant>nu#ber K1-;!"P..///.///102"54E7@0S"31 +lso $e
are indebted to our %arious institutions and organisations> Each has supported us generouslyC
by allo$ing us ti#e to be in%ol%ed in this i#portant transnational project
5n a personal noteC @ should li?e to record #y grateful than?s to all #y colleagues throughout
Europe for their support and ad%ice at each stages of the project> @ should li?e also to than?
staff at the 0ni%ersity of Hull especially 1ay 2irtleyC 4anager of the European 1esource
"entreC +ntonia Ahite in the 1esearch Support 5ffice and "arolyn Bro$nC for her design
$or?> Lour $ar#thC friendliness and professionalis# ha%e #ade this project possible>
'r Bert Sorsby
*uly .//.
!
$!)T *
B!C+G),-./ %.0,)M!T%,.
B
-nit * Communicating (ith other European schools about History of
Science and Technology
%ntroduction
There is great %alue in letting other schools in Europe ?no$ about the HST de%elop#ents
there ha%e been in your o$n countryC especially if the pupils the#sel%es are in%ol%ed in the
study> @f perhaps your country is particularly proud of an i#portant scientific idea or a
technological in%entionC (for e3a#ple a de%elop#ent in rail$ay technologyC a particular type
of surgical operationC or specialised na%igation syste#) then this ?no$ledge should be shared
#ore $idely>
There are ad%antages too $hen you lin? $ith another school in another part of Europe to tell
the# details of an achie%e#ent about $hich you are %ery proud> @f ho$e%er this is just a one
$ay processC $here you tell the# about $hat you ha%e doneC then an i#portant educational
opportunity has been lost> (ar richer opportunities for learning and cooperation e3ist $hen
projects are sharedC and $hen each partner feels an o$nership for a particular part of the
o%erall project>
Ho$e%erC this does not #ean that the partnership has to be e)ually di%ided at e%ery stage>
5ne school #ay initiate the projectC send interi# details of their study to the partner schoolsC
and the partners then add their o$n thoughts and insights to broaden and e3tend the project>
The purpose of -nit * is toD
e3plore the benefits and challenges of for#ing study net$or?s $ith other schools for
history of science and technology&
gi%e procedures and ideas about ho$ these net$or?s #ight be for#ed>
;hat are the benefits and challenges of lin'ing (ith other schools in Europe for history
of science and technology studies<
The follo$ing benefits are easy to identify but there #ay be #ore ad%antages $hich you can
find>
(a) The pupils are li?ely to be better #oti%ated $hen they $or? on an international project>
(b) @t can gi%e the pupils pride in their o$n $or? and in the $or? of scientistsC engineers etc>
fro# their o$n country
(c) Pupils and teachers can learn a great deal about HST de%elop#ents in their o$n countryC
as $ell as in other European countries>
(d) @t pro#otes a broader %ie$ of our shared European heritage
+#ong the challenges $hich can be identified are the follo$ingC and there #ay be #any
#oreD
(a) 9anguage difficulties&
(b) The financial costs of e3changing infor#ation&
(c) Ho$ to find the best $ay of e3changing infor#ation>
(d) Ho$ to find one or #ore partner schools $ho are $illing to $or? $ith us>
(e) Ho$ to ensure that the $or? for the shared project is in accord $ith the de#ands of the
school curriculu# in each country>
(f) Ho$ to find a suitable project>
-
The sections that follo$ ai# to pro%ide so#e strategies to enable you to respond to #ost of
these challenges> (or e3a#ple you can find out #ore about funding for projects through the
European "o##issionC in 0nit - of this training #anual>
;hat (ill the partner schools need to 'no(<
They $ill need to ?no$ so#e basic infor#ation about the schoolC such as its na#eC postal
addressC e#ail addressC fa3C and telephone nu#bers> They $ill also need to ?no$ the siMe of
the schoolC $hether it is single se3 or coeducationalC and the age range of the pupils> These
are included on the profor#aeC $hich are set out belo$ in four languages> Lour partner
school $ill also need to ?no$ the preferred languages for co##unicationC as $ell as the
proposed topic or study area for history of science and technology>
Ho( do you find a partner school<
5b%iously you #ay already ?no$ schools in other countries $ith $ho# you $ould li?e to
$or?C because you or a colleague ha%e $or?ed $ith the# before>
@n addition you can contact your national agency to see if they ha%e been approached by
schools fro# other parts of Europe $ho are loo?ing for a partner school in your country> Lou
#ight li?e to loo? at the FAindo$s on the AorldF $ebsite at httpDEE$$$>$ot$>org>u? $hich lin?s
schools and colleges throughout the $orld $ho are interested in sharing projects>
The HST Project has its o$n database for schools and colleges $ho are interested projects in
history of science and technology> Lou can find this by %isiting the public $ebsite of the HST
Project at httpDEE$$$>hib>noEshofEhstint and clic?ing on FSchool ProjectsF> Please send details of
your proposals to the e#ail address $hich you $ill find there>
+lternati%ely you can co#plete one of the #e$uest for a Project Partner for# belo$ and send
it to 'r Bert SorsbyC 0ni%ersity of HullC Hull H0- K1NC 02
>or to S%ein HoffC HHgs?olen i BergenC +%deling for laerutdanningC 9andass%ingen 1B7B/<-
BergenC 7or$ay
K
"HST# $ro:ect for European Teacher Education
)e=uest for a $ro:ect $artner
SCH,,8 ,) C,88EGE /ET!%8S
School: Contact $erson:
7a#eD 7a#eD
+ddressD
TelephoneD 9anguages spo?enD
(a3 TelephoneD
E#ail E#ailD
More details about the school:
7u#ber of pupils in the school
Boys and girls=
Type of schoolsD Pri#ary Secondary 0pper Secondary
(K to 11 years) (11 to 1-) (1- to 1;)
+ny special features of the school=
+ges of pupils in%ol%ed in the projectD
'etails of a proposed history of science and technology project area
Preferred #eans of co##unication (fa3& #ail& e#ail)
Preferred language (s) for co##unicationD
Please send the details to the HST Project "oordinatorC 'r Bert SorsbyC 0ni%ersity of HullC Hull H0- K1NC
02> or to S%ein HoffC HHgs?olen i BergenC +%deling for laerutdanningC 9andass%ingen 1B7B/<- BergenC
7or$ay
+fter a short $hile you $ill find details of your entry at DhttpDEE$$$>hib>noEshofEhstintE and you $ill be able to
search for lin?s to other schools fro# there>
;
Communi=uer en histoire des sciences et des techni=ues a>ec d?autres
@tablissements scolaires d?Europe
%ntroduction
@l est trOs %alorisant de faire connaPtre Q d6autres Gcoles europGennes le dG%eloppe#ent de
l6histoire des sciences et des techni)ues dans son propre paysC surtout si les GlO%es eu3#R#es
ont pris part Q une telle entreprise> Si peutRtre son pays tire une fiertG particuliOre d6une idGe
scientifi)ue #ajeure (Glaboration de lois en chi#ieC radioacti%itGC etc>) ou d6une in%ention
techni)ue i#portante (par e3e#ple dans le do#aine des transportsC des co##unications ou
autreC un nou%eau type d6inter%ention chirurgicaleC etc>)C ce sa%oir #Grite d6Rtre partagG plus
large#ent>
En s6associant Q une autre Gcole europGenneC on peut lui co##uni)uer non seule#ent ce )ue
l6on a fait #ais aussi bien des dGtails supplG#entaires sur ces idGes scientifi)ues ou ces
inno%ations techni)ues> 1enoncer Q ce dialogue serait perdre une opportunitG pGdagogi)ue
essentielle de dG%eloppe#ents futursC riches de coopGration et de connaissances> +insi
partager un projet per#et un engage#ent personnel sur une partie particuliOre de l6ense#ble>
@l n6est cependant pas indispensable )ue la rGpartition de l6Gtude soit Ggale entre les diffGrents
partenaires> 0n Gtablisse#ent scolaire peut initier un projet puis en en%oyer une pre#iOre
%ersion au3 Gcoles partenaires les)uelles pourront co##enter puis ajouter leurs propres
suggestions> 'ans ce %aet%ient de propositions et de lectures criti)uesC le sujet s6enrichit et
s6Glargit pour de%enir oeu%re co##une Q l6ense#ble des partenaires>
96objectif de ce chapitre est D
1 d6e3plorer les bGnGfices et les dGfis de la constitution d6un rGseau d6Gtude entre Gcoles
partenaires autour de l6histoire des sciences et des techni)ues &
. de donner des idGesC de susciter des procGdures sur la faSon dont les rGseau3 pourraient Rtre
constituGs>
Auels sont les b@n@fices et les d@fis d?un partenariat a>ec d?autres @coles europ@ennes
autour d?une @tude en histoire des sciences et des techni=ues <
9es bGnGfices sui%ants sont aisG#ent identifiables #ais on peut en trou%er d6autres D
a) les GlO%es sont da%antage #oti%Gs si leur tra%ail entre dans un projet international &
b) les GlO%es prennent da%antage confiance dans leur propre tra%ail et dans le tra%ail
)u6effectuent les scientifi)uesC les ingGnieurs ou les techniciens de leur pays &
c) les GlO%es co##e les enseignants peu%ent apprendre beaucoup sur le dG%eloppe#ent des
sciences et des techni)ues au cours de l6histoire dans leur propre pays co##e dans les autres
pays europGens>
d) ce type d6action fa%orise le dG%eloppe#ent d6une %ision Glargie de l6hGritage europGen
co##un>
Par#i les no#breu3 dGfis )ue l6on peut identifierC on peut rele%er les sui%ants D
a) co##ent sur#onter la difficultG de la langue &
b) co##ent financer l6Gchange d6infor#ations &
c) co##ent trou%er la #eilleure faSon d6Gchanger l6infor#ation &
d) co##ent trou%er l6Gcole ou les Gtablisse#ents scolaires partenaires )ui accepteront de
tra%ailler a%ec soi &
<
e) co##ent s6assurer )ue le tra%ail effectuG sur ce projet co##un reste en accord a%ec les
obligations du progra##e officiel en %igueur dans cha)ue pays concernG &
f) co##ent Glaborer un projet adaptG>
9es pages )ui sui%ent proposent )uel)ues stratGgies per#ettant de rGpondre Q plusieurs de ces
dGfis> Par e3e#pleC des sub%entions pour ce projet peu%ent Rtre sollicitGes auprOs de la
"o##ission europGenne & %oir Q ce sujet le chapitre K de ce recueil>
Auelles sont les informations =ue l?@tablissement partenaire peut demander <
96Gtablisse#ent scolaire partenaire peut de#ander des renseigne#ents ad#inistratifs (no#C
adresses postale et Glectroni)ueC nu#Gros de tGlGphone et de fa3) #ais aussi des
renseigne#ents sur l6i#portance de l6Gcole (no#bre d6GlO%esC classes d6Tge) ou dGsirer sa%oir
si l6Gcole est #i3te ou non> 'ans ce recueilC on trou%era un for#ulaire correspondant Q ce type
de de#ande> 'e plus on pourra y ajouter ce )ue l6on prGfOre co##e langue de
co##unicationC et prGciser ce )ue l6on projette d6Gtudier co##e thO#e d6histoire des
sciences et des techni)ues>
Comment trou>er un @tablissement scolaire partenaire <
5n peut dGjQ connaPtre un ou d6autres Gtablisse#ents scolaires europGens parce )ue soi#R#e
ou un collOgue y a tra%aillG en association et on dGsire poursui%re cette coopGration> 5n peut
aussi contacter l6agence nationale de la co##ission europGenne et lui de#ander si d6autres
Gtablisse#ents europGens sont Q la recherche d6une Gcole partenaire pour partager un projet en
histoire des sciences et des techni)ues> 5n peut aussi consulter le site U Aindo$s on the
$orld6s $ebsite V Q httpDEE$$$>$ot$>org>u? )ui regroupe les Gtablisse#ents pri#aires ou
secondaires Q tra%ers le #onde intGressGs Q partager de tels projets>
9e projet d6histoire des sciences et des techni)ues ici prGsentG a sa propre base d6adresses des
diffGrentes Gcoles intGressGes par des projets en histoire des sciences et des techni)ues> "e site
est public et peut Rtre consultG Q l6adresse sui%ante D httpDEE$$$>hib>noEshofEhstint puis en
cli)uant sur l6icWne U School Projects V> 5n peut en%oyer ses propositions Q l6adresse
Glectroni)ue )ue l6on choisira>
5n peut aussi co#plGter la U 'e#ande d6association au projet V incluse ciaprOs et l6en%oyer Q
'r Bert SorsbyC 0ni%ersity of HullC Hull H0- K1NC 8randeBretagneC ou Q S%ein HoffC
HHgs?olen i BergenC +%deling for laerutdanningC 9andass%ingen 1B7B/<- BergenC 7or%Oge>
1/
$ro:et de formation en histoire des sciences et des techni=ues
pour les enseignants europ@ens
Demande dassociation au projet
)enseignements
Btablissement $ersonne C contacter
7o# 7o#
+dresse 9angues parlGes
TGlGphone TGlGphone
(a3 (a3
E#ail E#ail
)enseignements sur l?@tablissement scolaire
7o#bre d6GlO%es
8arSons ou filles
Type d6Gtablisse#ent D
pri#aire secondaire collOge secondaire lycGe
(K11 ans) (111Bans) (1B1; ans)
ParticularitGs de l6Gtablisse#ent
Xge des GlO%es i#pli)uGs dans le projet D
1enseigne#ents sur le cha#p d6histoire des sciences et des techni)ues en%isagG
4oyens prGfGrGs de co###unication (poste & fa3 & e#ail)
9angue(s) prGfGrGe(s) de co##unication D
4erci de bien %ouloir en%oyer ces renseigne#ents au coordinateur du projet HSTC 'r Bert
SorsbyC 0ni%ersity of HullC Hull H0- K1NC 1oyau#e0ni> 5u Q S%ein HoffC Hogs?olen i
BergenC +%deling for laerutdanningC 9andass%ingen 1B7 B/<- BergenC 7or%Oge>
Peu aprOsC %ous trou%ereM les renseigne#ents de cette page Q D httpDEE$$$>hib>noEshofEhstintE et
%ous pourreM Gtablir des liens a%ec les autres Gtablisse#ents dGjQ inscrits>
11
$ortugal
%ntroduDEo
E3iste# grandes %antagens e# di%ulgarC entre as escolas europeiasC o projecto YHistory of
Science and TechnologyZ (HST)C principal#ente no caso dos alunos estare# en%ol%idos e#
estudos relacionados co# esta #atGria>
Se o seu pa[s se distingue por u#a cultura cient[fica aprofundada ou por in%enS\es tGcnicas
rele%antes (co#oC por e3e#ploC o aperfeiSoa#ento de tecnologia relacionada co# os
transportes ferro%i]riosC co# a #edicinaC co# os siste#as de na%egaSô #ar[ti#a ou outras)
entô estes conheci#entos de%e# ser larga#ente di%ulgados>
E3iste# igual#ente %antagens )uando se estreita# laSos co# outras escolas e# )ual)uer pa[s
europeu e se troca# infor#aS\es sobre te#as )ue nos sô particular#ente gratos> Este G
apenas u# processo )ue te#os e# di%ulgar o )ue faMe#os e u#a oportunidade )ue nô de%e
ser perdida> 5utras oportunidades e# aprender e cooperar co# outras instituiS\es escolares
surge# se#pre )ue cada u# dos participantes sente ter u#a responsabilidade pessoal no
desen%ol%i#ento global de u# deter#inado projecto> "ontudo isto nô significa )ue a
colaboraSô nu# deter#inado projecto seja igual#ente di%idida e# todas as fases do seu
desen%ol%i#ento> 0#a escola pode iniciar u# deter#inado projectoC en%iar Qs escolas
associadas os detalhes pro%is_rios sobre o seu anda#ento e estas re#etere# o seu contributo
por for#a a a#pliar e aprofundar o projecto inicial>
5s objecti%os desta unidadeC sô os seguintesD
1> e3plorar as %antagens e os desafios )ue se coloca# Qs redes de escolas associadas no
desen%ol%i#ento de projectos no T#bito da HST&
.> di%ulgar alguns procedi#entos e sugest\es relati%as Q constituiSô destas redes>
Auais sEo as >antagens e as dificuldades em se ligar em rede com outras Escolas na
Europa interessadas no aprofundamento de estudos sobre HST<
+s %antagens nesta ligaSô sô facil#ente identific]%eis> 'estaca#se no entantoC as
seguintesD
a) 5 alunos fica# #ais #oti%ados )uando trabalha# nu# projecto internacional&
b) ,aloriMa o trabalho dos alunos e o trabalho )ue os cientistasC os engenheirosC etc>C
desen%ol%e# no seu pa[s&
c) 5s alunos e os professores aprende# #elhor acerca da e%oluSô da HST )uer no seu
pr_prio pa[sC )uer nos de#ais pa[ses Europeus&
d) Per#ite u#a %isô #ais alargada sobre a nosso passado e heranSa europeia co#u#>
Entre as dificuldades )ue pode#os identificarC as )ue indica#os a seguir parece#nos as #ais
rele%antesD
a) 'o#[nio das 9[nguas estrangeiras&
b) "ustos financeiros resultantes da troca da infor#aSô&
c) Encontrar os #elhores #eios de co#unicaSô&
d) Encontrar outras parceiros interessados e# trabalhar connosco&
e) +ssegurarse )ue o trabalho desen%ol%ido no T#bito do projecto est] de acordo co#
os re)uisitos do curr[culo oficial e# cada u# dos pa[ses&
f) Elaborar u# projecto ade)uado>
+s al[neas seguintes ajuda#nos a encontrar algu#as estratGgias capaMes de responder a
#uitos destes desafios> Por e3e#ploC pode encontrar sugest\es relati%as ao financia#ento de
projectosC atra%Gs da "o#issô EuropeiaC na Y0nidade KZ deste #anual>
1.
, =ue @ =ue uma Escola precisa de saber<
5s interessados e# participar nu# projecto internacional precisa# de dispor de algu#as
infor#aS\es b]sicas sobre a EscolaC tais co#o a sua designaSôC o endereSo postal e os n`s de
telefoneC de fa3 e o E>#ail> Precisa# ainda de saber a di#ensô da EscolaC se se trata de u#a
escola #ista ou nôC o total de alunos e a sua idade> Estas infor#aS\es faMe# parte da
listage# (profor#a) )ue se indica a seguir> + Escola co# )ue# deseja trabalhar precisa
igual#ente de saber )uais a(s) l[ngua(s) )ue %ai utiliMar be# co#o o te#as(s) de estudo
relacionado(s) co# a HST>
Como desen>ol>er o intercFmbio com outra Escola<
E# princ[pio de%e ter conheci#ento de escolas e3istentes noutros pa[sesC )ue pretenda#
trabalhar consigo> Tal pode resultar de u# conheci#ento anterior atra%Gs do desen%ol%i#ento
de outros projectos>
+lG# disso de%e contactar os Ser%iSos de 1elaS\es @nternacionais do seu 4inistGrio da
EducaSô (ou outro ser%iSo e)ui%alente) para proceder a u# le%anta#ento das possibilidades
e das ofertas dispon[%eis>
Pode igual#ente consultar o $ebsiteD YAindo$s on the AorldZD httpDEE$$$>$ot$>org>u? )ue
lhe per#ite faMer Ylin?sZ co# escolas estrangeiras interessadas no estabeleci#ento de
projectos internacionais>
5 projecto HST disp\e igual#ente de u#a base de dados de escolas interessadas e#
desen%ol%ere# acti%idades na T#bito da hist_ria da ciRncia e da tecnologia> Para tanto pode
consultar o $ebsite do YHST ProjectZD httpDEE$$$>hib>noEshofEhstint e procurar a tecla
correspondente aDZSchool ProjectsZ> En%ie e# seguida os detalhes e a sua proposta atra%Gs de
E>#ail para os endereSos )ue entender>
"o#ple#entar#ente pode preencher o for#ul]rioD Y1e)uest for a project PartnerZC e# ane3oC e en%i]lo paraD
Professor 'r> Bert SorsbyC 0ni%ersity of Hull& Hull H0- K1NC 02 ou entô paraD Professor S%ein HoffC
Hogs?olen @ BergenC +%deling for laerutdanningC 9andass%ingen 1B7B/<-C BergenC 7or$ay>
13
HST $ro:ect for European Teacher Education
Boletim
CaracterGsticas da Escola
Escola: Contacto pessoal:
7o#eD 7o#eD
EndereSoD
TelefoneD 9[ngua(s) utiliMada(s)D
(a3 TelefoneD
E#ail E#ailD
,utros elementos:
7a#ero total de alunosD
7` de rapaMes e n` de raparigas=
Tipologia da EscolaD
Ensino B]sico Ensino Secund]rio 5utra 1`
"iclo .be3b "iclo
(- a <anos) (1/ a 1.anos) (13

a1Banos)
Particularidades da escola=
@dade dos alunos en%ol%idos no projectoD
"aracteriMaSô do projecto (objecti%osC fases e acti%idades a desen%ol%er)
4eios de co#unicaSô a utiliMar (fa3& #ail& e#ail)D
9[ngua preferida para co#unicaSôD
En%iar estes dados para o "oordenador do Y HST ProjectZD Professor 'r> Bert SorsbyC
0ni%ersity of HullC Hull H0- K1NC 02> 5u paraD Professor S%ein HoffC HHgs?olen i BergenC
+%deling for laerutdanningC 9andass%ingen 1B7B/<- BergenC 7or$ay
Poder] encontrar outros detalhes no $ebsite DhttpDEE$$$>hib>noEshofEhstintE )ue lhe per#ite
estabelecer Ylin?sZ co# outras escolas
1!
Enhet *H +ommuni'as:on med andre europeis'e s'oler angIende
ut>i'lingen i >itens'apens og te'nologiens historie "2TH#
@ntrodu?sjon
'et er %i?tig c infor#ere andre s?ole i Europa o# ut%i?ling innen ,TH so# har blitt gjort i
ditt landC spesielt derso# ele%ne har %drt in%ol%ert i ut%i?lingen> H%is dessuten landet ditt har
%drt in%ol%ert i ut%i?lingen a% %i?tige %itens?apelige ideer eller spesielle te?nologis?e
ny%inningerC er det Hns?elig at denne infor#asjonen blir spredt %idere>
'et er positi%t o# du ?onta?ter en annen s?ole i en annen del a% Europa for c infor#ere o# et
prosje?t so# du er stolt o%erC #en h%is dette er infor#asjon so# bare gcr en %ei sc har en
%i?tig ldrings #ulighet gctt tapt> 'et er #ye stHrre #uligheter for ldring ncr prosje?ter deles
#ello# s?olerC og h%er partner ut%i?ler og fHler eiendo#srett til en spesiell del a% prosje?tet>
'ette betyr i??e at partners?apet #c deles li?t pc et h%ert stadiu#> En s?ole ?an ta initiati% til
et prosje?t og sende forelHpige detaljer til partners?oleneC der partnerne legger til sine egne
forslag for c ut%ide og gjHre prosje?tet bredere>
Hensi?ten #ed denne enheten er cD
1) utfors?e fordelene og utfordringene #ed c danne ldringsgrupper #ed andre s?oler
angcende %itens?apens og te?nologiens historie>
.) c gi prosedyrer og ideer o# h%ordan disse nett%er?en ?an for#es>
H%a er fordelene og utfordringene %ed c ?nytte seg sa##en #ed andres s?oler i Europa for c
arbeide #ed %itens?ap og te?nologihistorie=
(Hlgende fordeler er lett c seC #en det ?an og %dre andre
a> Ele%ene er #er #oti%ert ncr de arbeider pc et internasjonalt prosje?t
b> 'et gir ele%ene #ulighet for stolthet i sitt eget arbeide og i arbeidet gjort a%
%itens?aps#ennC ingeniHrer ##> fra deres eget land>
c> Ele%er og ldrere ?an ldre en god del o# ,TH ut%i?ling i deres eget land sa#t i andre
europeis?e land
d> 'et stHtter opp o# et bredere syn pc %cr felles europeis?e ?ulturar%>
Blant de utfordringene so# ?an identifiseres har en blant annet fHlgendeD
a> Sprc?%ans?er
b> 'e finansielle %ans?er #ed c ut%e?sle infor#asjon
c> H%ordan en finner de beste #ctene for c ut%e?sle infor#asjon>
d> H%ordan en s?al finne en eller flere partners?oler so# er %illige til c arbeide #ed oss>
e> H%ordan en s?al si?re seg at arbeidet #ed et felles prosje?tet er i sa#s%ar #ed pensu# i
h%ert land
f> H%ordan en s?al finne et passende prosje?t >
@ de fHlgende se?sjonene er #clsettingen c gi noen strategier for c ?unne hans?es #ed de
fleste a% disse utfordringene> (or e?se#pel ?an du finne ut #er o# finansiering gjenno# den
Europeis?e ?o##isjonenC i enhet nr> K i denne #anualen>
H%a %il partners?olene trenge ?unns?ap o#=
'e trenger basis ?unns?ap o# s?olen so# na%netC postadressenC e#ailC fa3 og telefon> 'e
trenger og infor#asjon o# s?olens stHrrelseC alderen pc ele%nene og o# s?olen er en ren
1B
gutteEpi?es?ole eller o# den har ele%er a% begge ?jHnn> 'ette er in?ludert i s?je#aet
nedenfor> Partners?olen trenger og infor#asjon o# det foretru?ne sprc?et for ?o##uni?asjon
sa#t det foreslctte e#ne #an %il studere innen %itens?ap og te?nologihistorie>
H%ordan finner du en partners?ole=
'et ?an %dre at du allerede ?jenner s?oler i andre land so# du Hns?er c arbeide #ed h%is du
har %drt i ?onta?t #ed de# fHr>
'u ?onta?te ditt nasjonale ?ontor for internasjonalt sa#arbeide for c se o# de har blitt
forespurt a% s?oler fra andre deler a% Europa o# sa#arbeidss?oler i ditt land> 'u ?an og se pc
nettstedet ZAindo$s on the AorldZ so# ligger pc http:JJ(((H(ot(HorgHu' og ?nytter
sa##en s?oler og hHyere ldreanstalter o%er hele %erden so# Hns?er c sa#arbeide og dele
prosje?ter>
,TH prosje?tet har sin egen database for s?oler og hHyere ldreanstalter so# er interessert i
prosje?ter i %itens?ap og te?nologihistorie> 'u ?an finne dette %ed c gc til nettstedet for ,TH
so# ligger pc http:JJ(((HhibHnoJshofJhst-int og try??e pc %alget for ZS?ole prosje?terZ>
,ennligst send detaljene i forslaget ditt til e#ail adressen so# du finner der>
+lternati%t ?an du fylle ut s?je#aet 1e)uest for a Project Partner so# du finner nedenfor og
sende til 'r Bert SorsbyC 0ni%ersity of Hull& HullC H0- K1NC 02> eller til S%ein HoffC
HHgs?olen i Bergen> +%deling for ldrerutdanningC 9andcss%ingen 1BC B/<- BergenC 7orge>

1-
$ros:e't for >itens'apens og te'nologiens historie "2TH# i europeis' lKrer
utdanning
0orespLrsel om en pros:e't partner
'etaljer o# s?ole eller institusjon
S?oleD 2onta?tpersonD
7a%nD 7a%nD
+dresseD
TelefonD Sprc? so# ?an nyttesD
(a?s TelefonD
EpostD EpostD
(lere detaljer o# s?olenD
+ntall ele%er i s?olen
1en guttEpi?e s?ole eller begge ?jHnn=
Type s?ole S#cs?oletrinnet 4ello#trinnet 0ngdo#strinnet ,ideregcende
(-1/ cr) (1113 cr) (1!1- cr) (1K1< cr)
7oen spesielle egens?aper %ed s?olen=
+lderen til ele%ene so# er in%ol%ert i prosje?tetD
'etaljer i et foreslctt e#ne innen %itens?ap og te?nologihistorie
(oretru??et ?o##uni?asjons#ediu# (fa?s& post& epost)
(oretru??et (ne) sprc? for ?o##uni?asjonD
,ennligst send detaljene til prosje?t?oordinatoren for ,THC 'r Bert SorsbyC 0ni%ersity of
HullC Hull H0- K1NC 02> eller til S%ein HoffC HHgs?olen i BergenC +%deling for
ldrerutdanningC 9andcss%ingen 1BC B/<- BergenC 7orge
@ lHpet a% ?ort tid %i du finne detaljene i din forespHrsel pcD httpDEE$$$>hib>noEshofEhstintE og
du %il ?unne sH?e etter lin?er til andre s?oler derfra>

1K
Stabilirea de colaborMri cu alte instituNii de On>MNMmFnt din Europa On
domeniul %storiei PtiinNei Qi Tehnologiei
)omFnia
%ntroducere
Este foarte i#portant de a face cunoscute altor institueii de Pn%:e:#Tnt europene realiM:rile
ftiineei fi tehnologiei din perspecti%a istoriei din propria ear:C #ai ales Pn caMurile Pn care
ele%ii sunt i#plicaei Pn ase#enea studii> gn generalC fiecare ear: este #Tndr: de ideile
ftiineifice #ajore cu# ar fiD elaborarea unor teorii a feno#enelor fiMice fi chi#iceC sau
elaborarea unei in%eneii tehnice i#portanteC de e3e#plu Pn do#eniul transporturilor fi
co#unicaeiilorC sau introducerea unor noi #etode de inter%eneii chirurgicale elaborate de
proprii cet:eeni> 4erit: cu prisosine: ca aceste idei fi in%eneii s: fie cunoscute pe o scar: cTt
#ai larg:>
Prin cooperarea cu o alt: fcoal: European: se pot face cunoscute nu nu#ai
ideile fi ino%aeiile respecti%e dar fi o #ulei#e de detalii supli#entare>
1enunearea la acest dialog este echi%alent: cu pierderea unor oportunit:ei
pedagogice i#portante pentru deM%oltarea ulterioar: atTt a colabor:rii cTt fi a
elabor:rii de noi cunoftinee> gn caMul particip:rii a #ai #ultor e:ri la un proiect
fiecare ear: Pfi poate alege un do#eniu particular din sfera de acti%it:ei a
proiectului> 7u este neap:rat necesar ca repartieia cercet:rilor s: fie egal: pentru
toate e:rile> 5 fcoal: poate inieia un proiectC apoi poate tri#ite o pri#: %ersiune
a reMultatelor obeinute altor parteneri care la rTndul lorC prin sugestii proprii
fa%oriMeaM: des:%Trfirea studiului respecti%> gn acest #od subiectul de%ine #ai
larg fi #ai bine abordat>
,biecti>ele acestui capitol sunt:
1 e3plorarea beneficiilor fi sfid:rilor deter#inate de constituirea unei reeele de studiu dintre
fcoli partenere Pn do#eniul @storiei htiineei fi Tehnologiei&
. de a elabora idei fi de a fa%oriMa elaborarea unor proceduri prin care reeelele pot fi
constituite>
Care sunt beneficiile Qi sfidMrile parteneriatului dintre Qcolile Europene On domeniul
studiului %storiei PtiinNei Qi Tehnicii <
0r#:toarele beneficii sunt foarte ufor de identificatD
a) ele%ii sunt #ai bine #oti%aei dac: #unca lor se efectueaM: Pn cadrul unui proiect
internaeional&
b) ele%ii cap:t: Pncredere Pn propria lor #unc:C precu# fi Pn #unca pe care o efectueaM:
oa#enii de ftiine:C inginerii fi tehnicienii din propria lor ear:&
c) ele%ii pot s: capete #ult #ai #ulte cunoftinee pri%ind deM%oltarea htiineei fi Tehnologiei
dea lungul @storiei propriilor e:riC precu# fi a altor e:ri Europene&
d) acest tip de aceiune fa%oriMeaM: deM%oltarea unei %iMiuni l:rgite asupra #oftenirii Europene
co#une>
E%identC fi alte beneficii fi sfid:ri pot fi identificate>
'intre nu#eroasele sfid:ri care pot fi identificate se re#arc: ur#:toareleD
a) cu# pot fi sur#ontate dificult:eile de li#b:&
1;
b) cu# poate fi finaneat schi#bul de infor#aeii&
c) care este cea #ai bun: #etod: pri%ind schi#bul de infor#aeii&
d) cu# pot fi identificate fcolile care accept: parteneriatul Pntre ele&
e) cu# poate fi %erificat faptul c: #unca efectuat: Pntrun proiect co#un este Pn concordane:
cu obligaeiile progra#ei oficiale Pn %igoare Pn toate e:rile participante&
f) cu# se poate elabora un proiect adaptat unor cerinee specifice>
gn paginile care ur#eaM: se preMint: strategia pe baMa c:reia se poate r:spunde la aceste
sfid:ri> 'e e3e#pluC sub%eneiile pentru un anu#it proiect pot fi solicitate "o#isiei Europene
(%eMi capitolul K din acest %olu#)>
Care sunt informaNiile necesare pentru stabilirea unui parteneriat <
5 institueie de Pn%:e:#Tnt poate solicita infor#aeii cu caracter ad#inistrati% (denu#irea fcoliiC
adresa poftal: fi electronic:C nu#erele de telefon fi de fa3) precu# fi infor#aeii pri%ind
i#portanea fcolii (nu#:rul de ele%iC %Trstele ele%ilor) sau dorefte s: cunoasc: dac: fcoala este
#i3t: (b:ieei fi fete) sau nu#ai de b:ieeiC respecti% nu#ai de fete> gn aceast: carte se g:sefte
un for#ular corespunM:tor acestui tip de solicit:ri> E%identC se pot ad:uga infor#aeii
supli#entare cu# ar fiD li#ba preferat: de co#unicare sau preciMarea unei anu#ite te#e
particulare de @storie a htiineei fi Tehnologiei>
Cum se poate gMsi o instituNie QcolarM partenerM <
Poate fi deja cunoscut: o alt: institueie fcolar: European: PntrucTt sar putea ca Pn aceste fcoli
s: se afle colegi care doresc s: coopereMe> 'e ase#enea se poate contacta +geneia 7aeional: a
"o#isiei Europene fi de a solicita infor#aeii pri%ind alte institueii de Pn%:e:#Tnt care sunt Pn
faMa de identificare a unor fcoli partenere pentru P#p:reirea do#eniilor de studii ale unui
proiect de @storia htiineei fi Tehnicii> 'e ase#enea se poate consulta siteul YAindo$s on the
$orld6s $ebsiteZ la adresa httpDEE$$$>$ot$>org>u? care grupeaM: institueiile pri#are sau
secundare dea lungul Pntregii lu#iC interesate s: participe la ase#enea proiecte>
Proiectul de @storia htiineei fi Tehnologiei preMentat Pn aceast: carte are baMa sa proprie de
adrese a diferitelor fcoli interesate de proiecte Pn diferite do#enii ale @storiei htiineei fi
Tehnicii> +cest site care este public poate fi consultat la adresa ur#:toareD
httpDEE$$$>hib>noEshofEhstint prin apelarea siglei Yschool projectsZ> Se pot tri#ite propuneri
la adresa electronic: aleas:>
Se poate de ase#enea co#pletaD Y"ererea de asociere la proiectZ preMentat: Pn pagina
ur#:toare fi tri#is: 'l>doctor Bert SorsbyC 0ni%ersity of HullC HullC H0- K1NC 4area
Britanie sau do#nului S%ein HoffC HHgscolen @ BergenC +%deling for laerutdanningC
9andass%ingen 1B7B/<-C BergenC 7or%egia>
1<
$roiect de formare On %storia PtiinNei Qi Tehnologiei
pentru On>MNMmFntul din Europa
Cerere de asociere la proiect
%.0,)M!R%% /E B!ST
%nstituNia: $ersoana de contact:
7u#eD 7u#eD
+dresaD
TelefonD 9i#bi cunoscuteD
(a3 TelefonD
E#ail E#ailD
%nformaNii despre instituNia QcolarM:
7u#:r de ele%i
B:ieei sau fete=
Tipul institueieiD Pri#ar: 8i#naMial: 9iceal:
(K to 11 years) (11 to 1B) (1B to 1;)
Specificul institueiei=
,Trsta ele%ilor i#plicaei Pn proiectD
@nfor#aeii pri%ind do#eniul an%iMajat al @storiei htiineei fi Tehnologiei
4etodele preferate de co#unicare (fa3& poft:& poft: electronic:)
9i#bile preferate de co#unicareD
,: rug:# s: a%eei bun:%oinea de a tri#ite aceste infor#aeii la HST Project "oordinatorC 'r
Bert SorsbyC 0ni%ersity of HullC Hull H0- K1NC 02> or to S%ein HoffC HHgs?olen i BergenC
+%deling for laerutdanningC 9andass%ingen 1B7B/<- BergenC 7or$ay
0lterior %eei g:si infor#aeiile din acest chestionar la
adresaDhttpDEE$$$>hib>noEshofEhstintE fi %eei putea stabili
leg:turi cu institueiile deja Pnscrise Pn acest site
./
-nit 2 -nderstanding and accessing European education
programmes
The purpose of this unit is to help you to:
gain an o%er%ie$ of the European funding progra##es $hich are rele%ant to schools&
select the actions appropriate to your type of project&
find the necessary infor#ation and for#s to apply for funding>
Bac'ground information
@n 1< Both progra##es operated until the end of 1<<<> They $ere succeeded by ne$
progra##es using the sa#e na#es and sharing #any of the original ai#s and objecti%es> This
0nit concentrates on the Socrates progra##e $hich deals $ith education> @t does ho$e%er
pro%ide sufficient infor#ation on 9eonardo da ,inci the %ocational training progra##e to
enable infor#ation to be located> @n general 9eonardo da ,inci is directed at students $ho are
ta?ing part in initial %ocational training courses at school or college> Both ne$ progra##es
are designed to operate up to 31
st
'ece#ber .//->
Socrates U European !ction $rogramme for Education
The #ain ai#s of the progra##e areD
to strengthen the European di#ension in education at all le%els&
to i#pro%e the ?no$ledge of European languages&
to pro#ote and facilitate cooperation in education&
to encourage inno%ation in education>
P+1T@"@P+T@78 "507T1@ES
Thirty one countries $ill ta?e part in the progra##eD
+ll the 1B #e#ber states of the E0D
The 3 E(T+ countriesD @celandC 9iechtenstein and 7or$ay&
The 1/ +ssociated "ountries of the E0D BulgariaC "yprusC the "Mech 1epublicC
EstoniaC HungaryC 9at%iaC 9ithuaniaC 4altaC PolandC 1o#aniaC Slo%a?ia and Slo%enia&
Tur?ey it is ad%isable to chec? the current situation $ith your 7ational +gency for
this country>
S5"1+TES supports projects fro# all types of schools and training institutions and is ai#ed
at all le%elsD preschool educationC pri#aryC secondaryC higher education and life long learning>
.1
+ Su##ary of the Progra##e
The follo(ing pages aim to pro>ide readers (ith a broad understanding of the Socrates
$rogrammeH 0or the ma:ority of teachers the practical application of the programme
(ill be (ithin !ction * U ComeniusH
!CT%,. * School Education Comenius
!ims:
To i#pro%e the )uality of and de%elop the European di#ension in education byD
Encouraging cooperation and supporting partnerships bet$een schools in
participating countries&
"ontributing to initial and inser%ice training of staff in the school education sector&
Pro#oting the de%elop#ent of net$or?s of school partnerships and inser%ice training
projects to enhance cooperation and the disse#ination of good practice>
Comenius School $artnerships
This action featuresD
"o#enius School Projects
"o#enius 9anguage Projects
"o#enius School 'e%elop#ent Projects
Plus Preparatory ,isits
Comenius !ction * * - Comenius School $ro:ectsV
These projects #ust include at least three schools or colleges across at least three countries>
These institutions can range fro# 7ursery Schools to ,ocational "olleges> 0p to three years
of funding is a%ailable to support such projects> There are se%eral i#portant criteria>
"o#enius School ProjectsD
4ust be integrated into the regular acti%ities of the school&
Ta?e place $ithin the curriculu#&
@n%ol%e se%eral class groups&
Ha%e a $ide i#pact in school&
@n%ol%e pupils in the planningC organisation and e%aluation of the $or?&
Be #ultidisciplinary>
The projects #ay be co#pletely focused on the process of cooperation and lin?ing but for
#any there $ill also be outco#esD 7e$slettersC $ebsitesC "'154s
The projects $ill be funded on an annual basis> The school that ta?es on the responsibility
to run the project (the coordinator) #ay recei%e up to i./// per year $hile the partner
schools recei%e up to i1B//> This #ay be used for #aterialsC co##unication costsC the
purchase of soft$are and a proportion of the lease of @T e)uip#ent for use in connection
$ith the project> Tra%el and acco##odation costs for #eetings are paid in addition to
these a#ounts and are related to the geographical location of the partnership schools (for
e3a#ple a partnership featuring (inlandC 8reece and @reland $ould recei%e a higher tra%el
costs than a partnership bet$een the Benelu3 countries)> 4ost projects $ill organise . or 3
#eetings per year and use these occasions to organise and e%aluate the $or? of the
project> @t is per#issible for a s#all nu#ber of pupils to acco#pany teachers to these
#eetings> They $ill act as project $or?ers and a#bassadors for their school> 0p to si3
..
teachers can apply to underta?e so#e ?ind of #obility acti%ity each year and up to four
pupils can participate in the planning or e%aluation #eetings for the project each year>
j Participants in the first phase of Socrates $ill recognise #any of the features of 4ultilateral
School Projects or J"o#enius Projects6 in this action>
Ahy ta?e part in a "o#enius School Project= Here are so#e outco#es for pupils reported
by schools pre%iously in%ol%ed in "o#enius projectsD
raising pupils6 selfestee#C confidence and #oti%ation
de%elop#ent of pupils6 interpersonal and co##unication s?ills
increased #oti%ation for language learning
reduced stereotyping
a$areness and appreciation of life outside their o$n en%iron#ent
increased a$areness as citiMens of Europe>
Comenius !ction * 2 - Comenius 8anguage $ro:ects
These are language learning projects bet$een t$o schools fro# t$o eligible countries> They
enable a #ini#u# of 1/ students in the 1! .B age group to ta?e part in a reciprocal t$o
$ee? e3change closely in%ol%ed $ith a project> The students #ust #a?e use of the foreign
language in planning for their e3change and also use the target language in a real conte3t
$hile the e3change ta?es place> There is usually a distinct end product of the project a
#agaMineC dra#a perfor#ance or design and build tas? for e3a#ple> Priority $ill be gi%en to
the less $idely used and less taught languages> (unding can be directed to language tuition if
the target language is not taught in school> @n co##on $ith "o#enius School Projects there is
a standard grant of up to i./// $ith a %ariable contribution to$ards student and teacher tra%el
and subsistence> There is an e3pectation that the fa#ilies of students $ill act as hosts for the
%isiting group>
j Participants in the first phase of Socrates $ill recognise #any of the features of 9ingua E
projects or J*oint Educational Projects6 in this action>
Ahy ta?e part in a "o#enius 9anguage Project=
increased confidence and ability in the target language
greater #oti%ation for pupils6 studies and i#pro%ed interpersonal s?ills
%aluable e3perience of other cultures and societies>
Comenius !ction * 1 - School /e>elopment $ro:ects
These are a ne$ ele#ent of "o#enius $hich enable school #anagers and teachers to
e3change e3perience and infor#ation $ith partner schools else$here in Europe> 5nce again a
#ini#u# of three eligible countries #ust be in%ol%ed> The issues includeD
The pre%ention of %iolence at school&
The integration of ethnic #inorities&
"lassroo# #anage#ent&
E)ual opportunities&
.3
The specific needs of the children of #igrant $or?ersC gypsiesC tra%ellers and itinerant
$or?ers>
These projects are funded in a si#ilar $ay to "o#enius School Projects but #obility is
restricted to #e#bers of staff> Strong lin?s $ith the co##unity are encouraged in the
planning of these projects> 0p to si3 teachers can apply to underta?e so#e ?ind of #obility
acti%ity each year>
! summary of Comenius *
Schools and colleges can apply for three ?inds of project under "o#enius 1D
Comenius School
$ro:ect
Comenius
8anguage
$ro:ect
Comenius School
/e>elopment
$ro:ect
Pupilcentred W k
Schoolcentred k
Partnership at least three schools
or colleges
t$o schools or
colleges
at least three schools
or colleges
'uration #a3 three years nor#ally one year #a3 three years
Comenius !ction 2 U The Training of School Education Staff
!ims:
To impro>e the =uality of and de>elop the European dimension in education by:
Pro#oting )uality in the teaching of E0 languages&
Pro#oting intercultural a$areness in school education in Europe>
Comenius !ction 2 * U European Co-operation $ro:ects
These are projects $hich createC test and deli%er training courses for teachers or other
educational staff> They #ay in%ol%e the de%elop#ent of curricula for initial teacher trainingC
pro#ote the #obility of student teachers and de%elop teaching strategies for specific learner
groups> @n general these projects are accessible to educational institutions other than schools
and colleges but schools #ay be in%ol%ed eg as partners to local authorities or uni%ersities>
Comenius !ction 2 2 U %ndi>idual Mobility !cti>ities
@ndi%idual #obility and training opportunities for teachers are published annually in the
"o#enius "atalogue> The 7ational +gencies for Socrates $ill direct users of their sites to
these coursesC see httpDEEeuropa>eu>intEco##EeducationEsocratesEco#eniusEnatagenc>ht# for a
co#plete list of all agencies> 4any of these courses are concerned $ith language learning and
rese#ble the 9ingua B courses $ell ?no$n to teachers of #odern foreign languages under the
pre%ious progra##e> There are also courses concerned $ith particular curricular areas or
school #anage#ent issues> (unding is a%ailable to co%er indi%idual #e#bers of staff in ter#s
of the cost of the course plus tra%elC acco##odation and a contribution to$ards subsistence>
"ourses last up to a $ee? for nonlanguage training up to ! $ee?s for language courses>
8rants are a%ailable up to i1B//>
.!
Comenius !ction 2 1 U Comenius 8anguage !ssistants
These are prospecti%e teachers of foreign languages $ho apply to $or? in school for bet$een
3 and ; #onths> They ta?e part in acti%ities $hich broadly support the European di#ension
across the curriculu# and help to introduce their o$n language and culture to the host
institution> Lour school can host a "o#enius 9anguage +ssistant $holly supported by the
Socrates progra##e>
Ahy host a "o#enius 9anguage +ssistant=
The #ain benefit a "o#enius +ssistant $ill bring to your school or college is an
authentic presence fro# another European country> This can act as a $ay of introducing
your pupils to other European culturesC languages and perspecti%es>
"o#enius +ssistants are paid a #onthly allo$ance by the European "o##ission> This
#eans that an +ssistant represents a %aluable teaching resource $hich co#es at no cost
to your school or college>
Comenius !ction 1 U .et(or's
"o#enius 3 pro%ides support for 7et$or?s of institutions $ho ha%e already been in%ol%ed in
"o#enius projects in order that they #ay share e3perienceC good practice and inno%ation>
"o#enius 7et$or?s in%ol%e at least one organisation fro# each of at least si3 different
countriesC and partnerships should be designed to bring on board ne$ organisations during the
course of the project>
+cti%ities #ay includeD
conferencesC se#inars and sy#posia
publication of findings and e3periences including best practice guidesC resources and
#aterials
>
"rosssector and E or crossphase 7et$or?s are particularly encouraged>
!pplying for a Comenius pro:ect U summary of deadlines

"o#enius School Projects 1 (ebruary 'ecentralised
"o#enius 9anguage Projects 1 (ebruary 'ecentralised
"o#enius School 'e%elop#ent Projects 1 (ebruary 'ecentralised
"o#enius .>1 European cooperation in
ser%ice training projects
1 4arch "entralised
"o#enius .>. @ndi%idual training grants for
school and college education staffD
@nitial training
"o#enius 9anguage +ssistants
@nser%ice training
,aries 'ecentralised
"o#enius 3 7et$or?s 1 7o%e#ber pre
proposal
1 4arch full
proposal
"entralised
.B
Notes:
a% So"e &ational 'gencies "ay re$uire earlier deadlines
!% De-centralised applications are su!"itted to &ational 'gencies%
c% Centralised applications are su!"itted to the European Co""ission (ith a copy sent
to the &ational 'gency of the co-ordinating country) (ith the e*ception of &et(or+s
(hich are sent to the European Co""ission only%
Progra##e 4anage#ent
The S5"1+TES progra##e is #anaged by the European "o##ission> The responsible
'irectorate is Education and "ulture> The progra##e is di%ided into +ctions> So#e of these
actions are ad#inistered directly by the "o##ission and in these cases applications are #ade
directly to Brussels> These are called centralised actions> 5ther actions are ad#inistered by
the #e#ber states and applications are #ade to the 7ational +gency (7>+>)> These are
decentralised actions> This agency #ay be in an independent institution or $ithin the
ad#inistration of the 4inistry of Education of the #e#ber state concerned>
Ma'ing an application: the use of the Comenius $lan
The "o#enius plan is a strategic tool the purpose of $hich is to enable your
schoolEinstitution to plan its EuropeanEinternational cooperation acti%ities o%er a longer
ti#espan> The plan $ill also ser%e as a source of infor#ation for the 7ational +gency and
$ill help in the assess#ent of your project proposals> The "o#enius Plan $ill therefore
for# part of the application for# for "o#enius projects> The )uestions in Part + allo$
the 7ational +gency to build up a picture of the school or college> The )uestions in Part
B pro%ide a bac?ground to your school6s European acti%ities in general and indicate to
the 7ational +gency all the "o#enius acti%ities $hich the school intends to underta?e
under "o#enius 1C . or 3> The co#pletion of a "o#enius Plan does not guarantee the
pro%ision of funding for these acti%ities and it is highly li?ely that 7ational +gencies $ill
re)uire schools to prioritise their re)uire#ents> The follo$ing docu#ent is therefore
indicati%e of the "o#enius Plan>
.-
PART A. General information on your school/institution
(See Unit 1 for more details)
.K
1. Name of the school/institution:
2. Address of the school/institution:
3. Location: rural urban suburban
4. otal number of !u!ils: "emale: #ale:
$. A%e of !u!ils: &oun%est: 'ldest:
(. otal number of teachers: "emale: #ale:
). otal number of other staff: "emale: #ale:
*. +lease indicate the !articular focus of ,our school/institution- if an,- such as- for e.am!le- humanities- sciences-
en/ironmental education- earl, lan%ua%e learnin%- music- s!orts:
0. 1oes ,our school/institution ha/e a si%nificant number of:
!u!ils at ris2 of social e.clusion !u!ils 3ith s!ecial educational needs
4f ,es- !lease e.!lain:
15. 4s ,our school/institution located in a socio6economicall, disad/anta%ed area- or is it in a disad/anta%ed situation for
an, other reasons7
&es No
4f ,es- !lease e.!lain:
PART B. Your schools/institutions European Activities
1. 8as ,our school /institution alread, been in/ol/ed in 9uro!ean/international co6o!eration acti/ities7
&es No
4f ,es- in 3hat 2ind of acti/ities7
2.. :hat 2ind of 9uro!ean coo!eration acti/ities- and in !articular ;omenius acti/ities- does ,our school/institution
intend to !ursue in the future7 +lease !resent the acti/ities ,ear b, ,ear- if !ossible. ( 1
st
,ear- 2
nd
,ear etc.)
3 .:ho has been in/ol/ed in the !roduction of the ;omenius +lan7 +artici!ants ma, include members of staff- the
9uro!ean ;o6ordinator and members of the 3ider communit, in 3hich the school is situated.
3> Ahy does your schoolEinstitution $ish to beco#e in%ol%ed in these acti%ities= Ahich concrete
outco#es do you e3pect of the# for the participating pupils and teachersC and potentiallyC for the $hole
schoolEinstitution=
Si%nature of the !erson le%all, authorised to si%n on behalf of the school/institution
Stam! of the school/institution
Name and !osition in ca!ital letters
!cti>ities for pupilsX teachersX heads and school administrators
The follo$ing pages contain an o%er%ie$ of the different progra##es and actions structured
according to the target groupsD pupilsC teachersC heads and school ad#inistrators> (or #ore
infor#ation contact your 7ational +gency>
!CT%,.S 0,) $-$%8S
a) Schools of all types can create a #ultinational partnership $ith a #ini#u# three
different countries in%ol%ed> Aithin this partnership schools can de%elop a Comenius
School $ro:ect ($hich is so#eti#es called a #ultilateral school partnership)> This is a
cross curricular project on a co##on the#e (e>g> en%iron#entC cultural heritage>>>)>
Pupils and $hole classes $or? si#ultaneously on the sa#e project and then e3change
dataC opinions or #aterials> This is then incorporated into their nor#al $or? in class>
This type of project is supported by C,ME.%-S !ction *H*
+ basic project grant fro# the "o##ission is a%ailable up to a #a3i#u# of i.///Eyear
for the coordinating school and i1B//Eyear for each partner school> + proportion of
tra%el costs for project #eetings #ay be clai#ed in addition to these a#ounts depending
upon the costs incurred> So#e national agencies #ay be able to increase these a#ounts
for schools $hich can de#onstrate special needs or disad%antage> Special schools
should auto#atically apply for these higher a#ounts> "o#enius School Projects $ill
support a project for up to three years $ith an annual rene$al> The grant can support
teacher tra%el for planning #eetingsC subsistence costsC #aterials and telephone and fa3
accounts> They can also support li#ited pupil tra%el (.!) to project #eetings but not the
purchase of capital e)uip#ent> 0p to i1/// is also a%ailable for $reparatory 2isits
before a project begins>
+pplication procedureD the coordinator and each partner apply to their o$n
7ational +gency not to the European "o##ission>
+pplication deadlineD 1 (ebruaryC> So#e 7ational +gencies re)uire earlier
applications for e3a#ple (rance and 8er#any re)uire applications in ad%ance of
this date> The situation is si#ilar for Preparatory ,isits so#e 7ational +gencies
allo$ applications at any ti#eC others #ay set deadlines>
b) Comenius 8anguage $ro:ects are ai#ed at pupilsEstudents in the 1! .B age group
$ho $ill cooperate $ith a single partner school abroad> 'irect co##unication in a
foreign language and a pupil e3change are the core ele#ents of each project> + $ide
range of subjects can be used as a the#e for a Comenius 8anguage $ro:ectD historyC
en%iron#entC #usicC sportC fashion etc but it #ust be related to the curriculu#
follo$ed by the pupils> The e3changes are reciprocal and last for a #ini#u# of t$o
$ee?s each> This can include parts of the holiday periods and can be spread o%er t$o
school years> + standard grant of up to i./// per school is a%ailable to support project
organisation> + proportion of the costs of the %isit $ill also be rei#bursed but there are
no acco##odation allo$ances as pupils stay in host fa#ilies> +dditional funds are
a%ailable for pree3change language training if the target language is not nor#ally
taught in school> @n disad%antaged areas schools #ay apply for up to KBl of their
costs> 0p to i1/// is also a%ailable for $reparatory 2isits before a project begins>
+pplicationD each school has to apply at its 7ational +gency
'eadlineD 1 (ebruary but note the possible e3ceptions listed under "o#enius
School Projects
.;
c) Schools can as? for a Comenius 8anguage !ssistant> This is a student or a young
)ualified language teacher fro# one of the #e#ber states $illing to spend a period as
an assistant in a school of a country $here the language sEhe teaches is one of the
official languages> This assistant can help in the teaching of languagesC pro%ide lessons
about country and cultureC e3change infor#ation on educationC help to plan a
European project at school etc>> The assistantship can last fro# three #onths to a full
school year> The Comenius 8anguage !ssistant action pays for tra%el and
acco##odation>
+pplicationD assistants and host schoolsD at their 7ational +gency
'eadlineD 1 (ebruary
7ote to 02 readersD This sche#e is not accessible to secondary schools $hich teach the
#other tongue of the "o#enius 9anguage +ssistant> This is to a%oid co#petition $ith
bilateral sche#es $hich are organised bet$een depart#ents of education>
ACTIONS FOR TEACHERS
a) Teachers can apply for Preparatory ,isits in order to prepare a projectD Comenius
School $ro:ectsX Comenius 8anguage $ro:ects and School /e>elopment $ro:ects
all offer grants of up to i1///Eperson for this purpose>
+pplicationD 7ational +gency
'eadlinesD usually three or four #onths before the project deadline
b) Comenius School /e>elopment $ro:ects are ai#ed at teachers and school #anagers
$ho are interested in the e3change of infor#ation and e3perience> 9i?e "o#enius
School Projects a #ini#u# of three schools in three countries #ust be in%ol%ed>
There is also the e3pectation that appropriate agencies or co##unity organisations
$ill be incorporated into the project> The choice of issue is up to the project group but
#ight include
The pre%ention of %iolence and conflict&
The integration of ethnic #inority groups&
Teaching #ethodologies&
School organisation and #anage#ent&
Preparation for e#ploy#ent>
+ basic project grant fro# the "o##ission is a%ailable up to a #a3i#u# of i.///Eyear
for the coordinating school and i1B//Eyear for each partner school> + proportion of
tra%el costs for project #eetings #ay be clai#ed in addition to these a#ounts depending
upon the costs incurred>
+pplicationD only by the coordinating institution at the 7>+>
+pplication deadlineD 1 (ebruaryC> So#e 7ational +gencies re)uire earlier
applications for e3a#ple (rance and 8er#any re)uire applications in ad%ance of
this date>
.<
c) Teachers can also apply for a Teacher EYchange ( of 1 ! $ee?s) as part of a
"o#enius School Project or "o#enius School 'e%elop#ent Project> There is an
e3pectation that such an e3change $ill facilitate and further the project> + teacher can
teach in the partner schoolC co#pare education syste#sC didactic approachC #anualsC
e3a#ination syste#s or the teachers can jointly plan the project and associated
#aterials> The appropriate project $ill be pro%ided $ith an e3tra grant up to a
#a3i#u# of i1B// for a Teacher E3change>
+pplicationD 7ational +gency as part of the Comenius $lan
d) Teachers can also apply for a Teacher $lacement in a business (of 1 ! $ee?s) as
part of a "o#enius School Project or "o#enius School 'e%elop#ent Project> There
is an e3pectation that such an place#ent $ill facilitate and further the #ain project> +
teacher can use the place#ent to assist $ith the preparation of #aterialsC the collection
of data or for any other purpose associated $ith the project> The appropriate project
$ill be pro%ided $ith an e3tra grant up to a #a3i#u# of i1B// for a Teacher
Place#ent>
e) Teachers can ta?e part in international inser%ice training se#inars outside of projects>
7ational agencies $ill pro%ide grants up to a #a3i#u# of i1B// for teachers to tra%el
and ta?e part in training sessions organised by training institutions> The European
di#ension at schoolC transnational cooperationC intercultural educationC e3change of
infor#ationC ne$ technologiesC i#pro%e#ent of language s?illsm are so#e of the
the#es in these courses> They offer the opportunity for partner finding and the creation
of "o#enius School partnerships as $ell> +ll courses are featured in the Comenius
Catalogue>
+pplication> 7ational +gency
'eadlines $ill be pro%ided by the 7ational +gency
!CT%,.S 0,) SCH,,8 HE!/S !./ !/M%.%ST)!T,)S
a) School heads and ad#inistrators can also apply for a study %isit (#a3i#u# 1 $ee?) to
their "o#enius partner schools as part of either a "o#enius School Project or a
"o#enius School 'e%elop#ent project> These %isits #ust be part of the $or?plan of the
project and should ai# at strengthening the partnership> The project $ill be pro%ided
$ith an e3tra grant of #a3> i1B// to any school ta?ing part> School heads and
ad#inistrators and also careers guidance personnel and inspectors and ad%isors can
apply for an inser%ice training grant to attend an international inser%ice training course
(see the teachers6 section abo%e)>
b# !)%,. is a progra##e for educational policy#a?ers no#inated by the participating
countries> Educational staff acti%e in #anage#entC e%aluationC training and guidance can
ta?e part in one $ee? %isits organiMed in and by one of the #e#ber states in order to
e3change infor#ation and e3perience on #atters of co##on interest> +1@57 is included
in +ction - of Socrates 5bser%ation and @nno%ation>
3/
+pplicationD 7ational +gency
!dditional information
* The )emainder of the Socrates $rogramme
!CT%,. 2 Higher Education Erasmus
This action ai#s to enhance the )uality and reinforce the European di#ension in higher
education and does not co#e $ithin the scope of this unit>
!CT%,. 1 !dult Education !nd ,ther Educational $ath(ays rundt!i"
8rundt%ig co#ple#ents the school education and adult education actions by pro#oting a
European di#ension in lifelong learning> @t is targeted in particular at young people $ho ha%e
left the school syste# $ith insufficient training and $ish to resu#e their studies> 8rundt%ig
$ill encourage the creation of European net$or?s and enable greater cooperation in these
areas>
!CT%,. 3 Teaching !nd 8earning ,f 8anguages #in"ua
This action ai#s to pro#ote the teaching and learning as foreign languages of all the official
languages of the 4e#ber States> (inancial assistance is a%ailable to transnational language
learning projects such asD
+$areness raising acti%ities&
+cti%ities to pro#ote inno%ation such as the early learning of languages&
The de%elop#ent of ne$ curriculaC teaching #aterials and instru#ents of
language proficiency&
The net$or?ing of resource centres>
!CT%,. 4 ,pen !nd /istance 8earningZ %nformation !nd Communication
Technologies %n The 0ield ,f Education $iner!a
The purpose of this action is to co#ple#ent and enrich the other actions of the progra##e by
pro#oting the use of ne$ infor#ation and co##unication technologies especially in ter#s of
5pen and 'istance learning> Support is a%ailable forD
Projects $hich de%elop )uality criteria for the use of educational #ulti#edia&
Projects to de%elop #aterials and #ethodologies&
Projects to support the e3change of ideas and e3perience including the
net$or?ing of resource centres>
!CT%,. 5 ,bser>ation !nd %nno>ation
This action ai#s to de%elop the )uality of education through the obser%ation of education
syste#s including study %isits for decision #a?ers (+1@57)C infor#ation on national
education syste#s (Eurydice) and the 7et$or? of 7ational +cade#ic 1ecognition
@nfor#ation "entres (7+1@")>
31
!CT%,. 6 [oint !ctions
The "o##ission intends to i#ple#ent joint calls for proposals that #ay in%ol%e the
%ocational training and youth progra##es>
!CT%,. 7 !ccompanying Measures
This part of the ne$ progra##e $ill pro#ote acti%ities that are not eligible for assistance
under the other actions but $hich still pro#ote the objecti%es of the progra##e>
2 8eonardo da 2inci
This is the European "o##ission progra##e for ,ocational Training launched at the sa#e
ti#e as the ne$ Socrates progra##e $ith the sa#e lifespan> 9eonardo pro%ides support for
young people o%er the age of 1! to ta?e part in $or? related acti%ities $ith a partner school or
college> To )ualify they #ust be enrolled on an initial %ocational education course>
+ll eligible countries ha%e a .ational Co-ordination -nit to o%ersee the 9eonardo
progra##e>
1 /omestic funding programmes
So#e #e#ber states ha%e do#estic funding progra##es to support international acti%ities for
their o$n schoolsD
(or e3a#ple in the 02 the 7ational +gency offers a nu#ber of sche#es includingD
a) 7orthSouth lin?ing reciprocal %isits&
b) 7orthSouth "urriculu# 'e%elop#ent 8rants&
c) Teachers @nternational Professional 'e%elop#ent&
d) School 9in?ing ,isit 8rants&
e) 1egional @nser%ice Training Progra##e
f) @nternational School +$ard +ccreditation Progra##e>
So#e of these sche#es are supported by the 'epart#ent for @nternational 'e%elop#ent and
ha%e applications for lin?s $ith 9atin +#ericaC the "aribbeanC +frica and +sia>
3.
Some %n-ser>ice Course Tas's
Tas' -2H*
1ead the description of the different actions and tic? ( ) all the actions for $hich your school
is eligible> Select the actions of $hich you thin? the school #ight be interested in> "ontact
your 7ational +gency and as? for #ore infor#ation (guidelines) and for the necessary
paper$or? to apply for funding>
Tas' -2H2
0se the #odel "o#enius Plan to prepare a strategic plan for European acti%ities at your
school for the ne3t three year period> 1elate the plan to the priorities of the school in ter#s of
the pupils and the curriculu# but also consider #anage#ent issues> Sho$ this to the Head
and other ?ey #e#bers of staff and use this $or? as the basis for Tas? 3>
Tas' -2H1
5btain the appropriate application for#s and use these to prepare detailed proposals> @nclude
a pro%isional budget> Sho$ this to the Head and other ?ey #e#bers of staff and use this $or?
as the basis for a real application>
Tas' -2H3
Hand!oo+ users fro" the ,-
"ontact the "entral Bureau and find out $hich of the 02 do#estic funding progra##es #ay
assist your European de%elop#ents in school>
Hand!oo+ users outside the ,-
"ontact your national agency and as? about funding progra##es other than those offered
through Socrates and 9eonardo>
33
-nit 1 History of Science and Technology in Education in some
European CountriesH
The purpose of this unit is:
to sho$ $here HST #ay be found in the school and higher education curricula for a
nu#ber of European countries>
to present so#e insights into ho$ HST is taught in %arious countries>
to present so#e co##ents fro# %arious parts of Europe on the teaching of HST &
to consider so#e European contributions to the gro$th of science and technology>
England and ;ales
Summary
@n England and Aales the curriculu# is go%erned by act of Parlia#ent in all schools funded
by the stateC and in #ost schools funded pri%atelyC> There are statutory national tests in
EnglishC 4aths and Science based on these curricula for all children aged KC 11 and 1! years
and e3a#inations at 1- years relate to these curricula too> @nitial teacher training courses are
also go%erned by act of Parlia#ent> There are regular inspections of schools and teacher
training courses e%ery fe$ years> The latest national curriculu# for schools $as published in
1<<< and that for initial teacher training in .//.>
(or HST in particularD
1ecent legislation re)uires history of science and technology to be taught to children in
state schools in England and Aales> +n understanding of the nature of science is also
re)uired at the #o#ent ( .//1) in the training of all pri#ary teachers and all secondary
science teachers in England>
HST is found #ainly in the science and history curricula for schools and is for all children
aged B to 1- years> in scienceC and B to 1! years for history> So#e aspects can also in the
ne$ national curriculu# for "itiMenship>
@n the science national curriculu# HST is found under J@deas and E%idence6 and also in
JBreadth of Study6> @n initial teacher training it appears in the docu#ents concerning
e3e#plification of the standards>
@n spite of the legislationC HST is usually not taught in school science lessons in England
and Aales because (a) teachers are generally unsure about the subject and (b) it is not
assessed in the national tests at age KC 11 and 1!>
B0T this is changing because e3a#ination boards in England are setting )uestions $hich
relate to the public understanding of science and also to J@deas and E%idence > Peter Ellis tells
ho$ this is being done in the ne3t section>(pages3!!;)
Lou can find the co#plete school 7ational "urriculu# for England and Aales at the $eb
addressD httpDEE$$$>nc>u?>net (or initial teacher trainingC the docu#ent is at
httpDEE$$$>canteach>go%>u?Eco##unityEittEre)uire#entsE)ualifyingEinde3>ht#
So#e e3tracts fro# the school national curricula for history and science are gi%en belo$H
3!
Science .ational Curriculum for $upils in England
FPro#oting pupilsF spiritualC #oralC social and cultural de%elop#ent through science
(or e3a#pleC science pro%ides opportunities to pro#oteD
m>cultural de%elop#entC through helping pupils recognise ho$ scientific disco%eries and
ideas ha%e affected the $ay people thin?C feelC createC beha%e and li%eC and dra$ing attention
to ho$ cultural differences can influence the e3tent to $hich scientific ideas are acceptedC
used and %alued>F
FThrough scienceC pupils understand ho$ #ajor scientific ideas contribute to technological
change i#pacting on industryC business and #edicine and i#pro%ing )uality of life> Pupils
recognise the cultural significance of science and trace its $orld $ide de%elop#ent> They
learn to )uestion and discuss sciencebased issues that #ay affect their o$n li%esC the
direction of society and the future of the $orld>F
+ey Stage 2 "6 to ** year olds#
F@deas and e%idence in science
1 Pupils should be taughtD a) that science is about thin?ing creati%ely to try to e3plain ho$
li%ing and nonli%ing things $or?C and to establish lin?s bet$een causes and effects nfor
e3a#pleC *ennerFs %accination $or?ommm>F
+ey stage 1 "** to *3 year olds#
F1 Pupils should be taughtD
Fa about the interplay bet$een e#pirical )uestionsC e%idence and scientific e3planations using
historical and conte#porary e3a#ples nfor e3a#pleC 9a%oisierFs $or? on burningC the possible
causes of global $ar#ingommm>>
c about the $ays in $hich scientists $or? today and ho$ they $or?ed in the pastC including
the roles of e3peri#entationC e%idence and creati%e thought in the de%elop#ent of scientific
ideas>F
+ey Stage 3 " *3 to *5 year olds
F@deas and e%idence in science
1 Pupils should be taughtD
a ho$ scientific ideas are presentedC e%aluated and disse#inated nfor e3a#pleC by publicationC
re%ie$ by other scientistso
b ho$ scientific contro%ersies can arise fro# different $ays of interpreting e#pirical e%idence
nfor e3a#pleC 'ar$inFs theory of e%olutiono
c $ays in $hich scientific $or? #ay be affected by the conte3ts in $hich it ta?es place nfor
e3a#pleC socialC historicalC #oral and spiritualoC and ho$ these conte3ts #ay affect $hether or
not ideas are accepted
3B
History .ational Curriculum for $upils in England
+ey Stage * "4 to 6 years#
F'uring the ?ey stageC pupils should be taughtDm>
c the li%es of significant #enC $o#en and children dra$n fro# the history of Britain and the
$ider $orld nfor e3a#pleC artistsC engineersC e3plorersC in%entorsC pioneersC rulersC saintsC
scientistsoF
+ey Stage 2 "6 to ** years#
F'uring ?ey stage . pupils learn about significant peopleC e%ents and places fro# both the
recent and #ore distant past> They learn about change and continuity in their o$n areaC in
Britain and in other parts of the $orld> They loo? at history in a %ariety of $aysC for e3a#ple
fro# politicalC econo#icC technological and scientificC socialC religiousC cultural or aesthetic
perspecti%es>F
11 > ,ictorian Britain
a + study of the i#pact of significant indi%idualsC e%ents and changes in $or? and transport on
the li%es of #enC $o#en and children fro# different sections of society>F
51
FBritain since 1<3/
b + study of the i#pact of the Second Aorld Aar or social and technological changes that
ha%e ta?en place since 1<3/C on the li%es of #enC $o#en and children fro# different sections
of society>F
F+ European history study
1. + study of the $ay of lifeC beliefs and achie%e#ents of the people li%ing in +ncient 8reece
and the influence of their ci%ilisation on the $orld today>F
+ey Stage 1 "** to *3 years#
FBritain 1B//1KB/
< + study of cro$nsC parlia#ents and peopleD the #ajor politicalC religious and social changes
affecting people throughout the British @slesC including the local area if appropriate>F
.or e*a"ple/
0advances in "edicine and surgery including the (or+ of illia" Harvey1 the founding of
the #oyal Society and the scientific discoveries of 2saac &e(ton) #o!ert 3oyle and Ed"und
Halley1 develop"ents in the arts and architecture%4
FBritain 1KB/1<//
1/ + study of ho$ e3pansion of trade and colonisationC industrialisation and political changes
affected the 0nited 2ingdo#C including the local area>F
.or e*a"ple/
0%%industrialisation in the local area1 changes in agriculture the role of scientists and
inventors such as Ed(ard 5enner) Hu"phry 6avy) 5a"es att) 7ichael .araday) 7ary
So"erville) Charles 6ar(in11 4
F+ European study before 1<1!
11 + study of a significant period or e%ent in the prehistory or history of Europe>F
Bert Sorsby(Hull)
4ay .//.
3-
Teaching and EYamining HST in \%deas and E>idence? in the Science
.ational Curriculum in England
%ntroduction to %deas and E>idence
! story
2n the 89:;s argu"ent raged !et(een the supporters of <uigi =alvani and 'lessandro
>olta% 3oth 2talians (ere respected for their contri!utions to the study of electricity% =alvani
had found that frogs? legs t(itched (hen hung fro" "etal hoo+s and thought that the still
living "atter generated the electricity that "ade the "uscles "ove% >olta thought that the
source of the electricity (as the "etal hoo+s the frogs? legs (ere hung fro"% >olta carried out
e*peri"ents to test his ideas% ith no instru"ents sensitive enough) he used his o(n tongue
to detect the fee!le electric effect generated (hen pieces of t(o different "etals (ere
connected together% 2n 89:: a report on the structure of the electricity generating organs of
the torpedo fish gave hi" an idea of ho( he could !uild (hat ca"e to !e +no(n as his
@voltaic? pile% The alternating discs of Ainc) silver and leather soa+ed in salt (ater provided
the first continuous supply of electricity% 's his ho"e in Co"o (as undergoing repeated
invasions !y &apoleon?s .rench ar"y and the ar"ies of the 'ustrian E"pire he announced
his invention in a letter to Sir 5oseph 3an+s at the #oyal Society in <ondon% 3an+s
i""ediately pu!lished the letter in the Society?s journal and in the su""er of 8B;; the ne(s
$uic+ly spread% Soon other scientists (ere !uilding piles and using the electricity to !rea+
do(n (ater and perfor" other re"ar+a!le effects% The victorious &apoleon invited >olta to
Paris and re(arded hi" (ith the title of Count% >olta !eca"e rich and fa"ous and his
invention helped give !irth to the electrical age in (hich (e live%
This short and si#ple story pro%ide the basis of a lesson that $ill deli%er #ost if not
all of the re)uire#ents for @deas p E%idence as prescribed by the 7ational "urriculu# and
Ede3cel
*
science specificationsC %iM>
Y"andidates #ay be assessed onD
(a) ho( scientific ideas are presented) evaluated and disse"inated1
(!) ho( scientific controversies arise fro" different (ays of interpreting e"pirical
evidence1
(c) (ays in (hich scientific (or+ "ay !e affected !y the conte*ts in (hich it ta+es place1
(d) (ays of considering the po(er and li"itations of science in addressing industrial)
social and environ"ental $uestions) including the +inds of $uestions scientists can and cannot
ans(er) uncertainties in scientific +no(ledge and the ethical issues involved%C
Each of these points can be dra$n out of the story of ,olta and his q%oltaic6 pileC but this is
just one e3a#ple of a topic that could be used> The Ede3cel specifications signpost a
considerable nu#ber of topics fro# all branches of scienceC both historical and conte#poraryC
that #ay deli%er the @deas and E%idence points> This pac?age contains a range of teaching
#aterials dra$n fro# so#e of those topics>
;hy %deas & E>idence<
1
Edexcel is one of the three awarding bodies for public examinations in England. It prepares examinations for
all subjects, including science, and the examinations have to conform to the National Curriculum.
3K
The need to include teaching on the nature of science has been recognised e%er since the
teaching of science $as regularised by the first 7ational "urriculu# orders of 1<;;> Since
then the rele%ant state#ents ha%e #o%ed fro# the progra##es of study to the introduction
and finally to Sc1 $here it is no$ an assessable ele#ent of Scientific En)uiry> @n response to
feedbac? fro# teachersC Ede3celC li?e the other a$arding bodiesC has decided to include @deas
and E%idence in the e3ternal assess#ent of Sc.C 3 and ! $here it $ill #a?e up Bl of the total
#ar? allocation>
Ahile the $eighting appears s#allC the i#portance of @deas and E%idence should not be
underesti#ated> +n understanding of ho$ scientists $or?C the $ay a science de%elops and the
strengths and li#itations of the scientific #ethod #a?es the content of a science course
#eaningful and rele%ant> 0nless one is training to be an engineer or ballistics e3pert there is
little needC professionallyC to learn the relationship bet$een #assC acceleration and force>
Ho$e%erC ?no$ing that @saac 7e$ton6s la$s of #otion e3plained the #o%e#ent of the planets
and subse)uently enabled engineers to design buildingsC #achines and %ehicles pro%ides
considerable #oti%ation for studying this rather dry and difficult bit of physics>
Si#ilarly learning about the factors that affect the populations of ani#als and plants #ay be
professionally i#portant only to ecologists> 7e%erthelessC all citiMens can understand
so#ething of conte#porary studies by #arine biologists on the life history of the cod>
Studying the conflicting interests of fishing co##unities and conser%ationists #ay lead pupils
to understand $hy cod and chips could soon beco#e a rare or e%en illegal dish>
+ttending to the interplay of @deas and E%idence also allo$s teachers to e3a#ine the hu#an
aspects of science> Scientists are no less creati%e and i#aginati%e than artistsC #usiciansC and
historians> They display the sa#e character strengths and $ea?nesses as e%eryone else> Their
tools #ay be laboratory apparatus and instru#entsC but the outco#esC the papers and theoriesC
are as indi%idual as any $or? of art> Spending a little ti#e loo?ing at the $ay scientists li%e
and $or? brings the# bac? into the co##unity and stops the# being loo?ed upon as
#ysterious geniuses or distant and frightening figures in their laboratories>
7one of this need add to the learning load of a pupil if the teacher preparing their sche#e of
$or? ?eeps the @pE points at the forefront of the planning so that pupils beco#e fa#iliar $ith
the issues $hich $ill for# the basis of the assess#ent> The follo$ing pages e3plore the @pE
state#ents in #ore detail and loo? at possible teaching strategies>
;hat do the %&E statements mean< Some commentsH
(a) ho( scientific ideas are presented) evaluated and disse"inated%
The no$ traditional and accepted $ay of publishing ideas and the results of e3peri#ents is
that one or #ore people (group siMes are gro$ing) $rite a report of their $or? for other
#e#bers of a research net$or? or a scientific society> Their paper is re%ie$ed by a nu#ber of
scientists fro# a si#ilar field before being published in a respected acade#ic journal> The
readership of the journal #ay be %ery specialised but the abstract of the paper $ill be
published in collections that are a%ailable to a $ider audience> 1eaders #ay co##ent and
other papers confir#ing or denying the original findings #ay appear> 9ater a boo? #ay be
published pro%iding an o%er%ie$ of the tea#6s $or?> Publishing is still largely on paper but
increasingly acade#ic journals are appearing on the @nternet>
Before the huge gro$th of the acade#ic publishing industryC scientists relied on personal
letters and facetoface #eetings to pass on ideas> These are still i#portant in spreading ne$s
3;
of results and ideas before they ha%e reached a publishable state> "ric? and Aatson gained
i##ensely fro# their infor#al and perhaps unauthorised loo? at 1osalind (ran?lin6s Nray
crystallography results on '7+C $hile the 1<;K conference of the +#erican Physical Society
$as so astounded by the initial reports of high te#perature superconductors that #any
delegates hurried bac? to their o$n labs to repeat the e3peri#ents>
The public recei%e ne$s of scientific research through the popular #edia> This #ay be
$ritten by scientists but is #ore li?ely to be produced by journalists $ith an eye on the
circulation or %ie$ing figures> 5ne side of an argu#ent #ay be presented #ore sensationally
than the other>
5ccasionally scientists ha%e been unorthodo3 and reported their $or? directly to the popular
#edia> This usually angers others scientists> The announce#ent of "old (usion by Pons and
(leisch#an in 1<;< $as one such occurrence> The surprise that this raised persuaded a
nu#ber of research tea#s to repeat the e3peri#ents %ery )uic?lyC so#ething that #ay ha%e
ta?en considerably longer if the results had been hidden a$ay in an obscure journal> Soon the
o%er$hel#ing negati%e results discredited the ad%ocates of cold fusion
(!) Ho( scientific controversies arise fro" different (ays of interpreting e"pirical
evidence
Science has so#eti#es been portrayed to children as a solitary process> The scientist has an
ideaC de%ises an e3peri#ent to test the idea and publishes the result> This has been the #odel
used by pre%ious %ersions of Sc1 in the 7ational "urriculu#> @t is a false and inco#plete
#odel> @n fact contro%ersy and argu#ent ha%e a %ital role in the practice of science and ne$
facts and theories are in%ariably challenged before gaining general acceptance> @#agination
and creati%ity are necessary )ualities for the inno%ati%e scientist> E3peri#ental data isn6t
al$ays reliableC doesn6t al$ays suggest a pattern and theories are not al$ays co##on sense>
'iscussion and argu#ent thro$ up original ideas and contro%ersy stirs other scientists to
perfor# further research to add their contributions>
"ontro%ersies arise fro# %arying interpretations of obser%ations and data> The e3istence of
#ountain ranges on the Earth6s surface dre$ a %ariety of e3planations including at one stage
the idea that the Earth $as shrin?ing and later the idea that drifting continents $ere colliding>
(urther e%idence (#agnetic patterns on either sides of #idocean ridges) $as necessary to
resol%e the issue> Today argu#ent continues in e%ery field of science> + brief perusal of
articles in 7e$ Scientist #agaMine re%eals that scientists argue o%er the interpretation of
al#ost e%ery ne$ fact> So#eti#es the sa#e data is used to support opposing theories>
The corollary of contro%ersy is that no theory is e%er pro%ed& there is al$ays the chance that
an alternati%e $ay of interpreting the data #ay produce a #ore successful theory> 7e$ton6s
classical #echanics sur%i%ed for o%er t$o hundred years until Einstein pro%ided a differentC
#ore generalised $ay of considering #otion fro# an entirely different set of ideas>
The #ajor re%olutions in science e>g> "opernican "os#ologyC 7e$tonian 4echanicsC
'ar$inian e%olutionC 9a%oisier6s o3ygen theoryC all in%ol%ed a ne$ interpretation of dataC
#uch of $hich had been a%ailable for #any years pre%iously> These stories are %ery co#ple3
and $ith hindsight it is often difficult to appreciate ho$ the superseded theories could ha%e
been accepted for such a long period of ti#e> @t #ay be unrealistic to as? pupils to choose
bet$een opposing theories $here one theory has been %ery publicly discredited and the
e%idence for it sho$n to be #isinterpreted> @t #ay be ad%isable that pupils should e3plore
si#pler situations in $hich the alternati%es ha%e e)ual appealC as for e3a#ple the theories
about the origins of #ountains>
3<
Science doesn6t really $or? in the $ay the public e3pects> People loo? for scientific progress
but scientists are e3pected to sho$ certainty> Perhaps one of the causes of the disillusion#ent
$ith science that has occurred as a result of the %arious Yscare storiesZ of the recent past is the
failure to realise that facts can be interpreted in %arious $ays and that acceptance of scientific
theories is pro%isional on so#ething better co#ing along> The public $ere )uite nonplussed
by the uncertainty that scientists sho$ed in the case of BSE and +@'S and could not
understand $hy scientists $ere unable to gi%e une)ui%ocal e3planations for the causes>
%c & 'a(s in ')ic) scienti*ic 'or+ ma( ,e a**ected ,( t)e conte-ts in ')ic) it ta+es
place.
"i# The religious and cultural conteYtH
4ost of the scientists of the European 1enaissanceC or qnatural philosophers6 as they $ere
calledC $ere "hristians and #any $ere ordained clergy> Their $orld%ie$ $as pro%ided
substantially by the "hristian Bible and by their interpretation of the $or?s of 8ree?s such as
+ristotle> + lot of their thought $as shaped by their faith in 8od as the qarchitect of the
uni%erse6> @t too? a bold (e%en an arrogant) #an to dispute the traditional %ie$ of the place
of the Earth in this 0ni%erse> "opernicus $as perhaps not that person although he had
funda#entally ne$ ideas published at his death in 1B!3> 8iordano Bruno had the arrogance
and he %ery )uic?ly ran into conflict $ith established opinion and po$er leading to hi# being
burnt at the sta?e in 1-//> 8alileo ho$e%er brought to his $riting the right #i3ture of
authorityC e3pertise and i#agination> He added his o$n ne$ ideas to those of others and
co#piled a lot of ne$ e%idenceC for e3a#ple about planets> So#e groups found this ne$
e%idence con%incing but others resisted fiercely and these )uarrels $ere all #i3ed up $ith
religious conflicts and changes in society that acco#panied the s$itch to Protestantis# in
northern Europe> E%en 8alileo had to bo$ to pressure to rescind his %ie$ of the uni%erse>
This illustrates that the $ay science is doneC the $ay scientists thin?C the degree to $hich ne$
ideas are accepted depends %ery #uch on the conte3t in $hich the scientists li%e and $or?> +
related point is that fro# the ti#e of 8alileoC $hiteC "hristianC #ales ha%e do#inated science>
@n the last century $o#en ha%e increasingly been allo$ed to ha%e careers in science and other
parts of the $orld contribute to #odern scientific researchC so no$ there is #uch discussion
about $hether the fe#inine outloo? #ight produce a different interpretation of e%idence
co#pared to the #ale %ie$point> There is e%en discussion of an @sla#icC HinduC BuddhistC
"onfucian or e%en 4ar3ist science that sees different patterns in the sa#e e%idence a%ailable
to a Aestern scientist> 4uch of this discussion re#ains contro%ersial>
"ii# The conteYt of (ho paysH
Aor?places also ha%e an effect on the $ay science is done> The traditional i#age of the lone
scientist at $or? in his ho#e laboratory is no$ replaced by tea#s of $or?ers filling cathedrals
of science collaborating on research topics> Si#ilarly the rationale for scientific research has
changed fro# personal interest (e>g> of the a#ateur geologists of the "1<th) to go%ern#ental
concern and industrial co#petition> These factors certainly affect the type of science that is
done and perhaps e%en the $ay the e%idence is interpreted> Aould penicillin ha%e been
studied intensi%ely $ithout go%ern#ent funding in the 1<!/s= "o#pare the search for the
structure of '7+ $ith the Hu#an 8eno#e Project (although $hether the latter should be
considered as inno%ati%e science rather than an application of techni)ues is another )uestion)>
Today scientists $or? for go%ern#ent agenciesC acade#ic institutionsC industry and
ca#paigning groups> Each #ay ha%e a different attitude to the $ay they collect and interpet
their data>
!/
The conclusion is that science is as #uch a cultural acti%ity as literature and art> The
outco#es of scientific research depend on the personality of the indi%idual and the historicalC
socialC cultural and religious conte3t in $hich they $or?ed> This doesn6t di#inish science but
instead sho$s that rather than standing aloof it is a fully integrated factor in hu#an
ci%ilisation>
%d& 'a(s o* considerin" t)e po'er and limitations o* science in addressin" industrial/
social and en!ironmental 0uestions/ includin" t)e +inds o* 0uestions scientists can and
cannot ans'er/ uncertainties in scienti*ic +no'led"e and t)e et)ical issues in!ol!ed.
European science has e3erted a huge influence o%er hu#an ci%ilisation and the en%iron#ent
in the last fi%e hundred years> (or #ost of that ti#e Yscientific progressZ $as seen as a good
thing to the e3tent that other cultures ha%e adopted $hat they percei%e as the scientific
#ethod> Today there is probably little ob%ious difference bet$een scientific laboratories in
BritainC the 0S+C *apanC @ndiaC Egypt or 2enya althoughC as $e ha%e #entionedC the thought
processes of the scientists in the laboratories #ay differ> Today thoughC the benefits of science
are being )uestioned and the right of scientists to follo$ any course of research they $ish is in
dispute> Science is no longer seen as neutral but as possibly being in part responsible for the
horrors of #odern $arfareC en%iron#ental disasters and health scares> The #odern scientistC
in this %ie$C #ust gi%e consideration to the possible conse)uences of the application of his or
her disco%eriesC including unforeseen conse)uences such as those $hich follo$ed the
de%elop#ent of ''T as an insecticide>
5ne $onders $hat Tho#as 4idgely $ould ha%e felt had he been ali%e today> @n the 1<./s he
de%eloped lead tetraethyl as an anti?noc? additi%e for petrol and later synthesised "("sC
$hich beca#e i#portant refrigerants and aerosol propellants> Aould he ha%e continued $ith
his $or? if he had been a$are of the proble#s resulting in lead pollution and the destruction
of the oMone layer= Aould his e#ployers ha%e #ar?eted the products if they had been a$are
of the future proble#s=
The history of science sho$s that disco%eries $ere often )uic?ly utilised to pro%ide
technological solutions to industrial proble#s> Science pro%ides hu#ans $ith the po$er to
control their i##ediate en%iron#ent> But ti#e and ti#e again the $ider conse)uences $ere
hardly gli#psed> The gro$th of the al?ali industry in the early nineteenth century pro%ided
te3tile #anufacturers $ith abundant supplies of soap and bleaches but de%astated the land
around the factories> The in%ention of phosphate detergents ga%e house$i%es of the 1<B/s
efficient $ashing po$ders but destroyed life in ri%ers by encouraging the gro$th of algae>
Science has certainly gi%en us the #eans to tac?le li#ited technological proble#s such as
#anufacturing artificial fertiliser or pro%iding plastics for al#ost e%ery purposeC or for putting
#en on the 4oon> ButC increasingly $e see that the application of science has failed on the
broader )uestions of #aintaining the Earth as a place to li%e for countless #illions of speciesC
or pro%iding a decent standard of li%ing for the $hole hu#an population> Perhaps these
)uestions are only soluble by changes in hu#an nature rather than being treatable by science
alone>
Science has also created ne$ ethical )uestions> The de%elop#ent of $eapons of #ass
destruction places a dile##a on the shoulders of go%ern#ents> E%en #edical ad%ances ha%e
created ethical proble#s> Ahen the #eans e3ists to sa%e one of a pair of Sia#ese t$insC ho$
do $e decide if other should be deliberately ?illed or $hether they both should be left to die
in their o$n ti#eC as they $ould surely ha%e done so#e years ago>
!1
These )uestions cannot be ans$ered by #erely learning factsC theories or the processes of
science> @nstead a feel for the proble#s can be gained by e3a#ining ho$ real scientists
beha%e and ho$ people reacted to past atte#pts to ans$er the )uestions>
Science is often seen to be in conflict $ith religion> @ndeed there are a nu#ber of $ell
docu#ented e3a#ples of apparent conflict> But science rarely tac?les the central )uestions of
religions the significance of hu#an lifeC and cannot pro%ide the certainty that religious
belie%ers find in their faith> The conflicts in this area can often be seen as essentially
struggles for po$er a#ongst different groups in society and there is so#e danger of qscience6
being cast as one of the groups co#peting for allegiance in belief>
4ost scientists ha%e a strong co##it#ent to searching for e%idence unrelated to any beliefs>
This does not pre%ent a large nu#ber of the# fro# being acti%e "hristiansC 4osle#sC HindusC
etcetera> 7or does it stop the# fro# seeing their scientific $or? as part of their religious lifeC
in the $ay that 1obert Boyle and 4ichael (araday did> This is %ery #uch an area of acti%e
disputeC especially because so#e scientists insist that present theories of cos#ologyC
e%olutionC geneticsC )uantu# theoryC and bioche#istryC sho$ that the uni%erse and its
inhabitants are entirely e3plicable and that they ha%eC as it $ereC no need for di%ine guidance>
+ll of the @deas p E%idence state#ents #ay be su##ed up in three $ords (ho) (hat) (hy%
ho $as in%ol%ed in the disco%ery or contro%ersy= "an $e picture the# and i#agine ho$
they thought and felt=
hat did they do> Ahat old ideas $ere they using= Ahat ne$ ideas did they launch=
hy did they do it= Ahy did they do it in that particular $ay= Ahy $as it i#portant to
$hoe%er paid for the study=
+pply those three $ords to any teaching on scientific ?no$ledge and if all three can be
ans$ered then the objecti%es of @deas and E%idence $ill be #et>
Some Teaching Strategies
Telling stories
Traditionally teachers ha%e delighted in telling (and retelling) the hu#orous or dra#atic
anecdote +rchi#edes and his bathC 7e$ton and the appleC for e3a#ple> +necdotes are
#e#orable but are not sufficient alone to deli%er the re)uire#ents of @pE> 7e%ertheless
telling stories is still a %ery i#portant teaching strategy> + story can deli%er the conceptsC the
personalities and the bac?ground and need not be passi%e> Pupils can be as?ed for their
reactions and opinions during the story telling and pro#pted to pro%ide su##aries (in posterC
poe# or cartoon for#) and respond to )uestions> Stories can be supple#ented by picturesC
artefactsC #odels and de#onstrationsC and be recorded on audio or %ideotape>
Story telling is a s?ill> Aith a bit of practice you $ill find that it is a natural part of your
professional ar#oury>
!cti>ities related to teYt
The #ost fa#iliar style of $or? $ill be to use the printed $ord and the resources that follo$
this introduction are largely of this type> Te3t #ay be an account of a scientist and their $or?
or a general account of disco%eries and contro%ersies> Ahether the topic is historical or
conte#porary the account $ill be helped by e3tracts fro# the scientists6 o$n $or? in their
!.
o$n $ords> Te3t #ay be continuous or bro?en do$n into bloc?s $hich pupils can access
rather li?e a database> @llustrations brea? up te3t but should add to the story rather than just
pro%ide distraction> ruestions #ay test co#prehensionC as? for opinions or e#pathy or
in%ol%e other learning tas?s> Pupils can be in%ol%ed in discussion groups> +udioC %ideo and
co#puter resources can supple#ent the printed $ord>
)e-disco>ery and reconstruction
So#e topics lend the#sel%es to pupil practical acti%ities> @t has been proposed that children6s
learning goes through si#ilar stages to the historical de%elop#ent of a scientific topic e>g>
understanding about burningC but there is little e%idence that this is the case> 7e%ertheless
pupils can carry out practical e3ercises in order to Yredisco%erZ la$s and theories> (or
instance pupils can in%estigate pendulu#s and argue about the la$s go%erning the period of
oscillation> This can gi%e an insight into scientists6 thought processes and the difficulties they
faced both practically and in con%incing others> Ho$e%er the lac? of ti#e in science lessons
does li#it the degree to $hich a disco%ery can be repeated>
Perhaps an easier tas? is si#ply to reconstruct an e3peri#ent or in%ention to gi%e so#e
understanding of the difficulties faced by the scientist and their #ethods of o%erco#ing the#>
This is easier $ith e3peri#ents perfor#ed o%er a hundred years ago $hen apparatus $as
relati%ely si#pleC such as (araday6s first electric #otor> Ho$e%er health and safety
considerations de#and so#e alterations to the original specifications>
)ole play and drama
4any science teachers are $ary of using roleplay in their lessonsC as it is an unfa#iliar
techni)ue> Those that do e#brace it are a$are of the s?ill and enthusias# children bring to
this style of $or?> "hildren do enjoy ta?ing on roles and it can bring a ne$ insight into old
stories> 'ra#as can be #onologuesC for s#all groups or in%ol%e casts of thousands ($ellC
$hole classes any$ay)> Theatrical styles can %ary i##ensely> There are so#e published
plays but children #ay li?e to $rite their o$n treat#ents gi%en the bac?ground and the
characters> 1oleplaying in $hich children i#pro%ise fro# a short outline of a character or
job also allo$s pupils to de%elop understanding of contro%ersies and ethics>
'ra#a is also an opportunity for crosscurricular $or? and can pro%ide #aterial for the
science depart#ent to #a?e presentations to a $ider audience either as li%e perfor#ance or
recorded on %ideo>
+s $ell as perfor#ing the#sel%esC pupils also enjoy seeing dra#atic presentations> There are
a nu#ber of theatre groups and indi%iduals that %isit schools to put on perfor#ances that
illustrate conceptsC a scientific e%ent or portray a character>
2isits
Schools ha%e #ade good use of #useu#s and science centres and #any research
establish#ents ha%e a progra##e of %isits> Aith forethought and planning these can be used
to #a?e children consider the issues raised by @pE> There are also #any places around the
country $here children can see $here a $ell?no$n scientist $or?ed> These sites pro%ide the
conte3t for a disco%ery as $ell as often sho$ing the tools that the scientist used> E3a#ples
include 7e$ton6s ho#e at AoolsthorpeC (araday6s laboratory at the 1oyal @nstitutionC
'ar$in6s ho#e in 2entC and the Herschels6 house in Bath>
Peter 1 Ellis
Aantage 02
*uly .//.
!3
Teaching the History of Science and Technology in Secondary Schools in
England
History of Science and Technology needs no justification for those already co##itted to itC
either as a basis for teaching or as a subject in itself> 0nfortunately in the current ti#es $here
$e in England are increasingly dri%en by utilitarian content and specific targets it is easy to
lose sight of the benefit $hich History of Science and Technology can bring to the school
curriculu# both as a conte3t for learning and as a co#ponent in itself> The current cli#ate of
testing and target setting tends to e#phasise the factual aspects of the curriculu# and this can
obscure hierarchies of concepts> (actual ?no$ledge and recall of facts beco#es secondary to
understanding> History of Science and Technology pro%ides an ideal fra#e$or? for #any
areas $here the rele%ant concepts can be built in a #eaningful $ayC pro%iding a fra#e$or?
the student can use to assi#ilate the essential detail>
+ classic e3a#ple of this is the study of #otion and the basic concept of a force> The fact that
this area of the curriculu# is so poorly understoodC e%en by graduate scientistsC #any of
$ho# ha%e at best an algorith#ic understanding of the subject #a?es the point that at heartC
the +ristotelian %ie$ of #otion pre%ails> The historical de%elop#ent of Jnonco##on sense6
ideas li?e inertia and forces occurring in pairs are conte3ts $hich can be used to great effect to
teach so#e other$ise difficult ideas> To paraphrase 7e$tonC there is a lot to be said forC
Jstanding on the shoulders of giants6>
There are t$o other di#ensions to the curriculu# at the start of the second #illenniu# $hich
are i#portant and to $hich History of Science and Technology can #a?e a strong contribution
if it used as a %ehicle to teach science or technology> These areas are 9iteracyC and @"T>
9iteracy can be pursued or supported through the use of structured source #aterial in the
historical conte3tC and e3a#ples are gi%en in section .B of 0nit 3> >as $ell as in the Teacher
1esource 4anual> +t an ob%ious le%el there are basic co#prehension and data e3traction
e3ercises> +t a #ore sophisticated le%el one can use the historical conte3t for descripti%e or
persuasi%e $riting> JArite a letter fro# 8alileo to the Pope atte#pting to persuade hi# that
the earth #o%es around the sun and not %ice%ersa>6
The history of science is a rich area for discussion and debate for and against significant
de%elop#ents The use of antibioticsC ato#ic po$erC genetic engineeringC the internal
co#bustion engineC the de%elop#ent of a#pheta#ines and other drugs> There are thousands
of e3a#ples>
T)e *ollo'in" ideas and comments relate to t)e pro"rammes o* stud( *or 11 to 12 (ear olds
in t)e National Curriculum *or Science in En"land.% See a,o!e&
The first section of Sc1C Scientific En$uiry) points to so#e e3a#ples in the history of science
in both ?ey stage three and ?ey stage four> The history of science and technology is a %ery rich
source of conte3tual #aterial for teaching scientific en)uiry> So#e e3a#ples for ?ey stage
three are gi%en belo$>
The 7ational "urriculu# indicates the possible use of 9a%oisier6s $or? on burning at this
point> There are other e3a#ples&
,esalius starting to )uestion the $or? of 8alen
The $hole debate about the earth being the centre of the solar syste#>
The $or? of 4endel
Har%ey and the circulation of the blood>
!!
There are #any #any e3a#ples of ?ey points in science $here the dual purpose of
introducing the# in an historical conte3t not only ser%es as an interesting and accessible
%ehicle but also subscribes to point S"1a in the progra##e of study>
S"1 b that it is i#portant to test e3planations by using the# to #a?e predictions and by
seeing if e%idence #atches predictions
E3a#ples include&
The obser%ation of the solar eclipse in 1<.K to confir# the predictions of the theory of
relati%ity>
The #easure#ent of the speed of light as a test to distinguish bet$een the theories of
Huygens and 7e$ton $ith regard to refraction>
S"1 c about the $ays in $hich scientist $or? today and ho$ they $or?ed in the past
including the roles of e3peri#entationC e%idence and creati%e thought in the de%elop#ent of
scientific ideas>
The e3peri#ental $or? of 8alileo $hich shifted the scientific e#phasis fro# purely argu#ent
to obser%ation is an ob%ious area here> @f a single e3a#ple is needed then one of the si#plest
is probably the $ay that 8alileo constructed an +ristotelian type of argu#ent to #eet the
Jco##on sense6 %ie$ that hea%y objects fell faster than lighter objects as $ell as using an
e3peri#ent to de#onstrate $hat happens> +nother #ore detailed e3a#ple is 7e$ton6s first
ideas on his theory of 8ra%itation $hich appears to fail $hen he puts it to the test because he
uses an inaccurate esti#ate for the distance bet$een the earth and the #oon in his
calculations> 5nly so#e years later $hen he hears a better esti#ate for the distance does he
realise that his original ideas $ere not $rong after all>
,sing History of Science and Technology as a !asis for a section of (or+%
So#e areas of science can be taught using an historical conte3t $hich can aid the
de%elop#ent of concepts for the learner> ElectricityC (orces and #otion and The Earth and
beyond are e3a#ples of such areas>
Electricity for e3a#ple can be taught by loo?ing at the $or? of 8ilbert to detect Jcharge6>
E3a#ples of early electrostatic pheno#ena then lead to the $or? of (ran?lin and a t$o charge
theory> The de%elop#ent of the cell and the lin? to current electricity can then be #ade>
This is a short indication of the type of $or? that can be underta?en> + note of caution #ust
be sounded> There is a ris? that the sche#e of $or? can de%iate too far fro# the dictates of the
7ational "urriculu# both in ter#s of content and ti#e a%ailable> Students can gain a lot of
?no$ledge and understanding of both electricity and electroche#istry by an historical pursuit
through the de%elop#ent of cells> This #ay $ell fire the interest and i#agination of #any> @t
#ay $ell e)uip the# superbly for studies beyond si3teen> Sadly it $ill probably ha%e little if
any positi%e effect on the school6s 7ational Test or 8"SE results and teachers using this
approach $ill need to stri?e a balance bet$een local and i##ediate targets and students $ider
learning>
Sa# Ellis
Ho$denC 02
Septe#ber .///
!B
0rance
%ntroduire l?HST au ni>eau secondaire en 0rance
!u coll]ge "**-*4ans#
9es idGes dG%eloppGes pour l6Gcole pri#aire sont reprises par les concepteurs des progra##es
du collOge et du lycGe de faSon plus ou #oins accentuGe selon les disciplines> En sciences
naturellesC cela n6apparaPt pas> en technologieC l6histoire des techni)ues apparaPt claire#ent Q
la fin du collOgeC au dernier tri#estre de la classe de troisiO#e>
96enseigne#ent de physi)uechi#ie co##ence en classe de cin)uiO#e> 9e progra##e est
co##un Q la cin)uiO#e et Q la )uatriO#e> @l porte sur l6Gtude de la #atiOre )ui nous
en%ironneC la lu#iOre et le courant Glectri)ue> 96introduction gGnGrale du progra##e insiste
sur la di#ension histori)ue )u6il est nGcessaire d6introduire #ais en fait peu d6articles du
progra##e s6y rGfOrent prGcisG#ent> Seule est proposGe une Gtude docu#entaire sur l6histoire
du #odOle #olGculaire>
En troisiO#eC le progra##e porte sur l6Gtude des #atGriau3 de la %ie courante (e#ballages en
particulier) D co#porte#ent physi)ue et chi#i)ueC propriGtGs techni)ues> 5n aborde aussi les
#ou%e#ents et les forcesC l6GlectricitG dans la %ie courante> 5n poursuit l6Gtude de la lu#iOre
co##encGe l6annGe prGcGdente> 96introduction au progra##e insiste encore sur la di#ension
histori)ue de l6G%olution des idGes> 'ans le progra##eC on propose une Gtude d6un te3te
histori)ue sur l6ato#e>
9e professeur peut introduire des te3tes histori)ues relatifs Q certains points du progra##e
#ais il peut aussi n6en rien faire> 9e bilan est donc dGce%ant> @l reste cependant une %oie
indirecte>
jPar e3e#pleC l6Gtude des propriGtGs de la rouille per#et d6indroduire un te3te de
9a%oisier & l6Gtude de la pesanteurC )uel)ues te3tes histori)ues sur le sujet>
j5n de#ande Q l6GlO%e de rGaliser une recherche docu#entaire au cours de l6annGe>
9ui proposer une recherche histori)ue peut Rtre une solution Q l6introduction effecti%e de
l6histoire des sciences et des techni)ues au collOge>
!u lyc@e "*4-*7 ans#
En septe#bre prochain C une rGfor#e gGnGrale des lycGes entrera en %igueur> "o##e dans les
progra##es de sciences #is en place en 1<<.C l6intGrRt de faire appel Q l6histoire des sciences
et des techni)ues est soulignGe> 96aspect culturel de l6enseigne#ent scientifi)ue au lycGe doit
Rtre pri%ilGgiGC pour deu3 raisons principales> @l faut d6abord donner en%ie d6e3ercer plus tard
un #Gtier scientifi)ue> @l faut ensuite donner en%ie de lire des re%ues ou des ou%rages de
bonne %ulgarisation scientifi)ue> EnfinC l6initiation Q la dG#arche scientifi)ue doit contribuer
Q for#er le futur citoyen Q la responsabilitG et Q l6autono#ie>
"6est pour)uoi l6enseigne#ent scientifi)ue est conSu co##e un tout et non co##e une
ju3taposition de disciplines> "ela per#et de pri%ilGgier l6interdisciplinaritG & celleci de%rait
Rtre #ise en oeu%re dans la prGparation des leSons en G)uipe pGdagogi)ue et dans les tra%au3
personnels encadrGs des GlO%es dont nous reparlerons un peu plus loin> "6est pour)uoi
l6enseigne#ent fonda#ental est co#plGtG par un enseigne#ent thG#ati)ue (le thO#e est traitG
Q la fois en sciences de la %ie et de la Terre et en sciences de la #atiOre #ais sous des angles
diffGrents)>
9e %aet%ient entre l6obser%ation et l6e3pGri#entation d6un cWtGC la conceptualisation et la
#odGlisation de l6autre cWtG doit conduire l6GlO%e Q se poser des )uestions> @l est #is dans une
YsituationproblO#eY et Ydans bien des casC rien ne peut re#placer l6e3posG histori)ue> "elui
!-
ci a un cWtG culturel irre#plaSableC )ui situe la dGcou%erte scientifi)ue dans son conte3te
te#porel #ais aussi #ontre co##ent les dGcou%ertes scientifi)ues ont influencG le cours de
l6histoire>Y (prenons l6e3e#ple de la chute des corps)>
+ctuelle#entC seuls les progra##es de la classe de seconde (1B ans) sont GlaborGs> "eu3 des
classes de pre#iOre (1- ans) sont en cours d6Glaboration> "eu3 de la classe de ter#inale (1K
ans annGe du baccalaurGat) ne sont pas du tout abordGs> 4ais on peut dire )ueC dans le
progra##e actuel de ter#inaleC les points histori)ues les plus forts concernent les di%erses
conceptions du #onde d6+ristote Q Einstein pour la physi)ue et l6histoire d6un #Gdica#entC
l6aspirine pour la chi#ie> + cha)ue occasionC il est conseillG d6introduire des notions
histori)uesC selon la sensibilitG de l6enseignant> 'ans les futurs progra##es de pre#iOre
scientifi)ueC on pourra Gtudier des te3tes de 8alilGe et de 7e$ton en physi)ue et tracer un
panora#a chronologi)ue des grandes dGcou%ertes en chi#ie organi)ue>
Si nous portons plus d6attention au contenu du progra##e de la classe de seconde gGnGrale
nous %oyons )ue les co##entaires insistent trOs longue#ent sur l6e3posG histori)ue>
En physi)ueC par e3e#pleC on parlera de la #esure du rayon de la Terre par EratosthOneC de la
di#ension d6une #olGcule par la #Gthode de (ran?linC de la dispersion des couleurs selon
7e$tonC de l6approche du principe de l6inertie a%ec 8alilGeC de l6histoire de la #esure des
distances en astrono#ieC de l6histoire de la #esure du te#psC de la #esure de la te#pGratureC
etc>
En chi#ieC on fera une prGsentation histori)ue des techni)ues d6e3traction des huiles
essentiellesC de la classification de 4endeleie%C de )uel)ues te3tes sur la conser%ation de la
#atiOre en chi#ieC etc>
En sciences de la %ie et de la TerreC l6approche histori)ue n6est pas e3plicite> 9es
#athG#ati)ues ont un statut Q part et l6approche histori)ue ne se#ble pas nGcessaire dit le
rGfor#ateur>
'ans la future classe de pre#iOreC les Tra%au3 Personnels EncadrGs ou TPEC inno%ation de
cette rGfor#eC seront sans doute le lieu pri%ilGgiG de l6histoire des sciences et des techni)ues
dans l6enseigne#ent scientifi)ue des lycGes> 9a rGalisation d6un dossier personnel sur un sujet
choisi par l6GlO%e ou le groupe de trois Q )uatre GlO%es %eut for#er Q la responsabilitG et Q
l6autono#ie> Tout au long de l6annGeC le projet s6Glabore sous l6autoritG de deu3 professeurs
(#athG#ati)ues et sciences physi)uesC ou sciences physi)ues et sciences de la %ie et de la
Terre> Pour docu#enter ce projetC il sera fait large#ent appel au3 ou%rages de bonne
%ulgarisation scientifi)ue tant sur les sciences et les techni)ues actuelles )ue sur l6histoire des
sciences et des techni)ues> Pour la rGalisation #atGrielleC on utilisera les techni)ues #odernes
de co##unication>
96introduction de la di#ension histori)ue ( petites injections au cours du dG%eloppe#ent de la
leSon de physi)uechi#ie et non pas cours d6histoire des sciences) est particuliOre#ent
dG%eloppGe en physi)uechi#ie depuis un certain no#bre d6annGes> 5n espOre ainsi #ieu3
for#er le futur citoyen en lui donnant de la science une i#age %i%anteC inscrite dans la sociGtG>
5n pourra consulter le site httpDEE$$$3>cndp>frElyceeEphychi#E
!K
%ntroducing HST in secondary curricula in 0rance
!t the 0rench coll3"e
The ideas de%eloped at pri#ary school are considered again by the refor#ers of the secondary
curricula but #ore or less clearly #aintained $ith the disciplines> @n natural sciencesC it does
not appear> @n technologyC history is clearly taught at the end of the last class of the collOge>
The physics and che#istry syllabus at the collDge le%el begins in cin$uiD"e (the YfifthY class
in the (rench syste#C for ages 1.13) and continues through the follo$ing yearC $uatriD"e> @t
includes the study of the #aterial $orld about usC and of light and current electricity>
The general introduction to the syllabus refers e3plicitly to the historical di#ension that
should be introduced> ButC in the syllabus itselfC this re)uire#ent is seldo# referred to D in
factC a docu#entary study of the history of the #olecular #odel is the only topic cited>
@n troisiD"e (ages 1!1B)C the syllabus includes the study of the #aterials encountered in
e%eryday lifeC $ith special reference to pac?aging and to their physical and che#ical
perfor#ance and technical properties> 4otionC forceC light and the applications of electricity
are also #entioned> +s the pre%ious yearC the introduction of the syllabus still insistes on the
historical di#ension of the e%olution of the ideas> ButC a historical te3t on the ato# is the only
topic cited>
Teachers are free to introduce historical te3ts rele%ant to appropriate parts of the syllabusC
although there is no obligation for the# to do so>
The place accorded to historyC thereforeC is disappointingC e%en if the opportunities for
indirectly de%eloping historical $or? e3ist> T$o e3a#ples illustrate $hat #ight be achie%ed in
this respect D
j The study of the properties of the rust allo$s the introduction of a te3t by 9a%oisier&
si#ilarlyC the study of the gra%ity is open to the use of historical sources>
jThe pupil is as?ed to underta?e a piece of docu#entbased research during the year D
hereC suggesting an historical subject is one $ay of introducing the history of science and
technology at collDge le%el>
%n the 0rench lyc@e
@n Septe#ber of this yearC a #ajor refor# $ill co#e into effect in the (rench lycEe syte#> +s
in the curricula that ha%e been in force since 1<<.C the i#portance of incorporating ele#ents
of the history of science and technology in science teaching $ill be %ery #uch to the fore> @t is
part and parcel of the refor#s that they concei%e scientific education as an integrated $hole
rather than a set of indi%idual disciplinesC and that they thereby pro#ote interdisciplinary
perspecti%es> +lso a constant interaction bet$een obser%ation and e3peri#ent on the one hand
and conceptualiMation and #odelbuilding on the other is used to encourage pupils to pose
)uestions> PupilsC it is intendedC $ill find the#sel%es in $hat the official docu#ents describe
as a Jproble#situation6 in $hich in #any cases an historical e*posE $ill be essential> This
necessarily introduces a cultural di#ension J$hich places the scientific disco%ery concerned
in its te#poral conte3t and sho$s ho$ scientific disco%eries ha%e influenced the course of
history6> The la$ go%erning the fall of bodies $ould be a typical casestudy in $hich such an
approach #ight be i#ple#ented>
!;
@n the current syllabus for the class of ter"inale scientifi$ue (that isC the year of the
!accalaurEatC nor#ally ta?en at 1Ks) there are already opportunities for historical studyC
includingC in physicsC changing conceptions of the uni%erse fro# +ristotle to EinsteinC andC in
che#istryC the history of aspirin> @n the ne$ syllabusC these opportunities $ill be e3tended to
the curricula for the preceding yearC pre#iOre scientifi)ue (1-s)C $here it $ill be possible to
study te3ts by 8alileo and 7e$ton on the principle of inertia and the concept of force and to
follo$ a chronological account of the leading disco%eries in organic che#istry>
The place of historical #aterial is especially pro#inent in the ne$ curriculu# for the classe de
seconde (1Bs)> @n physicsC teachers $ill be e3pected to discuss such topics as Eratosthenes6
#easure#ent of the radius of the EarthC the deter#ination of the siMe of #olecules by
(ran?lin6s #ethodC 7e$ton6s $or? on the dispersion of coloursC 8alileo6s notion of the
principle of inertiaC the history of the calculation of astrono#ical distancesC and the history of
#easure#ent of te#perature> @n che#istryC the curriculu# includes an historical outline of the
techni)ues for the e3traction of essential oilsC the origins of 4endelee%6s syste# of
classificationC and a study of te3ts concerning 9a%oisier6s principle of the conser%ation of
#ass in che#ical reactions>
So farC @ ha%e spo?en only about the syllabuses in physics and che#istry> (or the life and
Earth sciencesC the historical di#ension is not spelled out e3plicitly andC in #athe#aticsC the
#inisterial docu#ents #a?e no e3plicite #ention of history>
@t is in project $or?C the ne$ly introduced Travau* Personnels EncadrEs (TPE)C that the
history of science and technology is li?ely to ha%e its #ost i#portant role in the refor#ed
scientific curricula at lycGe le%el> @n this part of their studyC groups of three or four pupils $ill
be e3pected to prepare dossiers on a subject chosen by the# in collaboration $ith their
teacher> 5%er the yearC the project $ill be super%ised by t$o teachers> Sources $ill include
serious $or?s of populariMation concerning not only the science and technology of the present
day but also any rele%ant historical di#ension> Pupils are also re)uired to #a?e full use of the
latest techni)ues of infor#ation retrie%al and co##unication (&ouvelles techni$ues
d?infor"ation et de co""unicationC abbre%iated as 7T@")>
The introduction of an historical di#ension in the for# of s#all injections in science teachingC
rather than as for#al instruction in the history of scienceC has co#e to be particularly $ell
de%eloped in physics and che#istry o%er the last fe$ years>
The ne$ e#phasis on the cultural aspect of scientific education is intendedC in partC to foster
an interest in careers in science and to encourage pupils to read boo?s and articles of good
)uality populariMation> But it is also concei%ed as a #eans of fashioning citiMens $ho see
science as a %ibrant acti%ity and one of i##ediate rele%ance to the#sel%es and to society at
large>
@t is possible to %isit the $ebsiteD httpDEE$$$3>cndp>frElyceeEphychi#E
'anielle (au)ue (Paris)
1< juillet .///
!<
Enseignement de l?Histoire des Sciences et des Techni=ues "HST# C l?@cole
@l@mentaire
8es sciences ont une histoire : ob:ectifs g@n@rauY de l?HST C l?@cole
7ous %i%ons dans un #onde dans le)uel les sciences et les technologies sont o#niprGsentes et
s6efforcer de dG%elopper l6enseigne#ent de l6histoire des sciences Q l6Gcole repose sur la
%olontG d6aider l6GlO%e Q #ieu3 perce%oir le #onde )ui l6entoure> 'e plusC c6est per#ettre au3
jeunes GlO%es de #esurer )ue l6a%ancGe actuelle de la science rGsulte d6une for#idable %olontG
hu#aine> En effetC par e3e#pleC dans le do#aine de la #GdecineC dans celui des
co##unicationsC de la production GnergGti)ue ou encore de la con)uRte spatialeC il y a
toujours euC Q une Gpo)ueC un ho##eC un U dGcou%reur VC sorte de pionnier scientifi)ueC )ui
s6est attelG Q une tTche et )ui a dGcou%ert un phGno#One scientifi)ue ou conSu un outil
technologi)ue>
En outreC cet enseigne#ent dG%eloppe une solide culture gGnGrale a%ec des apports cognitifs
consG)uents> 4ontrer )ue les sciences et les techni)ues ont une histoire c6est #ontrer )ue la
science n6est pas uni)ue#ent l6affaire de spGcialistesC )u6elle est une construction hu#aine au
ser%ice des ho##es> "et aspect essentiel de l6HST ne peut )ue fa%oriser l6G#ergence de
U scientifi)ues en herbe V>
8es aspects pluridisciplinaires de l?HST
"et enseigne#ent offre l6a%antage d6Rtre pluridisciplinaire et de per#ettre au3 GlO%es de
co#prendre les liens essentiels )ui e3istent entre les grands do#aines du sa%oir> 9e
rapproche#ent entre sciences et histoire est ici G%ident D cha)ue dGcou%erte a une histoire et
un i#pact dans la sociGtG de l6Gpo)ue> "ette dG#arche s6ou%re aussi sur la gGographie
lors)u6il s6agit de situer un pays ou un sa%antC ou encore sur les #athG#ati)ues lors)u6il faut
calculer le no#bre de ?ilo#Otres parcourus par un train Q %apeur ou la capacitG de production
Glectri)ue d6une centrale nuclGaire> 9e franSais est aussi une discipline d6enseigne#ent
forte#ent sollicitGe lors)u6il s6agitC tout si#ple#entC de lire le rGcit histori)ue d6une
dGcou%erte abordGe en classe>
8a place de l?HST dans l?enseignement de l?histoire
En histoireC cet enseigne#ent Glargit le cha#p de cette discipline> En effetC Q cWtG de l6histoire
politi)ueC celle des rois et des grands ho##esC apparaissent l6histoire socialeC l6histoire des
#entalitGsC l6histoire dG#ographi)ueC l6histoire de l6GcoleC etc> 'ans cette perspecti%eC
l6histoire des sciences et des techni)ues trou%e naturelle#ent sa place> @l ne s6agit pas d6en
faire un si#ple sujet d6Gtude ponctuel #ais de regarder notre histoire nationale d6un oeil plus
intGressG par les sciences>
8es diff@rentes comp@tences mobilis@es par l?HST
+border l6HST Q l6Gcole peut trou%er facile#ent sa place dans le cha#p des co#pGtences )ue
l6on doit #obiliser cheM l6GlO%e> 9a pre#iOre d6entreelles est l6ac)uisition du concept de
te#ps> En effetC en s6interrogeant sur les traces du passG scientifi)ueC l6GlO%e opOre un U pont V
entre l6actuel et l6a%ant ce )ui lui per#et de perce%oir un passG plus ou #oins GloignG> 4ais il
est Ggale#ent a#enG Q for#uler des hypothOses sur tel fonctionne#ent technologi)ueC Q
obser%erC Q dGcrireC Q co#parer et analyser des docu#ents scientifi)ues accessibles> @l
co#prend ainsi )ue les techni)ues actuelles haute#ent perfectionnGes sont le fruit d6un long
parcoursC )u6elles se sont construites sur des bases )ui peu%ent nous se#bler archat)ues de
nos jours #ais )ue c6est Q partir de ces derniOres )ue la science a pu progresser>
B/
Etudier l6HST Q l6GcoleC c6est certaine#ent contribuer Q for#er de futurs citoyens libres et
responsables dotGs d6une curiositG et d6un esprit criti)ue et susceptibles d6agir sur le #onde
)ui les entoure>
Teaching the History of Sciences and Techni=ues "HST# in primary schools
Sciences ha>e a history: main ob:ecti>es about teaching HST at school
@n the $orld today science and technology are present e%ery$here and so trying to de%elop
the history of sciences at school is based on the idea to help the pupils to understand the $orld
they are li%ing in> 4oreo%er it $ill allo$ the# to understand that the progress in science is the
result of a considerable hu#an $ill> @n fact $hether as far as #edicine is concernedC or
co##unicationsC or energyC or spatial con)uestC there has al$ays beenC at a ti#eC a person a
disco%erer a scientific pioneer $ho settled do$n to a tas? and disco%ered a scientific
pheno#enon or i#agined a ne$ technological tool>
This for# of teaching helps to get a general ?no$ledge> Sho$ing that sciences and techni)ues
ha%e a history #eans pro%ing that science doesn6t only concerns specialistsC but that it is also
a hu#an construction to the ser%ice of #en> This aspect of teaching the history of sciences
and techni)ues $ill undoubtedly fa%our the budding of scientists>
%nterdisciplinary aspects in teaching HST
Teaching HST offers the ad%antage of co%ering #any branches of education and allo$ing the
pupils to understand the lin?s bet$een sciences and history is ob%ious> E%ery disco%ery has a
$eight and an i#pact on the society at the ti#e> @t #ay #ean situating a country or a scientist
or it #ay help the teaching of #athe#atics $henC for e3a#pleC you ha%e to calculate the
nu#bers of ?ilo#etres a stea# train co%ered or the production of nuclear po$er station>
(rench language is also a branch of education $hich has to be used $hen the history of a
disco%ery has to be read in class>
HST in the teaching of history
Teaching HST enlarges the teaching of history> @n fact together $ith the history of ?ings or
fa#ous people $e no$ ha%e to teach social historyC history of #entalitiesC de#ographyC or
history of school> +nd naturally teaching HST finds its place there> The idea is not to use it
apart but $ith itC to ha%e a different approach to the history of our country>
S'ills needed by HST
The teaching of HST can de%elop #any s?ills> 5ne of the# is the concept of ti#e> Ahen
trying to understand the scientific pastC the pupil has to find the lin? bet$een before and after>
He is also lead to as? )uestions on technologyC to obser%eC describeC co#pare and analyse
scientific docu#ents that are a%ailable> This he $ill understand that %ery sophisticated #odern
techni)ues are the result of a long e%olution and ha%e been built according to bases $hich
#ay appear old fashioned todayC but it is than?s to the# that science has been able to
progress>
Studying HST at school contributes to train free and responsible citiMensC $ith an ability for
criticis# and curiosity $ho #ay decide to play their part in the $orld $hich is surrounding
the#>
'aniel BE7S@4H57
Professeur des Ecoles 4aPtre
(or#ateur Q Paris
#ai .///
B1
$ortugal
5 trabalho desen%ol%ido por Portugal no T#bito do projecto HST referese ao 1` "iclo do
Ensino B]sico (-< anos)C na ]rea do Êstudo do Meio_>
Esta #atGria faM parte do curriculu# oficial junta#ente co#D 9[ngua PortuguesaC 4ate#]ticaC
E3press\es (E3pressô e EducaSô ([sico4otoraC E3pressô e EducaSô 4usicalC E3pressô
e EducaSô 'ra#]tica e E3pressô e EducaSô Pl]stica) e EducaSô 4oral e religiosa
"at_lica>
5 te#a referido no Progra#a oficial G e3plorado no 3` anoC no T#bito da unidade geralD Êu
e a natureàZ>
Esta G a terceira unidade te#]ticaC e3plorada depois das anteriores unidadesD YEu e a #inha
fa#[liaZ e YEu e a #inha terraZ>
+ unidade te#]ticaD YEu e a natureMaZC co#preende os seguintes blocosD
1` per[odoD Yu descoberta de #i# #es#oZ e Yu descoberta dos outros e das instituiS\esZ&
.` per[odoD Yu descoberta dos outros e das instituiS\esZ (cont>)& Yu descoberta do a#biente
naturalZ& Yu descoberta das interrelaS\es entre espaSosZ e Yu descoberta das interrelaS\es
entre a natureMa e a sociedadeZ&
3` per[odoD Yu descoberta do a#biente naturalZ (cont>)& u descoberta das interrelaS\es entre
espaSosZ (cont>) e Yu descoberta dos #ateriais e objectosZ>
5s conteados da #atGria relacionada co# o projecto HST sô aprofundados no T#bito do
te#aD ^Meios de comunicaDEo_C )ue constitui a essRncia do blocoD Yu descoberta das inter
relaS\es entre espaSosZ>
5s trabalhos referentes a este te#a estô inclu[dos na YProgra#aSô #ensal de *unhoZ>
'escre%e#se os objecti%os espec[ficos do te#aD ^Meios de comunicaDEo_D
1> @n%estigar sobre a e%oluSô dos transportes&
.> 1ealiMar e3periRncias de #ecTnica&
3> @n%estigar sobre a e%oluSô das co#unicaS\es>
-> + e3ploraSô destes te#as G feita atra%Gs de di%ersas acti%idades e da utiliMaSô de #aterial
di%erso>
'escre%e#se essas acti%idadesD
%H 2ias de comunicaDEo
1> 'i]logo sobre as fGrias )ue se apro3i#a# e os projectos de fGriasD %iagensC
deslocaS\es e %isitas a fa#iliares>
.> 9ocaliMaSôC no #apa de PortugalC de alguns locais de fGrias>
3> ,erificaSô das %ias )ue poderô ser utiliMadas para poss[%eis %iagens de fGrias&
!> 1egistosC no #apa da localidadeC das %ias (terrestresC flu%iaisC #ar[ti#as e aGreas) )ue
as ser%e#&
B> +ssociaSô dos #eios de transporteC usados na localidadeC Qs %ias respecti%as>
%%H Transportes
1> @n%estigaSô acerca da e%oluSô dos #eios de transporte (atra%Gs de entre%istas a
fa#iliares idosos e atra%Gs de pes)uisa e# #anuaisC enciclopGdias infantis e outros)&
.> "o#posiSô de u# painel ou albu# co# gra%urasC desenhos e te3tos sobre a e%oluSô
dos transportes
B.
3> "onstruSô dos #eios de transporte do passado e do futuro (i#aginado) (trabalho feito
atra%Gs da obser%aSô de gra%uras representando o ho#e# pri#iti%o transportando
grandes pesos& das e3periRncia co# ala%ancasC ele%ando pesos e da e3periRncia co#
roldanas e rodasC #o%i#entando os pesos)>
%%%H Meios de comunicaDEo
1> 'i]logo sobre os #eios de co#unicaSô usados ao longo do ano e# trabalhos
escolaresD cartasC jornaisC cartaMes&
.> 7arraSô de u#a hist_ria e# banda desenhada ou YslidesZC representando u#a fa#[lia
pri#iti%a&
3> Pes)uisa acerca da e%oluSô dos %]rios #eios de co#unicaSô&
!> ,isita de estudo a u# #eio de co#unicaSô actual (o jornal a r]dioC o estadio de
tele%isô)&
B> 5rganiMaSô do roteiro da %isita (repartindo os alunos por di%ersos grupos )ue
atenda#D 1` identificaSô e localiMaSô do #eio de co#unicaSô a %isitar& descriSô do
local& realiMaSô de entre%istas& realiMaSô de fotos eEou desenhos)&
1egisto e apresentaSô dos trabalhos realiMados sobre os #eios de co#unicaSô (atra%Gs de
u# albu#& de u# jornal escolarC de u# jornal de paredeC de u# progra#a a difundir pela r]dio
ou atra%Gs de te3tos e gra%uras colados nu# rolo de papel de cen]rio e passadosC co# o
au3[lio de u#a roldanaC nu#a cai3a a fingir de T,)>
*orge "ar%alho +rroteia
(+%eiro)
*uly .///
B3
.or(ay
@n 7or$ay the curriculu# in all schools is decided by the state> The latest %ersion of the
curriculu# for pri#ary schools (age -1-) is fro# 1<<-> History of science and technology
(HST) is far fro# being a central subject in this curriculu#C but one can find the#es $ithin
HST scattered through it>
General part
@t is an i#portant part of general education to ?no$ our technological heritage @ts
contribution in easing li%ing conditionsC but also the dangers i#bedded in technological
de%elop#ent>
Grade 3
Social science
Pupils shall get to ?no$ ho$ #an?ind learned to far#C use far# ani#als as $ell as the
ploughC saddleC $ater $heels and $ind#ills>
Grade 5
7atural science
Pupils shall $or? $ith e3a#ples of the $ays in $hich different for#s of energy do#inated at
different ti#esC and ho$ technology has been in%ol%ed in using energy> Study should include
e3a#ples of ho$ this has influenced the en%iron#ent>
Grade 6
7atural science
Pupils shall learn si#ple principles of transport and cleaning of drin?ing $ater> This includes
#a?ing ti#ers $hich $ere i#portant in historical ti#es> >
Plan and #a?e si#ple #odels for transfor#ing the energy in running $ater to #echanical
$or? and to get to ?no$ ho$ #an ha%e used this technologically in earlier ti#es and no$>
Grade 7
7atural science
Pupils shall learn different theories about the de%elop#ent of the uni%erse and ho$
technological de%elop#ents ha%e contributed to our ?no$ledge of the uni%erse>
Grade a
7atural science
Pupils shall get to ?no$ central disco%eries and in%entions connected to electricity>
;or'ing methods
8rade 1!
;/l of the ti#e shall be used doing the#e $or?>
8rade BK
3/l of the ti#e shall be used doing the#e or project $or?
8rade ;1/
./l of the ti#e shall be used doing the#e or project $or?>
The difference bet$een the#e $or? and project $or? is that in the#e $or? the subject is
chosen by the teacherC and the pupils $or? in groups getting infor#ation about the subjectC
B!
$hereas in project $or? the subject often is chosen by the pupils $or?ing in groups and the
$or? is #ore proble# orientated> +s there is roo# for #uch the#eEproject $or? in
7or$egian schools there is so#e freedo# in using a historical approach to the study of
science and technology as this subject $ell suited to that type of $or?>
S%ein H5((
(Bergen)
+ugust .///
BB
)epublic of %reland
The follo$ing co##ents relate to the Physics and "he#istry syllabi at Senior "ycle in
Second 9e%el Schools> Each is a t$oyear progra##e offered at 5rdinary and Higher le%el
$ith a ter#inal e3a#ination The 9ea%ing "ertificate>
(ro# the perspecti%e of history of science and technology students are e3pected to be a$are
of the contribution of %arious scientists in the fields of physics and che#istry and of the ti#e
fra#e of significant disco%eries and in%entions> Ahen the syllabi $ere introduced in .///
teachers $ere supplied $ith a 1eference Handboo? of bac?ground infor#ation on all aspects
of the subjects>
The handboo? is especially good in supplying historical infor#ation and has sections
dedicated to @relands scientific heritage in both the physics and che#istry>
Y2rish contri!utions to Physics) 7athe"atics and TechnologyC by "harles 4ollan
Y2rish contri!utions to Che"istryC by "harles 4ollan
The e3tent to $hich historical infor#ation is e#phasised in the o%erall deli%ery of the
syllabus is at the discretion of the teacher> There are ti#e constraints in including HST
because of the concentration on teaching factual ?no$ledge for e3a#ination purposes>
$hysics
The syllabus objecti%es are Y2no$ledgeC 0nderstandingC S?illsC "o#petence and +ttitudesZ
5bjecti%es specifically related to HSTD
F8% -no(ledge
Students should +no(
G ho( physics contri!utes to the social) historical) environ"ental) technological and econo"ic
life of society
H% 'ttitudes
Students should appreciate
G the contri!ution of physics to the social and econo"ic develop"ent of society1
G the relationship !et(een physics and technologyC
@n the syllabus each topic is set out under the headingsD
Y "ontentC 'epth of treat#entC +cti%ities and STSZ (Science Technology and Society)
The follo$ing topics are cited $ith specific historical reference under the heading of Science
Technology and Society>
Modern $hysics
^*H The electron
Electron na#ed by 8> *> Stoney> ruantity of charge #easured by 4illi?an>
2H !cceleration of protons
(irst artificial splitting of nucleus>
(irst trans#utation using artificially accelerated particles>
@rish 7obel laureate for physicsC Professor E> T> S> Aalton (1<B1)>
"oc?croft and Aalton proton energy appro3i#ately 1 4e,D outline of e3peri#ent>
3H Con>erting other forms of energy into mass
History of search for basic building bloc?s of natureD
v 8ree?sD earthC fireC airC $ater
B-
v 1<3-D pC nC e> Particle acceleratorsC e>g> "E17>
5H 0amilies of particles
Pioneering $or? to in%estigate the structure of #atter and origin of uni%erse>
@nternational collaborationC e>g> "E17>
6H !nti-matter
Paul 'irac predicted anti#atter #athe#atically>
,ption 2 !pplied Electricity
1H Electromagnetic induction
"allan @nduction coil>
6H 8ogic gates
Boole>
Chemistry
The objecti%es specifically related to HST
^*H +no(ledge
Students should ha%e ?no$ledge of
v socialC historicalC en%iron#entalC technological and econo#ic aspects of che#istry>
4H !ttitudes
Students should appreciate
v ad%ances in che#istry and their influence on our li%es
v that the understanding of che#istry contributes to the social and econo#ic de%elop#ent of
societyZ
The follo$ing topics include specific historical reference under the heading of Social and
+pplied aspects>
$eriodic Table and !tomic Structure
^*H* $eriodic Table
History of the idea of ele#entsC including the contributions of the 8ree?sC BoyleC 'a%y and
4oseley> History of the periodic tableC including the contributions of 'obereinerC 7e$landsC
4endelee% and 4oseley> "o#parison of 4endelee%6s table $ith the #odern periodic table>
*H2 !tomic Structure
,ery brief outline of the historical de%elop#ent of ato#ic theory (outline principles only&
#athe#atical treat#ent not re)uired)D 'altonD ato#ic theory& "roo?esD %acuu# tubesC cathode
rays& StoneyD na#ing of the electron& Tho#sonD negati%e charge of the electron& eI" for
electrons (e3peri#ental details not re)uired)& 4illi?anD #agnitude of charge of electrons as
sho$n by oil drop e3peri#ent (e3peri#ental details not re)uired)& 1utherfordD disco%ery of
the nucleus as sho$n by the alpha particle scattering e3peri#ent& disco%ery of protons in
nuclei of %arious ato#s& BohrD #odel of the ato#& "had$ic?D disco%ery of the neutron>
*H1 )adioacti>ity
Historical outline of radioacti%ityD $or? of Bec)uerel (disco%ery of radiation fro# uraniu#
salts)& 4arie and Pierre "urie (disco%ery of poloniu# and radiu#)>
2!H* Crystals
BK
"ontributions of
(i) BraggFsD de%elop#ent of the Nray techni)ue for deter#ining crystal structure&
(ii) 'orothy Hodg?inD deter#ination of the crystal structure of co#ple3 organic #oleculesC
e>g> %ita#in B1.C penicillin (structures not re)uired)>
The disco%ery of buc?#insterfullerene (structure not re)uired)>
,ption 2!: MaterialsH
2 !ddition $olymers
Brief history of the disco%ery of lo$density poly(ethene) and of highdensity poly(ethene)>
Brief history of the disco%ery of poly(tetrafluoroethene)>
,ption 2B !dditional Electrochemistry and the EYtraction of Metals
*H The Electrochemical Series
"ontributions of 8al%aniC ,oltaC 'a%y and (araday>Z
4ary 56Brien
'ungar%an
@reland
*une .//.
B;
HST in Education in )omania
This section contains the na#es of European great scientistsC #athe#aticians and engineers
$hose contribution to the history of science and technology are presented in #anuals of
#athe#aticsC physics and che#istry for 1o#anian high school and higher education>
Mathematics and $hysics
Platon (#athe#atics)
Pitagora (#athe#atics)
Tartaglia (#athe#atics)&
"ardano (#athe#atics)&
7> +bel (#athe#atics)&
+rhi#ede (#athsC physics)&
">A> 9eibniM (#athe#atics)&
B> 1ie##an (#athe#atics)
H> 9ebesgue (#athe#atics)
E> 8oursat (#athe#atics)
4ac9aurin (#athe#atics)&
"ra#er (#athe#atics)&
9> Euler (#athe#atics)&
8> 7eper (#athe#atics)&
P> (er#at (#athe#atics)&
B> 1ussell (#athe#atics)&
*> B> Biot (#athe#aticsC physics)&
2> Aaierstrass (#athe#atics)&
Euclid (#athe#atics)&
7> 5res#e (#athe#atics)&
B> Pascal (#athe#atics)&
*>B> (ourier (#athe#atics)&
B> BolMano (#athe#atics)&
2>(> 8auss (#athe#atics)
P>S> 9aplace (#athe#aticsC physics)
T> 9alescu (#athe#atics)
"r> Huygens (#athe#aticsC physics)
1> 'ede?ind (#athe#atics)&
8> "antor (#athe#atics)&
9> (ibonacci (#athe#atics)
8> 8alilei (#athe#aticsC physics)
@> 7e$ton (#athe#aticsC physics)
1> 'escartes (#athe#atics)&
$hysics and Chemistry
4> (araday (physicsC che#istry)
4> "ristian 5rsted (physics)
Bohr 7iels (physics)
+> +#pere (physics)
5h# (physics)
E> 1utherford (physics)
htefan Procopiu (physics)
*>"> 4a3$ell (physics)
H> HertM (physics)
Aeber (physics)
A> Pauli (physicsC che#istry)
H> Hulubei (physics)
+> Einstein (physics)
E> (er#i (physics)
4> Planc? (physics)
+ristotel (physics)
4endelee% (che#istry)
,an der Aaals (physicsC che#istry)
+> +%ogadro (che#istry)
2el%in (physicsC che#istry)
A> "osel (che#istry)
(> 2e?ule (che#istry)
*> "rafts (che#istry)
9> Pasteur (che#istry)
">+> Bosch (che#istry)
+> ,olta (physicsC che#istry)
S> +rhennius (che#istry)
*> BerMelius (che#istry)
(> ,oehler (che#istry)
">'> 7enieescu (che#istry)
+>9> 9a%oisier (che#istry)
*>9> Proust (che#istry)
*> 'alton (che#istry)
*> *oule (physicsC che#istry)
H> "hatelier (che#istry)
(> Habel (che#istry)
">+> "oulo#b (physicsC che#istry)
B<
.amed la(s
(araday6s la$ (physics)
Bre$ster6s la$ (physics)
+%ogadro6s la$ (che#istry)
Hess6s la$ (che#istry)
.amed rules
"ra#er6s rule (#athe#atics)
Hospital6s rule (#athe#atics)
9enM6s rule (physics)
.amed e=uations
7e$ton6s e)uations
4a3$ell6s e)uations
9orentM6s e)uations
.amed ine=ualities
Loung6s ine)uality
(#athe#atics)
"hauchy Buniaco%schi
ine)uality (#athe#atics)
Bernoulli6s ine)uality
(#athe#atics)
"ebTfe%6s ine)uality
(#athe#atics)
4inco$schi6s ine)uality
(#athe#atics)
Her#ite6s ine)uality
(#athe#atics)
4a3$ell6s ine)uality (physics)
.amed eYperiments
(iseau6s eMperi#ent (physics)
4ichelson6s e3peri#ent
(physics)
1utherford6s e3peri#ent
(physics)
(ranc?6s e3peri#ent (physics)
.amed postulates
Einstein6s postulats (physics)
Bhor6s postulats (physics)
.amed principles
7e$ton6s principles (physics)
Huygens6s principles (physics)
Pauli6s principles (physics)
.amed de>ices
,an der 8raaf6s generator
(physics)
Aheastone6s bridge (physics)
Hel#holtM6s )uails (physics)
8alilei6s telescope (physics)
Loung6s de%ice (physics)
*olly6s balance (physics)
+t%o$d de%ice (physics)
.amed models
1utherford6s #odel (physics)
Tho#son6s #odel (physics)
Bohr6s #odel (physics)
.amed constants
Planc?6s constant (physics)
+%ogadro6s nu#ber (che#istry)
.amed effects
Hall6s effect (physics)
"o#pton6s effect (physics)
E#anuel ,asiliu&
4ihail ,asiliu
4ihai 7echifor&
9acra#ioara Stoenescu&
4aria 8ansari>
Bucharest
*uly .//.
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teachers% The HST Project
History of Science and Technology in )omania
@n the ne3t sectionC 1o#anian colleagues present details of so#e of so#e i#portant
science and technology de%elop#ents fro# the history of 1o#aniaC as $ell as #ore
infor#ation of the contributions of so#e notable 1o#anian scientistsC technologists
and #athe#aticians> They are included for t$o reasons>
They present additional infor#ation for teachers and lecturers about HST
de%elop#ents $hich ha%e affected the gro$th of science and technology in
Europe>
They can be used for co#parati%e study purposes during future inser%ice courses
in HST> These de%elop#ents fro# a 1o#anian perspecti%e $ill be used for
co#paring and contrasting $ith the scienceC #athe#atics and technology
de%elop#ents in other European countries>
*H %ntroduction
(or a better understanding of the history of science and technology of 1o#ania it is
useful to present so#e general data about 1o#ania>
8ocation:
SoutheasternC "entral EuropeCC on the northern side of the Bal?an Peninsula including
the lo$er 'anube Basin>
!rea:
.3;C3<1 2#(1.
th
largest country in Europe)
Borders:
The 4olda%ian 1epublicC 0?raineC HungaryC Lugosla%iaC Bulgaria and the Blac? Sea>
The length of the borders is 3C1</ ?#>
$opulation:
..C;<KC<<3 people (*anuary .//1)
B!C< percent li%e in urban areas
!BC1 percent li%e in rural areas
4ore than 1/ #illion 1o#anians li%e beyond the frontiersC ranging fro# the 1epublic
of 4olda%ia in the eastC Hungary in the $estC other European countriesC 7orth and
South +#erica and e%en in +ustralia>The #ajority of the populationC #ore than ./
#ilionC are ethnic ethnic 1o#aniansC the rest of the population includes 1C- #ilion
4agyarsC !//>/// 8ypsiesC 1//>/// 8er#ansC -->/// 0?ranians and s#aller nu#bers
of Tur?sC SerbiansC Bulgarians and 8ree?s>
9ife e3pectancyD #en -->B yearsC $o#en K3>. years>
The Capital City: Bucharest
PopulationD .C13-CK.3 people(*anuary .//1)> Total #etropolitan areaD 1CB.1 s)> ?#C
of $hich the urban area co%ers about ..; s)> ?#>
-1
!dministrati>e /i>isions:
1o#ania is di%ided into !1 counties and the #unicipality of BucharestC $hich has a
country status& .-/ to$ns (of $hich BK are considered #unicipalities)& and .C-;;
co##unes ($hich about 13C/// %illages)>
$orts:
5n the Blac? Sea U "onstanea can acco##odate ship of o%er 1B/C/// d$t> 4angalia
and Sulina are free ports>
5n the 'anube U Turnu Se%erinC Turnu 4:gureleC 8iurgiuC 5ltenieaC "erna%od:C
Br:ilaC 8alaeiC Tulcea (the last three are both ri%er and sea ports)> The 'anubeBlac?
Sea "anal (-!C. ?# long) bet$een "erna%od: and +gigea and "onstanea $as opened
to traffic in 1<;!> (ollo$ing the inauguratio of the 1hine 4ain 'anube "anal in
1<<.C a direct connection $ith the 7orth Sea $as #oda possible> The $ater$ay
syste# is na%igable both for ri%er and seagoing ships of up to B>/// d$t>
!irports:
@nternational D Bucharest5topeniC "onstanta4ihail 2ogalniceanuC Sucea%aC +rad and
Ti#ifoara>
'o#estic: BacauC Baia 4areC BucharestBaneasaC "aransebefC "lujC "raoi%aC 'e%aC
@afiC 5radeaC Satu4areC TTrgu 4uref and Tulcea>
The .ational 0lag:
Three e)ual %ertical stripes of blueC yello$ and red(fro# left to right)
.ational Coat-of-!rms:
(Since 1<<.) +n eagleC holding a cross in its bea? and a s$ord and a scepter in its
cla$sC $ith the sy#bols of the fi%e historical pro%inces AallahiaC 4olda%iaC
Transyl%aniaC Banat and 'obrogea>
.ational /ay:
'ece#ber 1C the anni%ersary of 1<1; *une of all 1o#anians into one single country>
.ational !nthem:(since 1<</)
Y+$a?eC LeC 1o#anianwZ
+$a?eC LeC 1o#anian fro# your lethargic sleepE@nto $hich your barbarous tyrants
ha%e sun?en you so deeply>
Aritten byD +ndrei 4urefianu& Score byD +nton Pann> Perfor#ed for the first ti#e on
*une .;C 1;!;>
Geography:
Physical featuresH
31 percent #ountainsC 33 percent hills and plateaus and 3- percent plains>
4ountains>
The 1o#anian "arpathians includeD the Eastern "arpathians $ith Pietrosu Pea?C the
highestC at .>3/3 # in the 1odna 4ts>& the Southeastern "arpathiansC $ith
4oldo%eanu Pea?C the highestC at .>B!3 # in the (agaraf 4ts>& and the Aestern
"arpathiansC $ith "urcub:ta 4are pea?C the highestC at 1>;!< # in +puseni 4ts>
-.
Hills and Plateaus>
Aithin the "arpathians archC the Transyl%ania plateau reaches bet$een !//K// #
altitude>5ther i#portant plateaus are the So#ef Plateau (north$est)C the 4olda%ian
Plateau (east and the 'obrujan Plateau (southeast)>
Plains>
The #ost i#portant is the Plain of the lo$er 'anube (the 1o#anian plain)> @t is the
country6s #ost i#portant agricultural area>
The 'anube 'elta
> Situated to the north of the 'obrujan PlateauC it is the youngest geophysical feature
in 1o#ania> E%en though the land dates bac? to prehistoric ti#esC it is transfor#ing
continuallyC e%en no$> E%ery year the allu%ial deposits brought by the ri%er increase
the height of the land by a fe$ centi#eters> 5n 1o#anian territory it e3tends o%er
!>3!/ s)> ?#C $hich K; percent is s$a#pland and fre)uently flooded> The 'anube
di%ides into three branches approaching the Blac? SeaD "hiliaC Sulina and Sf>
8heorghe>
Hydrography:
1i%ers>
The 'anube 1i%er in the south of the country is the largest ri%erC $ith 1>/KB ?# of its
total .>;B/ ?# length in 1o#ania> 5ther #ajor ri%ers includeD 4urefC 5ltC PrutC SiretC
@alo#ieaC So#efC +rgefC *iuC BuMau and Bistriea>
9a?es>
+bout .>3// la?es and o%er 1>1B/ ponds (co%ering an area of .>-B/ s)> ?#)> The best
?no$n areD 1aMel# (!1B s)> ?#)C Sinoe (1K1 s)> ?#)C Bratef (.1 s)> ?#)C Tafaul (./
s)> ?#)C Techirghiol (1. s)> ?#) and Snago% (B>; s)> ?#)>
Climate:
'escribed as te#perate continentalC the cli#ate is influenced by the ocean fro# the
$estC the 4editerranean fro# the south$estC and e3tensi%e continental $eather fro#
the northeast> The #ean annual te#perature ranges fro# ; " in the north to 11 " in
the south>
History:
The history of 1o#ania is a #ajor part of the history of Europe> 1ooted in the 1o#an
E#pire of the 1
st
#illeniu# +'C 1o#anians ha%e continuously inhabited the sa#e
geographical area> Their forefathersC a people of @ndoEuropean originC $ho $ere
#e#bers of the Thracian tribesC had arri%ed as early as the .
nd
#illeniu# B"> 5ne of
the branchesC the 8eto'acian tribesC originally settled in 'acia> 2ing Burebista (;;
!! B")C ruler of one of the #ost populous 'acian tribesC succeeded in uniting these
scattered groups into a po$erful e#pire $hose capitalC Sar#iMegetusaC $as located in
today6s Transyl%ania>
@n 1/B1/- +'C the 1o#an E#peror Traian con)uered 'acia> The 1o#an ruled o%er
'acia until .K- +'C but the con)uerors coe3isted on peaceful ter#s $ith the 8eto
'acians> The assi#ilation of the 'acian and 1o#ans produced the early 1o#anian>
8anguage:
The 1o#anian language is spo?en by #ore than 3B #illion people $orld$ide> *ust
li?e @talianC (renchC SpanishC PortugueseC SardinianC "atalanC Pro%encal or 1haeto
1o#anicC it is rooted in 9atinC brought by the 1o#ans to their con)uered pro%inces>
-3
1o#anian is a neo9atin languageC an e3a#ple of 5riental 9atinityC the only one to
sur%i%e in an isolated encla%eC surrounded by Sla%ic languages and cultures>
The 1o#anian language $e spea? today $as born and de%eloped both in the territory
to the north of the 'anubeC in 'aciaC as $ell as in the %ast area $hich includes a #ajor
part of the Bal?an PeninsulaC fro# the ancient 'acia to the Pindus 4ountains> This
e3tensi%e territory $as con)uered and coloniMed by the 1o#ansC during the first
decades of the third centuryC $hen they arri%ed on the shores of the +driatic Sea> They
began their con)uest $ith 8reeceC 4acedoniaC @lyriaC 4oesiaC PannoniaC Thracia and
'acia turning the latter t$o into ro#an pro%inces in 1/B1/- +'>
Ahen the 1o#ans ca#e to 'acia after 1/- +'C they brought $ith the# a #ore
ad%anced cultureC different custo#s and their languageC ,ulgar 9atin> This $as the
spo?en 9atin of those days rather than the literary language> ruic?lyC the ,ulgar 9atin
replaced the local language> +fter the $ithdra$al of the 1o#ansC 1o#ania retained a
linguistic structure si#ilar to 9atin> ButC the in%asion of Sla%s fro# south of the
'anube resulted in the brea?up of the initial unity of 1o#ania> Part of the population
displaced fro# the south of the 'anube $as pushed to @striaC $here the @stro
1o#anian dialect $as shaped> 5thers li%ed in north of Saloni?C $here the 4egleno
1o#anian dialect $as bornC and in 4acedoniaC $here the dialect is called +ro#anian>
+ll of these dialectsC together $ith the 'aco1o#anianC spo?en by the population
north of the 'anubeC de%eloped in relation to the historical and social conditions in
the respecti%e geographical areasC but $ith the general rules and characteristics of the
1o#anian language and its 9atin roots>
1o#anians li%ing south of the 'anube spea? $ith the 4acedo1o#anianC @stro
1o#anian and 4egleno1o#anian dialects to this dayC $hile those li%ing in the eastC
$est and north of the country spea? a #ore literary 1o#anianC a language $hich
subsu#es the Transyl%anian and 4olda%ian %ersions> The people in today6s 1epublic
of 4olda%ia ha%e a difficult history as $ell> 7onethelessC they too ha%e preser%ed
their national identity and language to this day> @f you ?no$ @talian or PortugueseC you
$ill probably find that 1o#anian sounds li?e a co#bination of these t$o languages>
%nternational Memberships:
1o#ania has diplo#atic relations $ith 1KK nationsC has diplo#atic #issions in <<
countries and is a #e#ber of 075C @+E+C @B1'C (+5C @(+'C 8+TTC @"+5C @95C
@45C A45C A@P5C AH5C 07@'5C @T0C 07ES"5 and 0P0> @n 1<<3C 1o#anian
beca#e an EE" and E(T+ associate #e#berC and the .3
rd
"ouncil of Europe #e#ber>
5n *anuary .-C 1<<!C 1o#anian $as the first Eastern European country to sign
7+T56s YPartnership for PeaceZ accord in BrusselsC and in 1<<K beca#e a full
fledged E(T+ #e#ber>
)eligion:
+ccording to the *anuary KC 1<<.C censusC the population of 1o#ania belongs to the
follo$ing religionsD 5rthodo3 1<>;/.>3;< (;->;l)& 1o#an "atholic 1>1-1><!.(Bl)&
1efor#ed ;/.>!B! (3>Bl)& 8ree? "atholic ..3>3.K (1>/l)& Pentecostal ../>;.!
(1>/l)& Baptist 1/<>!-. (/>.l)& +d%entist KK>!B- (/>3l)& 0nitarian K->K/; (/>3l)&
4usli# BB><.; (/>.l)& "hurch of "hrist !<><-3 (/>.l)& E%angelical of the +ugustan
"onfession 3<>11< (/>.l)& 5ld 1ite "hurch .;>1!1 (/>1l)& SynodPresbyterian
-!
E%angelical .1>..1 < (/>1l)& 5ther deno#inations B->3.< (/>.l)& and non belie%ers
3!>-!B (/>1Bl)>
;eights and Measures:
The #etric syste# has been in use since 1;-->
Standard Time:
1o#ania is on Eastern European Ti#e(84Ts. hours)>+s of 1<K<C fro# the last
Sunday in 4arch to the last Sunday in 5ctoberC 1o#ania changes to 'aylight Sa%ing
Ti#e (84Ts3hours)> 1o#ania lies in the sa#e ti#e Mone as the 1epublic of
4olda%iaC (inlandC BulgariaC 8reeceC @sraelC SyriaC Egypt and the 1epublic of South
+frica>
Transportation .et(or':
High$ays>
Total lengthD K.>;1- ?#C of $hich 1!>;-3 ?# are trun? #otor$ays (!>B/; ?# are
European #otor$ays) and B3>133 ?# are county and co##une roads>
1ail$ay net$or?>
Total lengthD ..>3-K ?# of $hich 1->B!. ?# are single trac? and B>;.B ?# are
double trac?> ;>-!3 ?# are electrified>
@nland $ater$ays>
Total lengthD 1>-</ ?#C of $hich 1>/KB ?# are on the internationally na%igable
'anube ri%erC B.! ?# are on the na%igable branches of the 'anubeC and <1 ?# are on
#an#ade na%igable canals (the BegaC 'anubeBlac? Sea canals)>
+ir Transportation>
Se%enteen airportsC si3 of $hich ser%e do#estic and international flightsC and 11
ser%e do#estic flights only> The do#estic air co#pany is Taro#> (or do#estic flights
you can buy tic?ets in ad%ance (1/ days before) fro# Bucurefti Taro# agencies> Lou
can buy one$ay tic?etC or a round trip tic?et (the price is doubleC no reduction)C an
adult or a child tic?et (!/ percent of the usual price)> The highest cost of a tic?etC for
the longest routeC BucureftiBaia 4areC is about 0S x-/ (lei e)ui%alent)>
0nderground Transportation (4etro) in Bucharest>
Total lengthD -3>. ?#> (our #ain lines $ith !3 stations>
The Economic $otential:
The econo#ic potential of 1o#ania is able to #eet the re)uire#ents of its peopleC
$hile creating a solid basis of international trade and helping to integrate 1o#ania
into the continental socialecono#ic structure> This potential includes a s?illed
$or?force of B><//>///C )ualified on par $ith European standards& an industrial
structure that is being restructured& and progra#s designed for #ore efficient use of
the country6s natural resources and for boosting of foreign trade> The actual
une#ploy#ent rate is about 1/ percent>
%ndustry:
1o#anian industry has a high degree of concentrationD -//K// co#panies control
al#ost ;/ percent of the industrial production> @ndustry accounts for appro3i#ately B/
percent of annual re%enue> The pri%ate sector contributes #ore than !/ percent of the
industrial production>
-B
!griculture:
1o#ania has <>B #illion hectares (.3>!KB>!B/ acres) of far#landC about -. percent of
the total area of the country> 5f theseC o%er one #illion hectares are irrigated
far#lands> +ppro3i#ately !>- #illion hectares are pastureC and -//>/// hectares are
%ineyards (1o#ania produces a nu#ber of fa#ous $ine labels)C orchardsC %ine
nurseries and fruit tree nurseries>
Commerce:
@n *anuary .//1C the 7ational "o##ercial 1egister had registered about -//>///
co#panies (jointstoc?C li#itedC incorporatedC state o$nedC cooperati%es and pri%ate
indi%iduals)> So#e ;B</ percent of co#panies in 1o#ania handles #erchandise
distribution> Total a#ount of foreign in%est#ents is 0SxK>1. billion (7ational Board
(or StatisticsC (ebruary .//1)> The #ain in%estors are (rance (x;1;#illion)C 8er#any
(xK!< #illion)C 7etherlands (xK/K #illion) and 0S+ (x--3 #illion)>
Transportation:
9ocated in the center of EuropeC 1o#ania contributes to international trade bet$een
all parts of the continentC as $ell as bet$een Europe and the 4iddle East> The
go%ern#ent has prepared a draft regarding the #oderniMation of landC air and sea
transportation facilities in 1o#ania> Thirteen ne$ high$ays are to be builtC $ith a
total length of 3>/// ?#> +n additional 1>.// ?# of rail$ay trac?sC bridges o%er the
'anube and the Prut ri%ersC and four ne$ airportsC in Brafo%C 8alatiC +lba @ulia and
Bistriea also are being planned>
!ir TransportationH
'o#estic flights lin? the "apital to "raio%aC Ti#ifoaraC +radC 5radeaC SibiuC "luj
7apocaC Satu4areC Baia 4areC TTrgu 4urefC Bac:uC @afiC Sucea%aC TulceaC
"aransebef and "onstanea> + nu#ber of international airlines lin? Bucharest to all
European capitals as $ell as to other continents>
High(aysH
The #ain high$ay junction is Bucharest> The roads originating here cross the country
in all directionsC so#e of the# part of the #ain European routes> 5ne of these is E-/C
$hich originates in Ha#burg and passes through 5radea and Bucharest before
ter#inating in "onstanea>
)ail(ay net(or'H
Ten rail$ay lines cross the "arpathian #ountains> The general orientation of the lines
is influenced by Bucharest6s location in the southeastern part of the countryC to$ard
$hich the #ain routes con%erge> Bucharest is the largest rail$ay center in the country&
eight trun? lines start hereC #ost of the# lin?ed to international traffic $ays> 1o#ania
#anufacturers rail$ay carriages of all categoriesC as $ell asC electrical and diesel
electrical engines>
The do#estic 1ail "o#pany is S7"(1> (or international tra%els you can buy tic?ets
in ad%ance (up to one #onth before) fro# the international agency> (or do#estic
tra%els you can buy your tic?et in ad%ance (up to 1/ days before) fro# the S7"(1
agencies or one hour before the departure of the trainC fro# 8ara de 7ord train
station> Lou can buy an adult tic?etC a children6s tic?et (B/ percent of the usual price
for 1/1; yearolds)C a one$ayC round trip or circuit tic?et> The highest cost of a
--
tic?et for a do#estic e3press train on the largest routeC BucureftiSatu 4areC is about
0S ./x>
%nland (ater(aysH
The #ain $ater$ay is the 'anube 1i%er> Ships $ith a draught of o%er K # (.3ft>) can
na%igate do$n the ri%er fro# Br:ilaC on the section of the ri%er called Y#ariti#e
'anubeZ> Ships $ith a draught of up to .>B # (;>.Bft>) can na%igate the rest of its
length all the $ay to 8er#anyC passing through Lugosla%iaC HungaryC Slo%a?ia and
+ustria> The construction of the 'anubeBlac? Sea "anal and of the 1hine4ain
'anube "anal created an e3tre#ely i#portant $ater$ay that connects the 7orth Sea
to the Blac? Sea> The construction of the Portile de (ier @ and @@ HydroElectric
"o#ple3 and na%igation facilitiesC $hich include double $aterloc?sC #ade #ajor
increase of traffic possible> 4ariti#e transportation can handle ships $ith great
capacity> The 1o#anian fleet is e)uipped $ith ships of all siMesC up to 1K/>/// d$t>
The port of "onstanea handles -/ percent of 1o#ania6s i#ports and e3ports>
)omanian $ostal System:
The #ail syste# $as first de%eloped in the 13
th
centuryC but the year 1;B; #ar?ed a
significant step in the de%elop#ent of Pofta 1o#Tn:> The first 1o#anian sta#ps $ere
put into circulation that year and no$ are considered so#e of the earliest in the $orld>
The fa#ous Y+urochs HeadZ seriesC so#e of $hich are of inesti#able %alue in the
philatelist6s $orldC $ere issued then> +t presentC the 1o#anian Post is a state ser%iceC
and considered part of the national co##unication syste#> The 1o#anian Post has
accepted the standards of the European "o##ission regarding the ne$ unified #ar?et
of #ail ser%ices defined in the Y8reen Boo?Z> 0nder these regulationsC the sa#e
tariffs are charged and the sa#e categories of ser%ices are offered throughout the
country> 1o#anian post offices sell postcards and sta#ps>
-K
2H The beginning of technical ci>iliàtion in )omania
To ?no$ the history of a people6s science and technology enables one to appreciate
their contribution to the for#ation of the scientific and cultural horiMon of #anC of the
6riches6 a nation adds to the $orld cultural 6thesaurus6> This chapter presents a series
of significant contributions of the t$o#illeniu# old 1o#anian peopleC $hich has
al$ays #anifested a special li?ing for ?no$ledge and inno%ationC as $ell as
sensiti%ity to no%elties>
1o#ania has an old culture and ci%iliMation and technical creation significantly
contributed to its progressC jointly $ith other do#ains of the spiritual $or?>
Prehistoric traces that $ere found on the 1o#anian territory at "uciulatC Poreile de
(ierC "ucuteniC HTrfo%a and other areas sho$ that the inhabitants of these areas had
s?illfully created and handled tools already before "hrist> They sho$ed a propensity
for technicsC for the study of natural pheno#ena and the tendency to appropriate the#>
' The 6Ha#andjia6 culture that $as disco%ered in 'obrudja $as dated the !th
#illeniu# B>"> E3ca%ations digged out tools of hard polished stone and of sile3C
trapeMoidal hatchets $ith bi and plancon%e3 sections> Through its e3pressi%e designC
a statue of that era reflects the propensity of 1o#anians for thin?ing> @t $as na#ed
JThe Thin?er of Ha#andgia6 and it #ay be loo?ed upon as an anticipation of 1odin6s
J9e penseur6C representing at different #o#ents in ti#e the sa#e uni%ersal cra%ing of
#an to ?no$ and to render the essence of disco%eryC $hich is to reason and to thin?>
+rchaeologists and historians esti#ate than one can identify an 6iron age6 on the
territory of 1o#ania about the year 1.// until !B/3// B>"> Traces of bronMe
#etallurgy $ere also dated to the sa#e epoch> The disco%ery of iron ore entitled
specialists to spea? about our forefathers6 s?ills in iron reduction and $or?ing>
HatchetsC household appliances and $eapons $ere found in Babadag (Tulcea)C
"ernetu ("o%asna)C Basarab ('olj)C attesting that re#ar?able attention $as paid to this
do#ain of hu#an acti%ities>
-;
The JThin?er6 of Ha#andjia The JThin?er6 by 1odin
The foundation of se%eral 8ree? cities on the Blac? Sea shoreC such as Histria (-BK
B>">C according to the "hronicle of Eusebius of "aesareea)C To#is (the second half of
the -th century B>">C according to the reports of 8ree? colonists of 4illet) and "alatis
had brought about an intense co##ercial trade along $ith ?no$ledge e3changes in
the do#ain of technics and toolsC the construction of buildings and bridges for ships>
5nce the first centraliMed 8etic and 'acian state (under 2ing BurebistaC ;.!! B>">)
$as set up and de%eloped by 'ecebal (;K1/K +>">)C trades flourished> There $ere
sustained acti%ities in the do#ain of ci%il and #ilitary constructionsC installations for
catching and gathering drin?ing $ater> "hiseled stone $as utiliMed in the
constructions of cities ("urus 6acicusC a $all $ithout #ortarC %ery strongC thic? of
appro3> 3 #C $ith the faces of the $alls #ade of stone bloc?s connected through
$ood bea#s and earth paddingC $ith unchiseled stone bet$een the faces of $alls)>
E%idence of 'acian technical creation can still be found today especially in the cities
of the 5r:ftie 4ountains> + significant fact should be #entioned hereC na#ely that
during the 'acian and 1o#an $arsC the 'acian state $as in full s$ing and it $as the
only stateC $hich had to counterbalance the force of the 1o#an E#pire>
Ahen 'acia had been con)uered by 1o#ansC a ne$ technical culture $as created
through the $or? of sla%es and capti%e 'acians> The technical genius of 1o#an
con)uerorsC $hich inter#ingled $ith that of the capti%e 'aciansC resulted in special
constructionsC such asD the #onu#ent of +da#clisiC the bridge o%er the 'anube and
'robetaTurnu Se%erin that $as built by the architect +polodor of 'a#ascus by order
of the 1o#an 2ing Traian (1/.1/B B>">)> Se%eral gold and sil%er #ines $ere opened
in the Mone BradBaMaC $here there has been attested ./// years of #ining
e3ploitationC in 1<K<)> The conte#porary e3change of ?no$ledge bet$een the 1o#an
E#pire and the colony of 'acia $as %ery acti%e> 7e$ d$ellings and techni)ues
e#erged (a)ueductsC ore e3ploitationC $ood $or?ing)>+rchaeological disco%eries
#entioned e%en a short inscription fro# J0lpia Traiana6 that spea?s of the e3istence of
a J"ollegiu# fabru#6 (a s#iths6 corporation) in the 3rd century +>"> +s roads
represented the #eans of connecting the ne$ly built d$ellingsC a $ide net$or? of
roads $as built> "onrad Peutinger (1!-B1B!K)C $ho $as the e#pire ad%isor of
+ugsburgC #entioned itC dra$ing up the Peutingerian JTabula6 that $as a #ap of the
#ain roads of 'acia and their connection to other regions of the 1o#an E#pire>
The #igration of peoples on the territory of the for#er 'acia that had been deserted
by 1o#ans and $hose population $as o%er 1 #illion at that ti#e (according to the
historian PTr%an) left deep traces as regards unitary state organiMationC in the sense
that a delay in the state organiMation $as registered as co#pared to the Aestern
Europe countries> @n spite of its slo$ de%elop#entC #ention should be #ade that there
-<
is archaeological e%idence in support of the continuity of old trades and the surge of
ne$ handicraftsC as a result of a co##ercial e3changes (cera#icsC household
appliancesC $eapons) on the territory of present day 1o#ania> The disco%ery of pre
feudal d$ellings of 8ar%anC "apida%a in the region of the 9o$ 'anube point to the
original 1o#anian fol? creati%ity in the conception of tools> There $ere disco%ered
se%eral o%ens for iron reduction that $ere built in the earthC adorn#ent objects of
sil%erC glassC cera#icsC brass and bronMe objects> Se%eral proofs testify to the
utiliMation since the 1/th to the 1.th centuries of the horiMontal $ea%ing #ill (than?s
to the influence of ByMantine culture) that $as utiliMed in the Aestern countries only
in the 13th centuryw
Great )omanian technical and scientific achie>ements
Ae are entitled to state that the feudal ci%iliMations of 1o#ania appeared and
de%eloped in the conte3t of the European ci%iliMationC $ith ob%ious interrelations and
influences in the do#ain of #iningC #etallurgyC constructionsC #ilitary techni)ueC
$ood $or?ing>
1ecepti%e to no%eltiesC our people $ere able not only to utiliMe the#C but also to offer
in turn original solutions that $ere adopted in other regions of the $orld> Se%eral such
creations should be #entioned hereC $hose authors re#ain anony#ous> They opened
up a $ay to future progress> Ae shall refer first to #iningC as a seg#ent of acti%ity
$ith long tradition on the 1o#anian territory> The e3istence of ore deposits attracted
8er#an and +ustrian #ine $or?ers to those areas> The presence of the first of the#
$as traced bac? to 1.3; at the gold and sil%er #ining $or?s of ylatna and "TlnicC
$hile others $or?ed at their iron one #ine of 1e#etea (in 1.<1)>
The $ooden trolley $ith $ooden $heels $as a re#ar?able achie%e#ent at that ti#e>
@t had been de%ised in the 1!th 1Bth centuries and $as endo$ed $ith rail points
(s$itch and s$itch blade)> @t $as the first ite# of his type to be #entioned a#ong the
ancient technical achie%e#ents in the $orld and it $as disco%ered in a gold #ine at
BradBarMa> @t #aybe considered to be the oldest dri%en %ehicle or $ooden railsC
$hen ta?ing into account the fact that it $as hardly around the year 1BB/ that the
$ooden rail $ere attested by archaeologists to ha%e been utiliMed in the #ining
galleries in the HarM 4ountains> Since 1<3/C the #odel of this trolley can be found at
the 4useu# of "o##unications in Berlin> The utiliMation of po$der in #ining as
early as the 1!th century is also attested> 8eorgius +gricola #entioned in his $or?
J'e %era 4etalica6 the fact that the po$der $as used in the #ines of 8er#any only in
the 1-th century>5re reduction o%ens had a special design> The one found at 8herla
Topliea and e3hibited at the Science 4useu# of 9ondon is esti#ate to be the oldest in
Europe>
@nstances of ingenuity can be found in the do#ain of harnessing $ind and hydraulic
po$erC as $ell as in utiliMing the afferent e)uip#ent> @n EuropeC the $ind#ill
(originating fro# Persia) $as #entioned to be used first in 7or#andy in 11;/> 5n the
territory of 1o#aniaC this ?ind of #ill $as #entioned to ha%e been used in the 1.th
and 13th centuriesC especially for cereal grinding> Such $ind#ills $ith ! or - sheets
$ill be utiliMed in 1o#ania until the ./th centuryC according to the tra%elling
i#pression notes of the (rench tra%eler (racois de Pa%ie>
Ahen ne$ trades appearedC hydraulic energy $as e#ployed for the ne$ e)uip#entD
oil #anufacturingC cereal grindingC felting #ills for clothC ore crushing> The first
K/
hydraulicdri%e sta#pheads for ore crushing are #entioned under the deno#ination of
FstupaF in Transyl%ania in the 1!th century and in the 1o#anian and 4olda%ian
Principalities since the 1Bth centuries>
The spinning and $inding $heel had been concei%ed and utilised in all the regions of
our country> That de%ice $as based on the connecting rod and cran? principleC that
$as an in%ention of the 1!th century and on the principle of the con%eyance belts>
1o#anian $ater #illsC na#ely the socalled cup#ills or buc?et#ills #ay be
considered to be the precursors of the hydraulic turbineC $hich $as in%ented by Pelton
in 1;;!> 5riginal ite#s of this 1o#anian de%ice are displayed at the 4useu# of
Science and Technics in 4unich and at the Technical 4useu# FProf> '> 9eonidaF of
Bucharest> This constructionC $hich $as a specific $or? of popular artisansC has been
concei%ed in the early ages of #an?indC as the 1o#anian historian "> 8iur:scu saidC
being utiliMed in BulgariaC Lugosla%ia and +lbania>
+ $hole range of specialiMed e)uip#ent for %arious trades is attested by
archaeological docu#entsC such asD $ea%ing de%ice for tissues (dated 1!K3)C fulling
#ills for cloth (1!!1)C $hich had been located on the #ountain ri%ers>
The de%elop#ent of trades in the do#ain of $ood$or?ing and the flourishing of
trading sti#ulated the $ood shipbuilding> + Ffir#anF of Sultan 4oha##ed @@ (1!!B)
#entioned about the ships trading authoriMation of the d$ellers of 4olda%ia to sell the
ships they used to build in "hilia and "etatea +lb: (the Ahite (ortressC in 0?raine)>
+s the ti#e passedC constructions $ere perfor#ed in a $ider range> Shipyards $ere
set upC $here 1o#anians built %arious types of boats at Br:ila (1-./)C 8iurgiu (1K//)C
8alaei (1K;3)> The %oi%ode +le3andru 4oruMi obtained fro# the 5tto#an Porte the
per#ission that ,alachia Jshould detain %arious types of %esselsC boatsC ?aya?s and all
?inds of ships on the 'anube $ithin the borders of the country6> Since 1;3-C the
'anube harbors of 8alaei and Br:ila already recei%ed the Jportofranco6 regi#eC a fact
that testified to the %i%id acti%ity that $as being deployed there> The ships of
4olda%ia and ,alachia sailed under the 5tto#an flag first> ThenC since 1;3!C they
sailed under the 1o#anian flag> These signs of independence also reflected in the
di%ersifying of shipbuildingD the brig schooner JE##a6 for the 'anube ri%er police
and the #ilitary schooners JStephen the 8reat6 and J8alaei6>
K1
@n guise of a conclusionC one can say that the shipbuilding industry had an old
tradition in 1o#aniaC as a result of a strong sector of conception and #anufacturingC
$hich has been de%eloping since ti#es i##e#orial> "argoesC bul?goods %esselsC ore
ships and oil tan?s are #anufactured in 1o#aniaC according to the concept of
1o#anian researchersC $ho ha%e brought significant contributions to the study of
hydrodyna#ic regi#esC to the opti#iMation of ship building and the #odeling of
operation regi#es> The range of perfor#ances includes such achie%e#ents asD ore
ships of 1B//// dt$C oil tan?s of .///// dt$ and K offshore drilling platfor#s in the
Blac? Sea continental Mone for oil drillingC $hich $ere built in the shipyards of 8alaeiC
according to the projects and studies of 1o#anian researches>
1o#anians had original contributions in the do#ain of architecture and constructions
alsoC $hich $ere applied in the raising up of public or pri%ate buildingsC roads and
bridgesC silosC rail$ays and hydrotechnical $or?s> 5ne cannot spea? of a breach
bet$een the techni)ues that our forerunners had been fa#iliar $ith in the past and the
technicsC $hich our conte#poraries currently apply today> "hurches and cathedrals
that had been built in 1o#ania are but a fe$ e3a#ples> The 4olda%ian arch that $as
specifically e#ployed in the architecture of the 7orthern 4olda%ia #onasteries or the
princely to#bs of "urtea de +rgef are real proofs of the 1o#anians6 inno%ation
capacity> The stone bridges of BorMefti and "otnariC $hich ha%e been erected at the
end of the 1B
th
century under the reign of Stephen the 8reat and the $ooden bridges of
Transyl%ania are also such instances of 1o#anian ingenuity> @t is re#ar?able ho$ ne$
ideas co#ing fro# %arious geographical areas found a good soil for their de%elop#ent
into a practical synthesis in 1o#ania>
@on 4incuC the founder of the national architecture schoolC undertoo? construction and
decorati%e ele#ents specific to the 1o#anian #edie%al and fol? architecture or to that
of other countriesC especially in point of technology> He also e#ployed the balconiesC
the $ooden pillarsC the arch$aysC the capitals in his projects> There still can be seen
instances of his creation in Bucharest todayD the 9aho%aryC 4onteoru and ,ernescu
housesC the 1efresh#ent Bar on the High$ayC the "entral School for 8irlsC the
+d#inistrati%e Palace of 8alaei>
The architectsC $ho $ere trained by hi# continued in the line of traditional
architectureC each of the# co#ing up $ith so#ething specificC as it results for# the
buildings that they had designed> Petre +ntonescu $as the architectC $ho set up the
To$nhall building of BucharestC the (aculty of 9a$C the +d#inistrati%e Palace of
"raio%aC the Triu#ph +rch (that had been te#porarily erected in 1<.. according to
the projects of architect Petre +ntonescu and finished bet$een 1<3B and 1<3-C
through the participation of the #ost $orthy 1o#anian sculptorsD @on *aleaC "orneliu
4edreaC 'i#itrie PaciureaC 5scar SpzetheC (rederi? Stor?C "onstantin Baraschi)>
'uiliu 4arcu concei%ed the for#er State "o##ittee of Planning (the 4inistry of
@ndustry and Trade at present)C the 9ibrary of the 1o#anian +cade#yC the 4ilitary
+cade#yC the Palace of the ,ictory +%enueC the Palace of 1ail$aysC the State 5pera
and the 7ational Theatre of Ti#ifoara> The Hotel Bule%ard of Bucharest $as built
according to the plans of architect +le3andru 5rascu in 1;K1>
4ention should be #ade of #onu#ental buildingsC such as the Palace of Parlia#entC
$hose construction started on the .B
th
of *uneC 1<;! $ith a partial co##issioning
bet$een 1<<1 and 1<<. and a final stage of $or?s still under $ay today> Specialists in
K.
%arious do#ains contributed to this construction their o$n ideas in architectureC
constructionsC e)uip#ent and furniture> This building ran?s second a#ong the $orld
ad#inistrati%e buildings after the Pentagon building (33//// s)# as co#pared to
-/!/// s)#)> +s for the building %olu#eC it stands on the third place $ith .>BB
#illions #3C after the building for rochet asse#bly of "ape "ana%eral (3>--- #illion
#3) and ruetMalcoatl Pyra#id (3>3 #illion #3)> The ground building surface is --///
s)#C its #a3i#u# height ;- #> The building continues belo$ the ground do$n to
#inus <. #> it has o%er !!/ officesC 1.// conference halls and tens of parlorsC being
an ideal place for the organiyation of culturalC scientificC social and political e%ents>
The interior elegance is due to a specific co#bination of #aterialsC such asD #arbleC
glassC cera#icsC $oodC carpetsC crystal candelabra>
Spea?ing of the 1o#anians6 recepti%ity to #odern solutions and of their capacity to
de%elop ne$ solutionsC #ention should be #ade that the reno$ned 8usta% Eiffel
elaborated the #etallic structure of the JTraian6 Hotel of @afi> 1o#anians $ere a#ong
the first $ho ha%e perfected the design techni)ue for reinforced concrete (the Project
for reinforced concrete of the for#er old building of the 1o#anian Parlia#ent $as
dra$n up by 8ogu "onstantinescu)> E#il Prager perfected the #echaniMation of
construction $or?s (#etallic shutteringC )uic?ly hardening ce#ent etc>)> 1ecentlyC
there ha%e been achie%ed a series of constructionsC $hich are rele%ant for the
conception talent of 1o#anian architects and buildersD the ne$ building of the
JPolitehnica6 0ni%ersity of BucharestC $hich co%ers B/ ha (architect 5cta% 'oicescu)C
airports J2og:lniceanu6 of "onstanea and 5topeni of Bucharest (architect "eyar
9:M:rescu)C the 1o#anian T, Head)uartersC the 7ational TheatreC the Palace of
Sports of BucharestC the to$n planning of the 4a#aia sea resort and of the Blac? Sea
coastlineC the "entral Pa%ilion J1o#e3po6 (#ade of #etalC concreteC glassC $ith an
original do#e construction that had been carried out by the acade#ician 'an
4ateescu)>
Bridges represent one of the Jstrong6 do#ains of the 1o#anians buildersC +ngel
Saligny being the founder of a reno$ned national school> His achie%e#ents are $ell
?no$nD #etallic bridges $ith brac?ets and $ithout abut#ent (1;;-)C the rail$ay
bridge o%er the 'anubeC at (etefti"erna%od:C that $as the longest bridge in the
"ontinental Europe at that ti#e and his #asterpiece> Brac?eted bea#s and a ne$
#aterialC the soft steel (instead of the puddle iron) that had ne%er been utiliMed beforeC
$ere e#ployed for the bridge superstructure>
K3
The tradition of +ngel Saligny continues> 1ecently his solutions $ere applied to the
'anube Bridge at 8iurgieni,adul 5iiC 1!B- # in lengthC $ith a #a3i#u# opening of
1-/ #> @t is #etallic $ith orthotropic plateC $ith ! circulation lanes> The 8iurgiu
bridge $ith #etallic superstructureC $as the largest co#bined bridge in Europe at his
ti#e (1<B3)D it had a rail$ay a the lo$er dec? and a road at the upper dec?)> The .;
bridges of the Transf:g:rafan road are one #ore instance of continuity in the tradition
of +nghel Saligny> The roadC $hich is <1>B ?# long crosses the alpine Mone of the
(:g:raf 4ountains reaching up to ./!B #C getting through the #ountains belo$ the
BTlea pic?C bet$een "apra and BTlea> +nother origial bridge is the Jbracing $ire6
bridge of +gigeaC along the 'anubeBlac? Sea channel that round up the $ater #ain
to the 7orth Sea> @ts central sector is 1-. #C representing the largest opening that $as
e%er achie%ed in 1o#ania and one of the $orld top perfor#ances>
+nghel Saligny $as the initiator of the doc? $arehouses constructionC na#ely the
silos of Br:ila (1;;;) and 8alaei (1;;<)> (or the first ti#e in the $orldC reinforced
concrete $as used for those constructionsC only t$enty years after the (rench 4onier
had obtained the first Patent for construction ele#ents of this #aterialC in 1;-K> The
prefabrication of plates on the groundC the $elding of #etallic barsC ele#ents of
rigidityC #echaniMation of asse#bly represented 1o#anian no%elties>
Hydropo$er constructions and the 'anubeBlac? Sea channel are a#ong the hydro
electrical achie%e#ents in the do#ain of constructions>
'a#s and hydroelectrical constructions of 1o#ania are a proof of a special
conception forceC $hich is e#bodied in the chain of hydropo$er stations along the
%alley of se%eral ri%ersD BistrieaC +rgefC 5ltC 9otruC So#f and the 'anube>
The projects of 'i#itrie 9eonida and 'orin Pa%el for the acco##odation of hydraulic
basinsC $hich had been concei%ed around the year 1</;C $ere found to be as good at
the ti#e $hen hydroelectrical arrange#ents $ere done in 1o#ania>
The J@ron 8ates6 'a# that $as started in 1<-! and co##issioned in 1<K. represents a
hydroenergetic and na%igation syste# at the sa#e ti#e> The da# has ;-; # in
lengthC spill$ays of .B # and t$o loc?s of 3// 3 3! #> @t contains t$o builtin hydro
po$er stations of the ri%er typeC each of the# including - groups> The installed po$er
is .1// 4,C $hich is under $ay to be increased>
The 'anubeBlac? Sea "hannel $as a successC both in point of technical solutionsC
and the econo#ic effects it $ill generate $hen the conditions to connect the Blac?
Sea to the 7orth Sea through the 'anube1ine "hannel are #et> +ll the 'anube ri%er
side countries $ill benefit fro# this opportunity> The channel has -!>3; ?# in lengthC
a shipping canal of K/</ # in $idth and it is o%er K # deep> @t represents a
re#ar?able achie%e#ent of the 1o#anian conception and industry>
The connections that 1o#anian principalities establishedC both $ith the European and
the eastern countries enabled the de%elop#ent of tradeC as $ell as of the scientific
transfer and interrelations> The Prince 'espot founded the +cade#y of "otnari in
1B-.C according to the #odel of European acade#ies> 4athe#atics $as taught there
a#ong other subjects of study> 7icolae 4ilescuC 8> hincaiC 8h> +sachi are the authors
of #athe#atics publicationsC $hich $ere intended to be taught in schools>
K!
5riginality beco#es #anifest $ith e%en #ore re#ar?able results in the 1<
th
and ./
th

centuries> @n 1;.-C @> Bolyai created the nonEuclidean geo#etry independently and
si#ultaneously $ith 7> @> 9obace%s?i and (> 8aussC disco%ering an altogether ne$
$orld> 8h> {ieeicaC one of the creators of the centroaffine geo#etryC disco%ered ne$
categories of cur%esC surfaces and net$or?sC $hich $ere called by his na#e> 'i#itrie
Po#pei introduced the notion of Jareolar deri%ati%e6 in #athe#atics and is the creator
of the JPo#pei functions6> 'a%id E##anuel brings i#portant contributions to the
study of Jabelian6 integralsC $hich represents an intensely discussed proble# by the
#athe#aticians of the 1<
th
century> Traian 9alescu de%eloped the theory of integral
e)uationsC being one of its creators and upholds the e3istence of the Jperiodical
polygonal functions6> @n his #athe#atical studiesC 7icolae BoteM de%eloped a for#ula
that $as underta?en and further de%eloped by "ebafe%>
The 1o#anian school of #athe#atics has pro%ed that it had good inno%ating hu#an
brains> 1o#anian #athe#aticians ha%e a re#ar?able capacity to de%elop fi%e
solutions to highco#ple3ity proble#s> Si#ion Stoilo%C for instanceC found a class of
e)uations for $hich there are al$ays unifor# integrals in the neighborhood of a
singularity> +> 4iller and 5cta% 4ayer de%eloped the geo#etry of projecti%e and
related subgroups> +le3andru PantaMi brought his contribution in the Jdifferential
geo#etry6 through the definition of the JPantaMi )uadruples6C $hich are called the
JTerraciniPantaMi net$or?s6 in the specialiMed literature> 8h> 4ihoc originally dealt
$ith the J4arco% chains6 and introduced the notion of the Jco#plete connections
chain6 together $ith 5cta% 5nicescu>
5cta% 5nicescu (the creator of the 1o#anian school of the theory of probabilities and
#athe#atical statistics) brought %aluable contributions to the de%elop#ent of
in%ariable #echanics and introduced the notion of Jsu#function6 and Jholothrope
function6> 8rigore 4oisil reported original achie%e#ents in functional analysisC
1ie#annian spacesC #athe#atical logic applied in the auto#ation techni)ue> 4iron
7icolescu $or?ed $ith outstanding results in the theory of the har#onic and real
%ariable functions> Solo#on 4arcus is ?no$n for his original interpretations in
#athe#atics>
@n the last 1/ yearsC a series of 1o#anian #athe#aticians ha%e obtained top results in
do#ains of public interestD 'an ,oiculescu reached profound theore#s in the study of
"j algebra and noncu#ulati%e probabilitiesC $ith their i#plications in #odern
physics> "iprian (oiaf had farreaching results in the opti#u# control in infinite
di#ensional spaces and in the study of the 7a%ierStro?es e)uation> ,iorel Barbu had
brought his contribution to the do#ain of the #ultidi#ensional opti#u# control and
the theory of integral e)uations>
@n the history of scienceC a special i#portance is attached to the contribution of the
physician htefan 5doblejaC $ho published J9a Psychologie consonantiste6 in Paris in
1<3;> His $or? contained funda#ental concepts regarding the operation of co#ple3
syste#s (biologicalC social) $ith a s#aller or higher degree of auto#atis#> He is
considered to be the creator of psychocybernetics> Ten years laterC in 1<!;C the
+#erican #athe#atician 7orbert Aiener founded cybernetics>
KB
5ne can also spea? of a re#ar?able 1o#anian physics school and its tradition> @ts
representati%es had been trained in the greatest foreign scientific centresC underta?ing
the latest conceptsC $hich they Jdistilled6C yielding in return a lu3urious treasury of
?no$ledge>
+s for the do#ain of physicsC the 1<
th
and ./
th
centuries are the #ost rele%ant period
in the history of sciences> 7e%erthelessC forerunners should ne%er be forgotten>
4ention should be #ade here of the 1o#anian scholar 'i#itrie "ante#irC $ho
published JHieroglyphic history6 in @stanbul (1K/B)C $hich deals $ith the relation
bet$een #atter and #otion> @n 1K1/ he studied the doctrine of @> ,> ,an Hel#ontC
focusing on se%eral ele#ents of the #echanics of #otion> + century laterC 8heorghe
hincai presented in his $or? J7atural teaching for abolishing ordinary people6s
superstitions6 the principles of 7e$tonian #echanics>
1H Great )omanian scientists and engineers
This section is dedicated to so#e re#ar?able 1o#anian scientist and engineers $hose
achie%e#ents are at the highest le%el>
B,89!% [bnos
*]nos Bolyai $as born in Transyl%aniaC at that ti#e part of Hungary and of the
+ustrian E#pire (although the to$n 2oloMs%]r is no$ officially na#ed "luj and is in
1o#ania)> By the ti#e Bolyai $as 13C he had #astered the calculus and other for#s
of analytical #echanicsC his father (ar?as Bolyai gi%ing hi# instruction> Bolyai also
beca#e an acco#plished %iolinist and he perfor#ed in ,ienna> He studied at the
1oyal Engineering "ollege in ,ienna fro# 1;1; to 1;..> @##ediately after this he
joined the ar#y engineering corps in $hich he spent 11 years> He $as the best
s$ords#an and dancer in the +ustrian @#perial +r#y>
He neither s#o?ed nor dran?C not e%en coffeeC and at the age of .3 he $as reported to
still retain the #odesty of innocence> He $as an acco#plished linguist spea?ing nine
foreign languages including "hinese and Tibetan>
Bet$een 1;./ and 1;.3 he prepared a treatise on a co#plete syste# of nonEuclidean
geo#etry> Before the $or? $as publishedC ho$e%erC Bolyai disco%ered that 8auss had
anticipated #uch of his $or?> +lthough 8auss had ne%er published his $or? in this
areaC probably because he did not feel confident to publishC this $as a se%ere blo$ to
Bolyai> Ho$e%er BolyaiFs $or? $as published in 1;3. as an +ppendi3 to an essay by
his father>
8aussC on reading the +ppendi3C $rote to a friend sayingD
|2 regard this young geo"eter 3olyai as a genius of the first order|>
To BolyaiFs father he $roteD
|To praise it (ould a"ount to praising "yself% .or the entire content of the
(or+ %%% coincides al"ost e*actly (ith "y o(n "editations (hich have
occupied "y "ind for the past thirty or thirty-five years|>
@n 1;!; Bolyai disco%ered that 9obache%s?y had published a si#ilar piece of $or? in
1;.<>
@n addition to his $or? in geo#etryC Bolyai de%eloped a rigorous geo#etric concept of
co#ple3 nu#bers as ordered pairs of real nu#bers>
K-
Bolyai $as plagued $ith a fe%erC $hich fre)uently disabled hi#C and in 1;33 he $as
pensioned off fro# his ar#y career> +lthough he ne%er published #ore than the .!
pages of the +ppendi3 he left #ore than .//// pages of #anuscript of #athe#atical
$or? $hen he died> These are no$ in the BolyaiTele?i library in Tirgu 4ures>
@n 1<!B a uni%ersity in "luj $as na#ed after hi#C and this is no$ part of the Babes
Bolyai 0ni%ersity>
C,!./! Henry
@n 5ctober 1<1/ 8rand Palais on "ha#psElysees in Paris $as hosting the second
@nternational +eronautical E3hibition> The #ost recent products of a%iation $ere
e3posed> 4any people $ere %isiting the e3hibitionC so#e because of pure curiosityC
attracted by the #irage of flightC others because they $ere particularly interested in
so#e specific #achines>
The #ost interesting #achineC $hich attracted lots of peopleC and caused the %isitors
to gather in a cro$d around itC $as a red airplane $hich $as #issing the propeller&
beside itC on a #etallic shellC $as $rittenD "5+7'+1<1/> This airplane caused the
people to be so curious not only because it $as #issing the propellerC but also because
of the fact that it $as co#pletely different fro# $hat people ?ne$ by that ti#e an
airplane loo?ed li?e> @t $as a double$ingC oneseat plane e)uipped $ith a reacti%e
engine> His #ain characteristics $ere spanD 1/>3/ #C lengthD 1.>B/ #C lifting surfaceD
3.>K/ #3#C $eightD !./ ?gC propulsion force at sea le%elD ../ ?gf>
The ne$s concerning the airplaneFs construction $ere #ainly the follo$ingD(or the
first ti#e the #ain stubs of $ings $ere #ade of steel instead of $ood> The $ings
$ere for the first ti#e e)uipped $ith #obile surfaces placed ahead of $ing to increase
lift (jthese are #obile surfaces attached to the $ingC $hich ha%e the role to delay the
separation of the boundary layerC thus increasing the critical flight incidence and the
#a3i#u# lifting coefficient& in 1o#anian it is called %olet e>g %olet (o$lerC TaghiC
2ruger etc>j)>
The $ings profile had a strong cur%ature& their shape $as rectangular e3cept for the
fact that they $ereC of courseC circular at the corners> The gasoline and lubricants $ere
stored inside the upper $ings (w) such as the drag $as considerably reduced>The t$o
$ings had different lengths and the superior (upper) $ing $as set ahead of the inferior
oneC $hich $as shorterC such as the aerodyna#ic interference bet$een these t$o
surfaces $ere reduced> This constructionC applied for the first ti#e by Henri "oandaC
$as later called FSes)uiplanF& it $as rein%ented 1/ years laterC being used for
(o??erFsC Bre)uetFsC PoteMFs airplanes>
Paul Painle%e 1;-31<33C Prof> at SorboneC one of the pioneers of (light 4echanicsC
$ho also fle$ $ith Ailbur Aright and Henri (ar#an e%en in 1</; Se3trieu3 and
8usta%e Eiffel 1;3.1<.3C a pioneer of e3peri#ental aerodyna#icsC his first
e3periences being carried out fro# the to$er $hich bears his na#e $ere particularly
interested in "oandaFs #achine> Ho$e%er they realiMed that the hour of the reacti%e
airplane had not co#e yet (EiffelD FThis boy should ha%e been born 3/ years later>F)>
The #ost interesting part of "oandaFs plane $as the propulsion syste#C a real
re%olution in the construction of airplane engines that $ould ha%e to constitute the
solution in the future> The |airreacti%e engine|C in%ented and built for the first ti#e
KK
by Henri "oandaC co#posed of a pistonengine $ith four cylindersC cooled $ith
$ater& it de%eloped B/ HP (HorsePo$er) at 1/// rotationsE#inute> This pistonengine
$as connected to a rod $hich rotated the rotation #ultiplier& the #o%e#ent $as
trans#itted to the co#pressor $hich gained a rotation speed of !/// rot>E#in>> @n front
of the co#pressor $as placed the obturator a de%ice %ery si#ilar to that of a photo
ca#era& this de%ice could be controlled by the pilot such that the )uantity of air that
entered the co#pressor could be regulated> The air entered the burning roo#sC (that
had a ringli?e section and $ere placed on both sides of the fuselage)C fro# $hichC
through so#e tubesC burned gases of the engine $ere e%acuated and the propulsion
force $as generated>The propulsion force at sea le%el obtained $ith this engine $as
../ ?gfC #uch larger than that obtained if the pistonengine $ould ha%e been acted by
a propeller>
4any %isitors $ere suspicious about the possibility that this #achine could ta?e off
since it $as #issing the propeller> They had ne%er seen such a strange flying #achine
and ne%er heard about an airplane $ithout a propeller>
+fter the e3hibition closed its doorsC on 'ece#ber 1-C 1<1/C Henri "oanda
transported his airplane at @ssyles4oulineau3> Here he only intended to %erify the
engineC not to fly> So "oanda got into his #achineC and after se%eral #inutes of
$ar#ing upC pushed the buttons that co##anded the obturator and the rotation speed
of the engine> The airplane began to #o%e faster and fasterC and fla#es and fu#e
could be seen along the fuselage getting out fro# the engine> +fter a %ery short ti#eC
before "oanda could realiMe $hat $as going onC the airplane $as in the air> @#pressed
by the fla#es and $orried about the fact that he had ne%er piloted an airplane by then
(only planors)C "oanda lost the control of his #achineC $hich began to loose speed
and height> @n a short ti#e it stro?ed the ground and began to burn>
"oanda described this first flight in 1<-! as follo$sD
|The "achine gained height "uch faster than 2 thought1 it (as not "y fault) !ut
after a (hile it entered a glissade) stro+e the ground and !urned co"pletely% 2
(as very luc+y 2 (as not tied on the chair) such that 2 (as pushed out (hen the
airplane stro+e the ground1 other(ise 2 (ould have !urned (ith itJ%
This atte#pt constitutes the first flight of an airplane e)uipped $ith an airreacti%e
engineC the first reacti%e flight of an airplane in the $orld> But lac?ing the financial
support "oanda could not i#pro%e his in%ention such that a second reacti%e airplane
#ade by "oanda could not be seen flying again>
So 3/ years before Hein?elC "a#pini and AhittleC "oanda built and fle$ the first
reacti%e airplane>
,BE)TH Hermann
Her#ann *ulius 5berthC born *une .BC 1;<! in the Transyl%anian to$n of
Her#annstadtC isC along $ith the 1ussian 2onstantin Tsiol?o%s?y and the +#erican
1obert 8oddardC one of the three founding fathers of roc?etry and #odern
astronautics> @nterestinglyC although these three pioneers arri%ed at #any of the sa#e
conclusions about the possibility of a roc?et escaping the earth6s gra%itational pullC
they see# to ha%e done so $ithout any ?no$ledge of each other6s $or?>
K;
5berth6s interest in roc?etry $as spar?ed at the age of 11> His #other ga%e hi# a copy
of *ules ,erneFs (ro# The Earth To The 4oonC a boo? $hich he later recalled he read
|at least fi%e or si3 ti#es andC finallyC ?ne$ by heart>Z @t $as a young 5berthC thenC
that disco%ered that #any of ,erne6s calculations $ere not si#ply fictionC and that the
%ery notion of interplanetary tra%el $as not as fantastic as had been assu#ed by the
scientific co##unity> By the age of 1! 5berth had already en%isioned a Yrecoil
roc?etZ that could propel itself through space by e3pelling e3haust gases (fro# a
li)uid fuel) fro# its base> He had no resources $ith $hich to test his #odelC but
continued to de%elop his theoriesC all the $hile teaching hi#selfC fro# %arious boo?sC
the #athe#atics that he ?ne$ he6d need if he $as to e%er challenge gra%ity6s
do#inion> 5berth realiMed that the higher the ratio bet$een propellant and roc?et
#ass the faster his roc?et $ould be able to tra%el> Proble#D as the roc?et e3pends fuelC
its #ass (not including fuel) re#ains the sa#eC in essence beco#ing hea%ier and
hea%ier in relation to the engine6s ability to pro%ide thrust> SolutionD stages> Her#ann
5berth reasoned that as one section of the roc?et cylinder beco#es e3pendedC and
therefore also beco#es dead $eightC $hy not just get rid of it= This idea is especially
i#portantC in light of the fact that in spaceC %elocity is additi%e> 5berth $roteC
Fthe re$uire"ents for stages developed out of these for"ulas% 2f there is a
s"all roc+et on top of a !ig one) and if the !ig one is jettisoned and the s"all
one is ignited) then their speeds are added%C
@n 1<1. Her#ann 5berth enrolled in the 0ni%ersity of 4unich to study #edicine> His
scholarly pursuitsC ho$e%erC $ere interrupted by the (irst Aorld Aar> @n an indirect
$ayC Her#ann 5berth6s participation in the $arC #ostly $ith the #edical unitC $asC in
so#e $aysC fortunate for the future of roc?etry> Her#ann 5berth stated it best $hen
he $rote that one of the #ost i#portant things he learned in his years as an enlisted
#edicC $as that he |did not $ant to be a doctorZ> Ahen the $ar $as o%erC Professor
5berth returned to the 0ni%ersity of 4unichC but this ti#e to study Physics $ith
se%eral of the #ost notable scientists of the ti#e> @n 1<.. 5berth6s doctoral thesis on
roc?etry $as rejected> He later described his reactionD Y@ refrained fro# $riting
another oneC thin?ing to #yselfD 7e%er #indC @ $ill pro%e that @ a# able to beco#e a
greater scientist than so#e of youC e%en $ithout the title of doctor>Z He continuedD Y@n
the 0nited StatesC @ a# often addressed as a doctor> @ should li?e to point outC
ho$e%erC that @ a# not such and shall ne%er thin? of beco#ing one>Z +nd on
education he had this to sayD Y5ur educational syste# is li?e an auto#obile $hich has
strong rear lightsC brightly illu#inating the past> But loo?ing for$ard things are barely
discernibleZ>
@n 1<.3C the year after the rejection of his dissertationC he published the <. page 'ie
1a?ete Mu den Planetenrau#en (The 1oc?et into Planetary Space)> This $as follo$ed
by a longer %ersion (!.< pages) in 1<.<C $hich $as internationally celebrated as a
$or? of tre#endous scientific i#portance> That sa#e yearC he lost the sight in his left
eye in an e3peri#ent $hile $or?ing as a technical ad%isor to 8er#an director (ritM
9ang on his fil#C Y8irl in the 4oon>Z
@n the thirties 5berth too? on a young assistant $ho $ould later beco#e one of the
leading scientists in roc?etry research for the 8er#an and then the 0nited States
go%ern#ents& his na#e $as Aerhner %on Braun> They $or?ed together again during
the Second Aorld AarC de%eloping the ,. roc?etC the Y%engeance $eaponZ for the
8er#an +r#yC and again after the $arC in the 0nited States at the 0>S> +r#y6s
K<
Ballistic 4issile +gency in Hunts%illeC +laba#a> Ho$e%erC three years later Professor
5berth retired and returned to 8er#any>
That Her#ann 5berth is one of the three founding fathers of roc?etry and #odern
astronautics isC @ thin?C indisputable> That all three ha%e ad%anced the science of
roc?etry is also indisputable Professor 5berthC thoughC possessed a %ision that set
hi# apartC e%en fro# these great #en> @n 1<.3 he $rote in the final chapter of 'ie
1a?ete Mu den Planetenrau#en (The 1oc?et into Planetary Space)C YThe roc?ets>>> can
be built so po$erfully that they could be capable of carrying a #an aloft>Z @n 1<.3C
thenC he beca#e the first to pro%e that roc?ets could put a #an into space> By all
accounts Her#ann 5berth $as a hu#ble #an (especially considering his
achie%e#ents) $ho hadC in his o$n $ordsC si#ple goals> He outlined the# in the last
paragraph of his 1<BK boo? 4an into SpaceD YTo #a?e a%ailable for life e%ery place
$here life is possible> To #a?e inhabitable all $orlds as yet uninhabitableC and all life
purposeful>Z Her#ann *ulius 5berth died in a 7ure#berg hospital in Aest 8er#any
on 'ece#ber .<C 1<;< at the age of 
$!8!/E George
He $as born in 7o%e#ber 1<1. in *assy (@asi)C the old capital of 4olda%iaC the
eastern pro%ince of 1o#ania> 4y education $as started in that city and $as continued
through a baccalaureate (continental style) at the |+l Hasdeu| 9yceu# in BuMau> His
fatherC E#il PaladeC $as professor of philosophy and #y #otherC "onstanta "ante#ir
PaladeC $as a teacher> The fa#ily en%iron#ent e3plains $hy he ac)uired early in life
great respect for boo?sC scholars and education> His father has hoped he $as going to
study philosophy at the 0ni%ersityC li?e hi#selfC but he preferred to deal $ith
tangibles and specificsC and influenced by relati%es #uch closer to #y age than he
$as he entered the School of 4edicine of the 0ni%ersity of Bucharest (1o#ania) in
1<3/>
Early in his student years he de%eloped a strong interest in basic bio#edical sciences
by listening toC and spea?ing $ithC (rancisc 1ainer and +ndrG Boi%inC professors of
+nato#y and Bioche#istryC respecti%ely> +s a resultC he started $or?ing in the
+nato#y laboratory $hile still in #edical school> He $entC nonethelessC through si3
years of hospital trainingC #ostly in internal #edicineC but he did the $or? for #y
doctorate thesis in #icroscopic anato#y on a rather unusual topic (for an 4>'>)D the
nephron of the cetacean 'elphinus delphi> @t $as an atte#pt to understand its structure
in ter#s of the functional adaptation of a #a##al to #arine life>
He graduated in 1<!/ andC after a short period as an assistant in internal #edicineC he
$ent bac? to +nato#yC since the discrepancy bet$een ?no$ledge possessed byC and
e3pected fro#C the #edical practitioners of that ti#e #ade #e rather uneasy>'uring
the second $orld $arC he ser%ed in the #edical corps of the 1o#anian +r#yC and after
the $ar encouraged by 8rigore PopaC 1ainerFs successor he ca#e to the 0nited
States in 1<!- for further studies> He $or?ed for a fe$ #onths in the Biology
9aboratory of 1obert "ha#bers at 7e$ Lor? 0ni%ersity andC $hile thereC he #et
+lbert "laude $ho had co#e to gi%e a se#inar on his $or? in electron #icroscopy>
He $as fascinated by the perspecti%es opened by his findings and e3tre#ely happy
$henC after a short discussion follo$ing his se#inarC he as?ed #e to co#e to $or?
$ith hi# at The 1oc?efeller @nstitute for 4edical 1esearch in the fall of the sa#e
year> This $as truly a ti#ely de%elop#entC since "ha#bers $as retiring that su##er>
;/
+t The 1oc?efeller @nstituteC "laude $as $or?ing in the depart#ent of Pathology of
*a#es 4urphy $ith 8eorge Hogeboo# and Aalter Schneider as direct collaborators&
2eith Porter $as in the sa#e depart#ent but had de%eloped his o$n line of research
on the electron #icroscopy of cultured ani#al cells> +t the beginningC he $or?ed
pri#arily on cell fractionation proceduresC and he de%eloped $ith Hogeboo# and
Schneider the |sucrose #ethod| for the ho#ogeniMation and fractionation of li%er
tissue> This first |1oc?efeller group| had a rather short e3istenceD Schneider returned
to the 0ni%ersity of AisconsinC Hogeboo# #o%ed to the 7ational "ancer @nstituteC
and "laude $ent bac? to Belgiu# in 1<!< to assu#e the directorship of the *ules
Bordet @nstitute> 5nly Porter and he re#ained at The 1oc?efeller @nstitute>
T$o years laterC upon 4urphyFs retire#entC they beca#e |orphans| and $ere adopted
by Herbert 8asser then the director of the @nstituteC since none of the# had the ran?
re)uired to head a laboratory>
+round that ti#eC Palade started $or?ing in electron #icroscopy $ith the general ai#
of de%eloping preparation procedures applicable to organiMed tissue> This line of
research had been tac?led before by a fe$ in%estigatorsC "laude includedC but there
$as still a#ple roo# for i#pro%e#ent> Ta?ing ad%antage of $hate%er techni)ues
$ere already a%ailableC Porter and Palade $or?ed out enough i#pro%e#ents in
#icroto#y and tissue fi3ation to obtain preparationsC $hichC at least for a $hileC
appeared satisfactory and gratifying> + period of intense acti%ity and great e3cite#ent
follo$ed since the ne$ layer of biological structure re%ealed by electron #icroscopy
pro%ed to be une3pectedly rich and surprisingly unifor# for practically all eu?aryotic
cells> SinglyC or in collaboration $ith othersC he did his share in e3ploring the ne$ly
open territory andC in the processC he defined the fine structure of #itochondriaC and
described the s#all particulate co#ponent of the cytoplas# (later called riboso#es)&
$ith PorterC Palade in%estigated the local differentiations of the endoplas#ic
reticulu# and $ith Sanford Palay he $or?ed out the fine structure of che#ical
synapses> Aith all this acti%ityC their laboratory beca#e reasonably $ell ?no$n and
started functioning as a training center for biological electron #icroscopy> The
circu#stances that per#itted this de%elop#ent $ere unusually fa%orableD they didnFt
ha%e to $orry about research funds (since $e $ere $ell supported by Herbert 8asser)C
they had practically co#plete freedo# in selecting their targetsC strong co#petitors
$ho ?ept the# alertC and e3cellent collaborators $ho helped the# in #aintaining their
ad%ance>
@n the #iddle 1<B/FsC Palade felt that the ti#e $as ripe for going bac? to cell
fractionation as a #eans of defining the che#ical co#position he and the functional
role of the ne$ly disco%ered subcellular co#ponents> The intent $as to use electron
#icroscopy for #onitoring cell fractionation> He $as starting fro# structural findings
and #orphological criteria see#ed appropriate for assessing the degree of
ho#ogeneity (or heterogeneity) of the cell fractions> Philip Sie?e%itM joined their
laboratory in 1<BB and together they sho$ed that "laudeFs #icroso#es $ere
frag#ents of the endoplas#ic reticulu# (as postulated by "laude in 1<!;) and that the
riboso#es $ere ribonucleoprotein particles> To find out #ore about the function of the
endoplas#ic reticulu# and of the attached riboso#esC they started an integrated
#orphological and bioche#ical analysis of the secretory process in the guinea pig
pancreas>
;1
@n 1<-1C 2eith Porter $ho had been the head of our group since 1<B3 joined the
Biological 9aboratories of Har%ard 0ni%ersity andC $ith his departureC the history of
the second |1oc?efeller group| ca#e to an end> @t $as during this period that cell
biology beca#e a recogniMed field of research in biological sciences and that the
*ournal of "ell Biology and the +#erican Society for "ell Biology $ere founded>
Their group participated acti%ely in each of these de%elop#ents>
@n the 1<-/FsC Palade continued the $or? on the secretory process using in parallel or
in succession t$o different approaches> The first relied e3clusi%ely on cell
fractionationC and $as de%eloped in collaboration $ith Philip Sie?e%itMC 9e$is
8reeneC "ol%in 1ed#anC 'a%id Sabatini and Luta?a Tashiro& it led to the
characteriMation of the My#ogen granules and to the disco%ery of the segregation of
secretory products in the cisternal space of the endoplas#ic reticulu#> The second
approach relied pri#arly on radioautographyC and in%ol%ed e3peri#ents on intact
ani#als or pancreatic slices $hich $ere carried out in collaboration $ith 9ucien "aro
and especially *a#es *a#ieson> This series of in%estigations produced a good part of
their current ideas on the synthesis and intracellular processing of proteins for e3port>
+ critical re%ie$ of this line of research is presented in the 7obel 9ecture>
@n parallel $ith the $or? on the secretory process in the pancreatic e3ocrine cellC
Palade #aintained an interest in the structural aspects of capillary per#eabilityC that
goes bac? to the early 1<B/Fs $hen he found a large population of plas#ale##al
%esicles in the endothelial cells of blood capillaries> +long this line of researchC
4arilyn (ar)uhar and Palade in%estigated the capillaries of the renal glo#eruli and
recogniMed thatC in their caseC the base#ent #e#brane is the filtration barrier for
#olecules of 1//+ dia#eter or larger& a byproduct of this $or? $as the definition of
junctional co#ple3es in a %ariety of epithelia> ,isceral (fenestrated) capillaries $ere
in%estigated $ith (rancesco "le#entiC and #uscular capillaries $ith 1o#aine Bruns
and 7icolae and 4aia Si#ionescu>
The capillary $or? relied pri#arily on the use of |probe| #olecules of ?no$n
di#ensions detected indi%idually or in #ass (after cytoche#ical reactions) by electron
#icroscopy> @t led to the identification of the passage$ays follo$ed by large $ater
soluble #olecules in both types of capillaries and by s#all #olecules in %isceral
capillaries> The path$ay follo$ed by s#allC $atersoluble #olecules in #uscular
capillaries $as still under in%estigation>
@n the #iddle of the 1<-/Fs their laboratory began a series of in%estigations on
#e#brane biogenesis in eu?aryotic cells using as #odel objects either the
endoplas#ic reticulu# of #a##alian hepatocytes ($ith P> Sie?e%itMC 8usta% 'allner
and +ndrea 9es?es)C or the thyla?oid #e#branes of a green alga ("hla#ydo#onas
reinhardtii) (Aith P> Sie?e%itMC 2enneth Hoober and @tMha? 5had)> These studies
sho$ed that |ne$| #e#brane is produced by e3pansion of |old| pree3isting
#e#brane (there is no de no%o #e#brane asse#bly)C and that ne$ #olecules are
asynchronously insertedC and rando#ly distributed throughout the e3panding
#e#brane> +synchrony also applies to the turno%er of #e#brane proteins in the
endoplas#ic reticulu# as sho$n by $or? done $ith P> Sie?e%itMC Tsuneo 5#ura and
Aalter Boc?>
;.
@n 1<K3C Palade left the 1oc?efeller 0ni%ersity to join the Lale 0ni%ersity 4edical
School> The #ain reason for the #o%e $as his belief that the ti#e had co#e for
fruitful interactions bet$een the ne$ discipline of "ell Biology and the traditional
fields of interest of #edical schoolsC na#ely Pathology and "linical 4edicine>
BesidesC he thought that his $or? at the 1oc?efeller 0ni%ersity $as doneD $hen he
left there $ere at least fi%e other laboratories $or?ing in different sectors of cell
biology>
He in%estigatedC together $ith his collaboratorsC the interactions $hich occur a#ong
the #e#branes of the %arious co#part#ents of the secertory path$ayC na#ely the
endoplas#ic reticulu#C the 8olgi co#ple3C the secretion granulesC and the
plas#ale##a>
Palade $as a #e#ber of the 7ational +cade#y of Sciences (0>S>+>) since 1<-1C and
he has recei%ed a nu#ber of a$ards and priMes for his scientific $or?C a#ong the#D
the 9as?er +$ard (1<--)C the 8airdner Special +$ard (1<-K)C and the Hur$itM PriMe
shared $ith +lbert "laude and 2eith Porter (1<K/)>
Since his high school years he has been interested in historyC especially in 1o#an
historyC a topic on $hich he has read rather e3tensi%ely> The 9atin that goes $ith this
?ind of interest pro%ed useful $hen he had to generate a fe$ ter#s and na#es for cell
biology>
He has a daughterC 8eorgia Palade ,an 'uMenC and a son Philip Palade fro# a first
#arriage $ith @rina 4ala3aC no$ deceased> @n 1<K/ he #arried 4arilyn 8ist (ar)uhar
$ho is a cell biologist li?e hi#self>
)!C,2%RT Emil
E#il 1aco%ita $as born in @asi (1o#ania) on 7o%e#ber 1BC 1;-;> He spent his
childhood at SoranestiC ,aslui "ountyC in the fa#ily estate> He $as educated in @asi
under the guidance of professor and $riter @on "reanga and after$ards he continued
high school at |@nstitutele 0nite|C $here he learned the basics of natural sciences fro#
8rigore "obalcescuC $ho ?ne$ ho$ to i#plant passion for the ?no$ledge of
nature>(ollo$ing his fatherFs $ish he attended 9a$ School in ParisC but follo$ing his
o$n %ocation he graduated fro# the (aculty of Science in Sorbonne $here he learned
Moology $ith an e3cellent professorC Henri de 9acaMe'uthiers> +fter his graduation in
1;<1C he obtained in 1;<- a re#ar?able doctor degreeC $hich #ade hi# $ell ?no$n
a#ong European scientists>
+s a recognition of his scientific #eritsC he $as selected to participate as a biologist in
the Belgiu# +ntarctic E3pedition (1;<K1;<<) on board the|Belgica|C headed by
+drien de 8erlache> He acco#plished his #ission brilliantlyC co#ing bac? $ith a
collection of 1C-// botanical and Moological speci#ens> Soon after he returned he
published a consistent $or? about "etacea> He is ?no$n to be one of the initiators of
ethological researchers>
5n 7o%e#ber 1stC 1<//C as Henri de 9acaMe'uthiers decided to find so#eone to
succed hi#C E#il 1aco%ita $as appointed assistantdirector of the oceanological
;3
laboratory |+rago| fro# Banyulssur4erC $hich $as founded t$enty years earlier
by his professor> @n 1</1 he beca#e joint #enager of the re%ie$ |+rchie%es de
yoologie e3peri#entale et generale| also a creation of that erudite scientist>
(ollo$ing the disco%ery of a ne$ species of ca%e crustaceans in the fa#ous "ue%a del
'rach on the island of 4ajorcaC $hich he had %isited in +ugust 1</!C 1aco%ita ga%e
up his oceanological researchers and fully de%oted hi#self to the biological study of
the subterranean real#> @n 1</K he published |Essai sur les proble#es
biospeologi)ues| $hich is considered to be the birth certificate of biospeleology (ca%e
biology) as an independent science> +t the sa#e ti#e he initiated an e3tensi%e
international research progra# called |Biospeologica| (pri#arily intending to
docu#ent and collect ca%e fauna)> ThisC initially pri%ate acti%ityC got an official fra#e
in 1<./ $hen 1aco%itaC %olunteered to get in%ol%ed hi#self in the organiMation of the
1o#anian 0ni%ersity of "lujC returned to his nati%e country and founded in the capital
of Transyl%ania the $orldFs first Speleological @nstitute>
The results of his biospeleological progra# are altogether e3ceptionalD 1C.// ca%es
e3plored in Europe and +fricaC a collection including B/C/// ca%e ani#alsC --
published papers on subterranean fauna totaling al#ost -C/// pages> Biology has
ne%er ?no$n such a re#ar?able concentration of forcesC as that initiated by 1aco%ita
to approach his goalD the understanding of the natural history of the subterranean
do#ain>
The t$o decades spent by 1aco%ita in "luj until the beginning of the $ar $ere
characteriMed by an e3traordinary di%ersification of his offices> He $as a senator
(representing the 0ni%ersity of "luj) in 1<..1<.-C 1ector of the 0ni%ersity of "luj
(1<.<1<3/)C president of the 1o#anian +cade#y of Sciences (1<.-1<.<)C 'irector
of the Speleological @nstitute (1<./1<!K)C and #e#ber of %arious scientific
associations> His contributions to the study of isopode crustaceans and his ad%ocacy
ca#paigns for the protection of the en%iron#ent are re#ar?able> The cli#a3 of his
scientific career $as the elaboration of an original theory on e%olution>
@n +ugust 1<!/C the ,ienna 'ictate forced the (aculty of Sciences andC together $ith
itC the Speleological @nstitute to ta?e refuge in Ti#isoara> 'uring four long yearsC the
scientific acti%ity ceased altogether> @##ediately after his return in "lujC E#il
1aco%ita stri%ed to reorganiMe his instituteC but it $as too lateD on 7o%e#ber 1Kth
1<!KC the great scientist passed a$ay> The #an disappearedC but his $or? li%es for
e%erC as it is the outco#e of a strong spiritC $hich shall not be forgotten>
S!8%G.9 !nghel
Born in 1<th of +pril 1;B! at herbaneftiC today belonging to 9iefti countyC 8alaei>He
died in 1Kth of june 1<.B in Bucharest>Scientist and EngineerC brother of the che#ist
+lfons S>>His father $as +lfred S>C french at origin> He li%ed in 4oldo%a around
1;!B1;!;C beeing the leader of a children preparing school> +t this #ansion +nghel
Saligny has started his studies continuing the# at the gi#nasyu# school in (ocfani
and after that in Postda#> @nitialy attracted to astrono#y he begun studies at Berlin
0ni%ersity $here he had the great physician 9> Hel#holtM as a teacher> Engineering
studies (1;K/1;K!)C $ere perfor#ed at the superior technic school in "harlottenburg
$hich in those days had a lot of great engineering e3perts li?e Sch$edler or (ranMius>
Before his returning into the country he $or?ed under the sur%eillance of 8> 4ehrtens
;!
for the construction of "ottbus(ran?furt rail$ay> 1eturned into 1o#ania he $or?s at
the Bridge and 1oads "o#pany and under the sur%eillance of 8> 'uca he helped at
the PloieftiPredeal rail$ay syste#> @n 1;<1 he is pro#oted as second e3ecuti%e in the
sa#e co#pany $here he recei%es the job of building the +djudTg> 5cna and Barlad
,aslui rail$ay syste#> He designed #any bridges and rail$ays to replace the old
ones> +t 3 5ctober 1;;! he is pro#oted as chief of the 'oc?s syste# function that he
preser%ed until 1 *anuary 1</1>@n the sa#e period he run The 8eneral direction of
rail$aysC sol%ing the proble# of substitution of $ooden bridges $ith steel bridges in
(iliafiTg> *iu line> @n the 1;;!1;;< period he has build the concrete silos at Braila
and 8alaei> +t 1; 7o%e#ber 1;;K he is granted $ith the per#ission to lead of the
(etefti"erna%oda rail$ay syste#> He concei%es a ne$ #ethod of building bridges
o%er the 'anube and elaborates his projects $ith 1o#anians engineers> Being a "hief
E3ecuti%e of the rail$ay syste#C beginning fro# Kth 5ctober 1;<BC he initiates a la$
regarding the reorganiMation of the rail$ay syste# and has created a direct rail$ay
line bet$een Berlin and Bucharest and Berlin"onstanea> @n 1</11<1/ he has run the
8eneral institute of ports and $ater co##unication $ays> "hair#an of the third
@nternational "ongress of petroleu# in Bucharest in 1</<>4inister of Public $or?s in
(1<1;1<1<)>4e#ber of the (rench 9egion of HonorC (ounding #e#ber of the
Politechnic Society> The pedagogic acti%ity of Saligny begins in 1;;! $hen he is
na#ed "hair#an of the Bridges cathedrae $hich he runs it until 1<1!>4e#ber of the
1o#anian +cade#y in 1;<.& "hair#an of the 1o#anian +cade#y (1</K1<1/)>
5ne of the pioneers of the 1o#anian engineering science especially $ith the ne$
gi%en solutions in building and designing of bridges> @n 1;;1 he designed and
acco#plished on +djudTg> 5cna line the first rail$ayroad co#bined bridges in the
country> @n 1;;- he designed and runed the first #etal bridges $ith consoles and
$ithout cullees in (iliafiTg> *iu line> 'uring 1;;!1;;< period he acco#plished the
doc?s and antreposits fro# Braila and 8alaei portsC by elaborating original solutions
for the founding of silos and tan?s as $ell as for cereal silos build fro# prefabricated
ar#ed concrete> The e3ecution of the cell $alls $as #ade fro# prefabricated
ele#ents builded into the ground and #ounted into the opera> The ar#ing of the
#onoliths and the stiffness corners $ere glued together into the forge for#ing in this
$ay o closed profileC a fact that indicates Salingny as a precursor of usage of #elted
cuirasses for stiffness> The asse#bling plan of prefabricated pieces and the joining of
the# contitues in a rational co#bining syste# applied for the first ti#e in
constructions by Salingy and reused #any years later> The #ost i#portant acco#plish
of Saligny consists in the designing and building the bridge o%er 'anube in
"erna%odaC the greatest in Europe in that ti#e and the third in the $orld>(the total
length of all bridges o%er the 'anube is !/;; #)>The inauguration of the bridge $as
#ade in 1! Sept> 1; This thing has definitely consecrated the superiority of soft steel o%er the
iron in constructing of #etal bridges> Saligny has chosen for the infrastructure the
console syste#C and the designing of the bridge $as #ade after #odern calculation
techincs> Saligny has created $ith 8h> 'uca the 1o#anian technic body> He has
participated in acti%e $ay at the organiMing of the superior technic studyingC being the
chair#an of the perfectioning syste# of the "ouncil and of the co#ity that has
decided the building of ne$ politechnic schools after the first $orld $ar>
;B
2!S%8%- Haralambie
Born at 1K *an> 1;;/ in HoisestiC @asi he has died at 3 7o%> 1<B3 at @asi> ScientistC
che#ist and agroche#ist> He studied at Y@nternatZ high school in @asi (1;;<1;<K)C at
Science (aculty in @asi in "he#istry(iMics section> He has also studied 4aths (1;<;
1</.) at the High agrono#ic studies acade#y fro# Hohenhei# (8er#any)> 'octor
on agricultural che#istry at Breslau 0ni%ersity $ith the degree about Y7e$ findings
about the origin substances of Hipuric acids for#ed in ani#al bodyZ(1</-)> Professor
at the "ulture uni%ersity in @asi (1</-1<33)C then at the uni%ersity of +griculture in
"hisinau (1<331<!/) Board leader at the agricultural che#istry fro# the +grono#ic
institute Y@on @onescu fro# BradZ in @asi (1<!/1<B1)> @nitialiser of the agricultural
sciences of @asi 0ni%ersity (1<1.)> +uthor of the lo$ project regarding the founding of
the +gricultural sciences (aculty in @asi> He $as the first principal of this faculty>
Since 1<11 he has de%eloped che#istry analysis of different types of landC and later
(after 1<3/) he intensifies his attention on the #icroorganis#s $hich he has studied
correlated $ith the %egetal #ethabolis#> He has pro%en the i#portant role played by
"oper in de%eloping of the plants (1<3;)> Bet$een 1<3-1<3; his research $as based
on ground $ater and the proportion that different agrotechnical $or?s that #a?e it
dissapeare> He begun studies about aMotous fertiliMersC o ne$ techni)ue bet$een the
Aorld Aars> His conclusions ha%e deter#ined hi# to study the relations bet$een
che#ical fertiliMers and different corn crops(1<!/1<!1)>By studying the proteic
content of nu#erous ali#ents he dra$ attention on the selecti%e characterC and about
the proteic #etabolis# in ani#al body> He e#itted the 'esagregation HypothesyC the
predesagregation of the crystalline rafts and erupti%e roc?sC a process about $hich he
thin?s that is correspondent to the solidification of the ground roc? in one step and in
$hich the crystalline rafts and erupti%e roc?s $ould ha%e been suscesible at the
destructi%e action of $ater %aporsC clorhidric acidC carbonic anhydrideC co#bined $ith
high pressure and te#perature> +ctual studies are confir#ing this theoryC #a?ing
,asiliu the precursory of this do#ain> He is the author of the first agricultural
che#istry treaty and he also is the creator of a %aluable agroche#istry school in @asi>
2-%! Traian
Traian ,uia $as born on +ugust 1KC 1;K. in a %illage ?no$n as Surducul 4ic in the
Ti#is "ounty of 1o#ania> @t $as a s#all %illage in the $estern part of 1o#aniaC in
the %icinity of the present border bet$een 1o#ania and Hungary> Today this %illage
bears the in%entorFs na#eD Traian ,uia>
,uia $ent to pri#ary school in his %illageC after $hich he left the %illage for the to$n
of 9ugoj (also in the Ti#is "ounty)> @n 1;<. he graduated the high school in this
to$nC the first a#ong all graduates that year> +s a highschool student he $as
particularly interested in 4athe#aticsC Physics and Technics> That $as $hyC in the fall
of 1;<. he enrolled at the Polytechnic 0ni%ersity of BudapestC School of 4echanics>
+fter one yearC because of financial proble#sC he joined the (aculty of 9a$ in
Budapest> The #ain reason $as the possibility to $or? and #a?e so#e #oney (as a
student at the Polytechnic 0ni%ersity of Budapest he could not do that)> 'espite this
change $hich ca#e out in his lifeC he continued to study by hi#self those technical
proble#s $hich he $as particularly interested inC the #ost i#portant one being the
proble# of flight>
;-
@n 4ay 1</1 the (aculty of 9a$ in Budapest a$arded hi# the Ph>'> degree in 9a$>
+fter graduation he returned to 9ugoj> Here he acco#plished his studies about hu#an
flight and designed his first flying #achineC $hich he called |the airplanecar|> He
tried to build this #achine in 9ugojC butC because he had no #aterial helpC decided to
go to Paris> 5n the first of *uly 1</. he arri%ed in Paris> ,uia $as hoping that in Paris
considered at that ti#e the center of the aeronautical $orld he $ould find
so#ebody interested in his project> @n ParisC ,uia began to loo? for help a#ong those
interested in aerial na%igation using balloons> But these persons did not belie%e that a
flying #achineC $hich had a density greater than that of the airC could flyC since their
flight principles $ere based on +rchi#edeFs la$> @n these circu#stances ,uia
addressed Prof> TatinC ?no$n as a %ery good theoretician and e3peri#entator as $ell>
@n 1;K< Tatin had succeeded in building an aero#odel>
Tatin $as interested in ,uiaFs projectC but also tried to persuade hi# that he $ould do
nothingC because its flying #achine did not ha%e a suitable engine ($hich $as
e3pected by all constructors of flying #achines at that ti#e)> TatinFs #ain argu#ent
against ,uiaFs engine projectC $as that it had only one propellerC $hile all aero
#odels $hich had flo$n had had t$o parallel propellers rotating in opposite
directions (fro# stability considerations)> Ho$e%er ,uia continued to sustain his
project and sub#itted it to the Science +cade#y of Paris on (ebruary 1-C 1</3> @n this
project he de#onstrated the possibility of #echanical flight $ith a #achine that had a
density greater than that of the air> He also presented his procedure for ta?ing off> This
project $as entitled FProject of an airplanecarF> The special "o##ission of
+eronautics of the Science +cade#y of Paris considered ,uiaFs project an utopia>
They rejected itC adding the co##entsD FThe proble# of flight $ith a #achine $hich
$eights #ore than air can not be sol%ed and it is only a drea#>F
,uia did not gi%e up and applied for a license for his #achine fro# the 5ffice of
@ndustrial Property in (rance> 5n +ugust 1KC 1</3 he recei%ed this license> @t $as
officially published on 5ctober 1-C 1</3> 'ecided to gi%e life to his in%entionC ,uia
had begun to build the flying #achine during the $inter of 1</.1</3> 'espite of a
lot of difficultiesC the #ost i#portant being of course the financial onesC he succeeded
in his atte#pt> 'uring the autu#n of 1</!C he began to build the appropriate engineC
also an in%ention of his o$n> 'uring the sa#e year (1</!) ,uia got a license for his
in%ention fro# 8reat Britain>
This flying #achine $as called by his constructor FTraian ,uia 1F> @t $as a single
plane airplane $ith a high$ing> The second difficult proble# sol%ed by ,uia $as to
build an engine that could de%elop a propulsion force to assure the autono#ous ta?ing
off> The first airplane engine appeared in 1</3C built by Aright brothers> The second
oneC built by "harles 4anly $as used by Prof> 9angley for his airplane& he tried to fly
$ith it t$o ti#es in 1</3 but he failed> (j This engine can be seen in AashingtonC at
F7ational +ir p Space 4useu#F j)> The third engine $as ,uiaFs> @t $as the second
engine in the $orldC $hich $or?ed on a flying #achine> (j,uiaFs engine can be seen
in ParisC at F+ir 4useu#F& a copy of it is in BucharestC at F"entral 4ilitary 4useu#Fj)>
The propeller of ,uiaFs flying #achine $as built by TatinC $hoC seeing that ,uiaFs
airplane beco#es a realityC decided to help hi#> The propeller $as the only part of the
airplane built by Tatin>
;K
The #ain characteristics of ,uiaFs first airplane $ereD span D ;>K/ #& length D B>-B #&
height D .></ #& lifting surface D ./ #3#& engine D ./ horsepo$er at !B/
rotationsE#inute& lifting surface D ./ #3#& engine D ./ horsepo$er at !B/
rotationsE#inute& propulsion force at fi3ed point D !B ?gf& total $eight D 1C $ell ?no$n as personalities in a%iation> 4ost of the# $ere
shoc?ed by the fact that ,uia adopted a #onoplane solution for his airplaneC because
all planors $hich had flo$n by then $ere built after 9ilienthal"hanute doubleplane
idea> ,uiaFs argu#ent $as that he $as inspired by nature (he used to say F@ ha%e ne%er
seen a bird $ith #ore than t$o $ingsF)> They $ere also $orried because ,uiaFs
#achine had only one propeller so airplane Fs stability $as difficult to #aintain>
F,uia 1F airplane $as co#pletely built in 'ece#ber 1 7o$ ,uia had to choose a
suitable place to test his #achine& he found a plain called 4ontessonC near ParisC
$here spectators could not disturb hi#> His first e3periences began in 'ece#ber
1 @n this period he used his #achine only as a car& the $ings $ere not #ounted on
it> +fter he beca#e a %ery good pilot for his FcarF ,uia changed it into $hat he called
FairplanecarF by adding the $ings> @n this configuration the #achine $as still used as
a car onlyC till it could attain safely a speed of !/ ?#Ehour $ithout using the engine at
its #a3i#u# capacity>
By no$ nobodyC e3cept one of the #en $ho had helped hi# building the #achineC
attended these e3periences> @n (ebruaryC after they heard of ,uiaFs successesC #ore
people including 8eorge Besancon and others joined hi# to see the atte#pts>
'uring (ebruary #any papers in (rance began to de%ote large spaces to ,uiaFs
#achine> "onsidering the $eather $ar# enoughC ,uia decided to #a?e his first flying
atte#pt on 4arch 1;C 1</-> He had established to #a?e the atte#pt in the afternoonC
so at three oFcloc? p>#> he set out the engine> +fter fi%e #inutes his #achine began to
#o%e> +fter an accelerated #otion (about B/ #eters long) F,uia 1F left the soil and
fle$ at a height of about 1 #> +fter about 1. # in flightC so#e proble#s occurred at
the engine so the propeller stopped and F,uia 1F landed>
,uia $as %ery happy he could fly $ith his #achine> +t that ti#e that flight constituted
a notable perfor#ance> @t $as the first flight $ith a #achineC $hich $eighted #ore
than the air and $as entirely dri%en only by it6s on board installations during all its
e%olution (unli?e ArightFs brothers #achines)> 5f course such an e%ent $as e3ploited
by the #ass #edia& a lot of papers in (ranceC 0S+C 8reat BritainC etc> noted that at
4ontesson an autono#ous flight had ta?en place> Si3 #oths later Santos'u#ont
succeeded in a si#ilar atte#pt& he is so#eti#es )uoted as the first $ho fle$ using
only his on board installationsC because his flight $as officially controlled> But ,uia
had flo$n #any ti#es beforeD 4arch 1;C *une .! at @ssyles4oulineau3 (also in
(rance)C *uly 1C *uly BC *uly 1!C +ugust 1.C +ugust 1<C etc>
@n 1</K ,uia fle$ #any ti#es> + notable e%ent too? place on 4arch .K $hen ,uiaC
Santos'u#ont and Bleriot attended an a%iation #eeting at Bagatelle> 5nly ,uia
succeeded in his atte#ptC $hile Santos'u#ont and Bleriot could not e%en ta?e off>
Santos 'u#ont #ade only three flights during this periodD the first on Septe#ber 13C
1</-C then 5ctober .3C 7o%e#ber 1.C 1</- $hen the first flight $as officially
;;
controlled> +fter these Santos'u#ont ga%eup his first airplane and built a ne$ oneC
co#pletely different> @n 1</K the nu#ber of autono#ous flying #achines increased
rapidly& "harles ,oisin on 4arch 1- and 3/C 9ouis Bleriot on *uly 11C .B etc>C Henri
(ar#an on Septe#ber 3/C EsnaultPelterie in 5ctober etc>
The first aerial trip $as #ade by Henri (ar#an on 5ctober 3/C 1</;C fro# Bouy to
1ei#s> The first aerial raid (Toury+rtenayToury) by Bleriot on 5ctober 31C 1</;>
'uring 1</; Ailbur ArightC ca#e in (rance and established a lot of records $ith his
#achine> 7otice that all these pioneers fle$ doubleplane airplanes> 5nly BleriotC
after so#e unsuccessful atte#ptsC reached the idea of ,uia (the singleplane) in 1</K>
+fter F,uia 1FC Traian ,uia built F,uia 1 bisF $hich $as e)uipped $ith the sa#e engine
but $as enhanced by his constructorC and F,uia .F $hich $as e)uipped $ith a ne$
engine built by the (rench engineer 9eon 9e%a%asseur> ,uia also built t$o helicopters
in 1<1; and 1<..>
So#e historians of a%iation pretended that ,uia $as inspired by the airplane built by
"le#ent +derC $hich atte#pted to fly in 1;<K> But there are big differences bet$een
the t$o #achines> "le#entFs #achineFs $ings $ere %ery different fro# ,uiaFs design
and these probably caused his failure> "le#ent pretended that he fle$ in 1;<KC but
historians of a%iation de#onstrated he could not fly e3actly because of these $ings>
@n 1</K after so #any successful autono#ous flights ,uia considered that the
proble# of #echanical flight $as co#pletely sol%ed> He later declaredD Fthe creation
of airplane $as co#pletely finished in 1</-> +fter that the constructors industrialiMed
the a%iationC of course a %ery i#portant #ission but it can not be confounded $ith the
creation of the ne$ #achine> 5n the other hand it is clear that the airplane $as created
in (ranceC despite of the fact that it is usually clai#ed that Aright brothers created the
a%iation> E%en $hen they ca#e in (ranceC in 1</;C they used the sa#e procedure for
ta?ing offC $hich i#plied a nonautono#ous flight> Aright brothers adopted the ne$
style of ta?ing off later> This should be repeated because #any forgot itF (T> ,uiaFs
boo? F4e#oriesFC 1<BB)
>
;<
$!)T 2
%.-SE)2%CE TE!CHE)
T)!%.%.G %. HST
</
-nit 3 ;ays of teaching HST in your school
This unit is di%ided into t$o sections> The first deals $ith $hole school issues and
then section . deals $ith teaching HST in the classroo# or laboratory> @n part + of
the first section Paul "arlile suggests $ays in $hich long ter# and #ediu# planning
for HST can be planned for the $hole schoolC and then Sa# Ellis presents ideas for
organising a one day school e%ent for HST>
@n Section . Bert Sorsby follo$s so#e of the suggestions in 0nit 3 (especially pp 3<
!/) and considers $ays of teaching HST in your o$n classroo#> Teachers $ill study
the $hole unit in #ore detail during the HST "ourseC but it can of course be used
independently as a basis for de%eloping HST in your o$n school or college
The purposes of this unit are:
to pro%ide strategies so that HST can be incorporated into the $hole school
curriculu#&
to pro%ide $ays of teaching and organising for HST at $hole school and at class
le%el>
Section * ;hole school issues -
!H /e>eloping a curriculum plan for HST starting from science and
technology:
,>er>ie(
Schools $ill approach the planning for teaching of History of Science and Technology
fro# #any different starting pointsC using a %ariety of curriculu# #odels> Ho$e%er
the co##on the#e transcending the de%elop#ent is that through curriculu# planning
teachers $ill pro%ide opportunities for pupils to ac)uire ?no$ledge and understanding
of the history of science and technologyC and learn to appreciate the interactions of
scientific and technological ad%ance#ent on the li%es of citiMens $ithin their o$n
cultures and $ithin the broader European culture> This #odel is sho$n belo$>
History Science
Technology
<1
European Culture
Tas' *
The tas? for schoolsC and their teachersC is to de%elop a curriculu# plan $hich builds
se)uentially the ?no$ledgeC s?ills and understanding in a rele%ant and #eaningful
$ayC $hilst enriching the pupils6 learning e3periences>
$ossible starting points
'e%eloping HST opportunities fro# $ithin establishedC separateC curriculu#
plans for historyC science and technology
1efining current plans for science and technology to include an integrated
historical ele#ent
Enriching learning opportunities to include the $ider European di#ension
"reating opportunities fro# an e#erging plan in response to significant
change
1efining plans to ensure continuity in the ac)uisition of ?no$ledgeC
understanding and s?ills
Planning for the effecti%e use of @nfor#ation Technology to support learning
'e%eloping a HST "urriculu# $ith a European di#ension>

75
<.
Tas' To de%elop a curriculu#
plan to pro%ide a fra#e$or? for
teaching 2no$ledgeC
understanding and s?ills
'oes the plan identify lin?s
bet$een Science and
Technology=
@s the History of Science and
Technology incorporated in to
the curriculu# plan=
Tas' To e3plore the lin?s
bet$een the Science and
Technology and #odify the
e3isting plan
'oes the school ha%e an agreed
curriculu# plan for teaching
Science or Technology=
75
LES
LES
Tas' Enrich the learning
e3perience by incorporating a
European di#ension into the HST
curriculu# plan
7ENT
7ENT
LES
75
75
75
Tas' @dentify opportunities to
enhance learning using the
Historical i#pact of scientific
and technological ad%ance#ent
7ENT
Starting $oint 'e%eloping a school plan for Science and Technology
4ost effecti%e learning ta?es place $hen schools ha%e in place a curriculu# plan
$hich identifiesC in broad ter#sC ?no$ledgeC understanding and s?ills to be taught as
pupils progress through the school>
$ossible starting points to establish such a plan for HST :
E3plore the ?no$ledge and understanding to be taught $ithin Science and
Technology
@dentify the s?ills to be de%eloped
+gree the content for each unit of study
'ecide $hereC $ithin the planC the study unit should be located
E3a#ple D Study 0nit Plan
E3ploring the lin?s bet$een Science and Technology
Ahen the broad plan has been established the ne3t stage in the process is to e3plore
the lin?s that e3ist bet$een Science and Technology
'ra$ together co##on the#es fro# Science and Technology to #a?e up a study
unit
'ecide on an appropriate the#e to gi%e the study unit a rele%ant focus that
e3plores the co##on the#es already identified
Plan acti%ities to focus on the i#pact of scientific and technological ad%ance#ent>
E3a#ple

'e%eloping an Historical 'i#ension to the learning e3perience
The school plan identifies the opportunities for the teaching of HST and ensures that
?no$ledgeC s?ills and understanding are ac)uired se)uentially and are rele%ant to
<3
'oes the teaching of the History of
Science and Technology e3tend to
the $ider European di#ension=
Lear ti#e allocation Science Technology
0nit 1 2no$ledge S?ills 2no$ledge S?ills
0nit .
Lear The#e Science Technology
2no$ledge S?ills 2no$ledge S?ills
pupils6 learning> The integration of historical di#ensions to further e3tend and
de%elop pupils6 understanding is a %ital ele#ent of the total learning e3perience>
Starting points
@dentify $ithin the curriculu# plan study units $here learning e3periences
$ould be enhanced by the introduction of rele%ant historical content>
"onsider the historical s?ills pupils #ay need to be taught
Plan for the use of @nfor#ation Technology to support historical
in%estigations
EYtending the (ider European dimension
This stage e3tends the schools6 curriculu# for HST to pro%ide opportunities for
pupils to e3plore and understand the i#pact of Scientific and Technological
de%elop#ents $ithin the $ider European conte3t>
Possible starting points
Start $ith the indi%idual study units $ithin the curriculu# plan and
e3pand learning opportunities to include a European di#ension
focussing on the i#pact of the particular scientific and technological
ad%ance#ent $ithin other European countries
E3plore the use of infor#ation technology to source additional
infor#ation and set up net$or? groups
5utline the @T s?ills pupils $ill need to ac)uireD
a> 0sing the @nternet successfully i>e> $eb bro$serC na%igatingC searching>
b> Sa%ing $eb pagesC e3tracting infor#ation and copying to other
docu#ents $here it can be #anipulated
c> 0sing e #ail
d> Publishing infor#ation on the Aorld Aide Aeb
Here is a possible #atri3 to assist in the de%elop#ent of teaching HST $ithin a
$ider European di#ension
Theme Science Technology History European
/imension
Paul "arlile
HullC 02
*une .///
<!
BH ,rganising a (hole day school conference for HST - Some ideas
So#e pri#ary and secondary schools use $hole day e%ents for special acti%ities to
pro%ide e3tended inputs for particular areas of the curriculu#> E3a#ples of this type
of acti%ity include days spent on 'ra#aC a 9ocal @ndustry (ocusC 7e$spaper
Production and Proble# Sol%ing> 5ne useful facet of such days can be the
introduction of e3ternal spea?ers or people fro# local industry brought in to $or?
$ith groups of students> This type of approach can be used to put on a day based
around the History of Science and Technology> The structure of the day $ill depend to
a large e3tent on the ?ey purposes> + day $ith the purpose of supporting the study of
ideas and e%idence in science $ill be )uite different to a day $ith the purpose of
supporting proble# sol%ing and construction aspects of the Technology curriculu#>
The outline belo$ is intended as a generic set of ideas and suggestions for adaptation
depending upon the purpose of a day based on History of Science and Technology>
+ typical day for secondary students #ight ha%e the follo$ing arrange#ents
The school suspends the ti#etable for the day for a large group ( 1// or #ore) of
1! year old students>
Students are arranged into #i3ed groups of nine and located at tables set out
around the #ain hall> Each group has a J%isitor6 attached to it> The J%isitors6 are
people fro# local industryC go%ernorsC friends of the schoolC $hose ti#e has been
begged fro# their e#ployers and $ho are prepared to spend a day $or?ing and
learning $ith a group of students>
The day itself has been planned and organised by three teaching staff but is being
fronted by a %isiting Jfacilitator6 $ho is a charis#atic teacher fro# a nearby
school Jbought out6 for the day as a Fne$ faceF to lead the e%ent> The Jfacilitator6
has had so#e in%ol%e#ent in the planning
The day is based around the idea of co#petition bet$een groups and there are four
basic acti%ities> Each acti%ity has a priMe in itself and the points add throughout
the day to gi%e an o%erall priMe at the end> PriMes are also gi%en to other tea#s
such as the best tea# $or?ers>
!cti>ity * U %cebrea'er
The purpose of this acti%ity is to get the groups $or?ing as tea#s and focus their
attention on the history and philosophy of science>
The groups are gi%en a set of cards each of $hich has a picture or dra$ing of a ?ey
$or?er ( 7e$tonC 8alileoC 9a%oisier etc) They also ha%e a sheet of clues (7e$ton $as
the first person to thin? of a theory that e3plained ho$ the solar syste# $or?edC
8alileo belie%ed that the earth $ent round the sun but he couldn6t pro%e it etc>)
0sing the clues pro%ided and their o$n general ?no$ledge the tea#s ha%e to produce
a ti#e line of the cards> There is a strict ti#e li#itC tea#s e3change results and score
each otherFs efforts>
The idea can be e3tended in #any $aysC for e3a#ple by ha%ing associated cards
$hich list ?ey de%elop#ents that ha%e to be associated $ith the correct ?ey $or?ers>
ity t(o- The ne(s reportH
Tea#s are gi%en briefing papers on a significant e%ent e>g> *enner and ,accination>
They are gi%en so#e preparation ti#e and then ta?e turns to act out a tele%ision ne$s
report presenting the ne$s of this e%ent in the style of a ne$s ite# on T,> 8roups are
encouraged to use inter%ie$s $ith significant characters and to bring in argu#ents for
and against the de%elop#ent> The presentations are acted out in front of e%eryone>
Part of the brief is to #a?e the presentation last e3actly t$o #inutes> Part of the
scoring of the presentation in%ol%es penalty points for being seconds a$ay fro# the
target ti#e>
!cti>ity three The =ui`
This is run on the lines of a Jpub6 )uiM $ith a series of ten )uestion rounds based on
fa#ous e%ents and people in the History of Science and Technology> Students could
be gi%en bac?ground reading papers in the $ee?s leading up to the day that they can
read to allo$ the# to prepare for the )uiM>
!cti>ity four Construction problem
The groups are set a construction tas? such as building a bridge using spaghetti and
cotton to span a particular gap and hold a particular $eight> Pictures of historically
i#portant bridges are gi%en out and #ay be used to inspire the studentsFdesigns>
There is a ti#e li#it and groups ha%e to Jpurchase6 ra$ #aterials fro# an initial
points total> Points are a$arded for co#pleting the tas?C )uality of the final result and
tea# $or?>
The actual tas? $ould be dictated by the the#es of the day and #aterials a%ailable> +
fe$ $ee?s spent collecting yoghourt potsC stringC cardboardC plastic bottles egg bo3esC
cardpoard tubes and other pac?aging $ill pro%ide a $ealth of free construction
#aterial> @n a day based on co##unication for e3a#ple groups could be e3pected to
construct a #odel lightouse> @n a day based on energy a $ind#ill could be atte#pted>
The bridge proble# fits $ell in a day $hich brings in forces and engineering>
+t the close of the day there are cu#ulati%e priMes for a %ariety of tea#s based on
their perfor#ances through the day> PriMes could be a$arded for o%erall $innersC
runners upC tea# $or?C #ost i#pro%ed tea#C the tea# $ho al$ays ca#e last but ?ept
going etc>
The ideas outlined abo%e are intended as suggestions and pro#pts> There are #any
%ariations of acti%ities that can be used depending upon the nu#bers of students
in%ol%edC their agesC abilities and the le%el of prior ?no$ledge that they ha%e> The
resources and space a%ailable to the school are also critical 8eneral suggestions
include
<-
"ross$ords
Poster construction
'ebates ( e>g> pros and cons of a particular disco%ery)
'ra#a (4oc? trial of 8alileo)
4i#e ga#es
+ %isiting Je3pert J to gi%e an illustrated tal?>
Treasure hunts based on follo$ing a series of clues
@f the day is set up using say a total of about thirty stuents then the possibility of
introducing an @"T based acti%ity such as a treasure hunt based on $eb sites and
infor#ation fro# the internet #ay $ell be possible> Si#ilarly #ore Jscientific6
acti%ities #ay be possible for e3a#ple $or? based around the e3peri#ents of 8alileo>
So#e the#es such as transport or bridges lend the#sel%es to this type of day>
8>Ellis
Ho$den
02
*une .///
<K
Section 2 Classroom and 8aboratory Based Teaching of HSTH
Classroom Teaching Strategies for HST
There are t$o #ain pedagogical approaches to teaching the history of science and
technologyC and both are closely lin?ed> 5ne approach in%ol%es de%eloping studentsF
language s?ills by de%eloping their spea?ing and listening s?ills as $ell as $riting and
reading> This generally is taught in classroo#s> The other approach is through
practical science and technology acti%itiesC $here children $or? in laboratoriesC
$or?shops on practical projects $hich replicateC so#eti#es e3actlyC the $or? $hich
earlier scientists and engineers ha%e carried out> Both approaches can be found in the
e3a#ples belo$ and $e shall study these in #ore detail during the HST "ourse>
@t can be argued that all practical $or? carried out in school science can be sho$n to
ha%e a historical conte3t> (or e3a#ple $hen children are in%estigating pendulaC or
rolling balls do$n a slopeC they are follo$ing in the footsteps of 8alileo> Ahen they
group plants together according to their features or use ?eys for identificationC then to
so#e e3tent they are follo$ing 9inneaus> Ahen they e3plore ho$ different things
burn in candle fla#esC they are follo$ing the $or? of #any eighteenth century
scientists such as Priestly and 9a%oisier> The historical connections of their studies
#ay not al$ays #ade clear to the pupils ho$e%er> +l#ost all practical science in
school re%isits and illustrates historical scientific disco%eries and technological
in%entions>
Tas' * Historical ConteYts for Current Teaching of Science and
Technology
"onsider the follo$ing list of practical science acti%ities $hich children carry out in
school> Ahich scientists $ere closely in%ol%ed in pioneering the practical approaches
$hich the children are using=
$)!CT%C!8 !CT%2%T9 ;H%CH .!T-)!8
$H%8,S,$HE)"S# or SC%E.T%ST"S#<
"hildren loo? through straight tubes at a
lighted candle> They then bend the tubes
and loo? again>
"hildren use ther#o#eters to #easure the
te#perature of a cup of tea as it cools>
Pupils carry out an in%estigation to find
$hether snails prefer to li%e in dry or
da#p places>
Pupils put different #etals on their tongue
to see if they can feel a tingle
Pupils $atch a de#onstration of $hat
happens to $hen a #odel stea# engine is
connected to a #odel electrical generator>
Pupils #a?e a pinhole ca#era
<;
Tas' 2H
9oo? through any teaching #anual of practical science ideas for pupils and students>
(or each acti%ityC identify a historical scientist or technologistC $ho carried out the
sa#e (or si#ilar) in%estigation>
+s @ #entioned abo%eC there are pedagogical techni)ues $hich do not in%ol%e
practical in%estigations or de#onstrationsC and these too can pro%ide a range of
opportunities for HST> +ll of these in%ol%e pupils and students in using languageC
especially in spea?ing and listeningC and this is a po$erful $ay of encouraging
learning to ta?e place> The #ain approaches are set out belo$C and although they are
presented separately in this unitC they can ob%iously be used together in a co#bined
$ay $ithin a teaching progra##e
Telling a storyH
The po$er of stories fro# the history of science and technology in arousing and
#aintaining the interest of pupils cannot be underesti#ated> They can gi%e insights
into the pri%ate li%es of fa#ous scientists>
Tas' 1 Collecting stories for use in teaching HST
0se the resources fro# the Aorld Aide AebC lin?s fro# the 4erlin 1esource "entreC
or fro# boo?s etc> to find 57E story relating to HST> Prepare a short presentation to
relate the story to the rest of the groupC sho$ing ho$ you $ould use it to teach a
group of pupils or students>
/rama and )ole $lay
This can be a particularly challenging approachC especially for teachers of secondary
scienceC and also possibly for teachers of history> Pri#ary school teachersC $ho are
used to teaching in all curriculu# areasC $ill be #uch #ore fa#iliar $ith these
approachesC and are li?ely to be #ore at ease $ith dra#a and role play in their
lessons>
Tas' 3 ;hat are the opportunities for drama and role-play
"hose one of the stories in presented in Tas? 3 and consider its potential for acting
out $ith children or students>
Ahat are the challenges of this particular dra#aErole play (a) for the children (b) the
teacher=
/iscussion and !rgumentation
The role of discussion and argu#entation in science itself can be easily seen fro#
historical conte3ts> @t is in this $ay that an indi%idualFs scientific ideas de%elopC fro#
practical obser%ations and e3periences to$ards #ore $idely held scientific conceptsC
hypotheses and theories> These theories are $ithin the public do#ain and their clai#s
for being %alid are the result a consensus a#ong scientistsC $hich is reached after a
great deal of discussion and argu#entation>
<<
@n his chapter FScience as "on%ersation> "o#e and see #y air pu#pwF Sutton
.
gi%es a
series of e3a#ples of ho$ historical approaches using case studiesC can gi%e children
greater insights into the $ay scientists $or? as $ell as de%eloping their o$n
in%ol%e#ent in the i#portant ideas of science>
There are challenges of $or?ing in this $ayC and during the taught part of the HST
Training "ourse $e shall e3plore so#e of the issues> The acti%ity is outlined belo$ in
a %ery brief for# in Tas? !>
Tas' 4 The Burning Auestion
This taught session in%ol%es discussionC and argu#entation around dataC infor#ation
and e%idence $hich relate to theories of burning> Historically these debates too? place
in the eighteenth century and led to the currently held theory of burningC put for$ard
in an early for# by the great (rench che#ist +ntoine 9a%oisier> Briefly the #ain ideas
here are thatD
Burning is the release of light and heat energyC as $ell as co#bustion products
$hen o3ygen (usually in the for# of gaseous o3ygen fro# the air) reacts
che#ically $ith a fuel>
+ s#all a#ount of energy is generally needed to start the reaction>
+ fla#e is the region $here this reaction ta?es place>
'uring the taught session $e shall e3plore the practical e%idence and the theoretical
insights $hich led e%entually to the establish#ent of this consensus %ie$ of #odern
scientistsC and also consider so#e of the ri%al theories $hich $ere rejected>
;or'ing (ith historical teYts
This is an e3cellent approach for older pupils and students> @t gi%es the# a chance to
de%elop their po$ers of analysis and synthesis> + case study is gi%en belo$ for you to
consider in Tas? B>
Tas' 5 $roperties of .itrous ,Yide
Here is an account by Sir Hu#phry 'a%y
3
$here he describes his e3periences and
researches into the properties of nitrous o3ide> These studies too? place during the last
years of the eighteenth century> 7itrous o3ide is a gas $hichC fro# the later part of the
nineteenth centuryC has been $idely used as an anaesthetic for dental surgery>
1ead through the account belo$ and then de%ise a series of )uestions $hich you
$ould as? a group of children aged 11 to 1. years based on the $riting>
2
Sutton, C. (1998) 'Science as Conversation. Come and see my air pump! In Practical Work in School
Science. Which way now? Wellington, J. (ed.), London: Routledge.
3
Hu#phry 'a%y (1;//) F1esearches on 7itrous 53ideF in Collected or+sC 9ondon 1;3<C ,olu#e iii
1//
4n the be%innin% of #arch- 4 !re!ared a lar%e <uantit, of im!ure nitrous o.ide from the nitrous
solution of =inc. 'f this 4 often breathed the <uantities of a <uart and t3o <uarts %enerall,
min%led 3ith more than e<ual !arts of o.,%en or common air. 4n the most decisi/e of those
trials- its effects a!!eared to be de!ressin%- and 4 ima%ined that it !roduced a tendenc, to
faintin%: the !ulse 3as certainl, rendered slo3er under its o!eration.
At this time- #r Southe, res!ired it in an hi%hl, diluted state> it occasioned a sli%ht de%ree of
%iddiness- and considerabl, diminished the <uic2ness of his !ulse.
#r ;. ;oates li2e3ise res!ired it hi%hl, diluted- 3ith similar effects.
4n A!ril- 4 obtained nitrous o.ide in a state of !urit,- and ascertained man, of its chemical
!ro!erties. ?eflection u!on these !ro!erties and u!on the former trials- made me resol/e to
endea/our to ins!ire it in its !ure form- for 4 sa3 no other 3a, in 3hich its res!irabilit, or
!o3ers could be determined.@
4 3as a3are of the dan%er of this e.!eriment. 4t certainl, 3ould ne/er ha/e been made if the
h,!othesis of 1r #itchill had in the least influenced m, mind. 4 thou%ht that the effects mi%ht
be !ossibl, de!ressin% and !ainful- but there 3ere man, reasons 3hich induced me to
belie/e that a sin%le ins!iration of a %as a!!arentl, !ossessin% no immediate action on the
irritable fibre- could neither destro, nor immediatel, inAure the !o3ers of life.
'n A!ril 11
th
- 4 made the first ins!iration of !ure nitrous o.ide> it !assed into the bronchia
3ithout stimulatin% the %lottis- and !roduced no uneas, feelin% in the lun%s.
he result of this e.!eriment !ro/ed that the %as 3as res!irable- and induced me to belie/e
that a farther trial of its effects mi%ht be made 3ithout dan%er.
'n A!ril 1(
th
- 1r Bin%la2e bein% accidentall, !resent- 4 breathed three <uarts of nitrous o.ide
from and into a sil2 ba% for more than half a minute- 3ithout !re/iousl, closin% m, nose or
e.haustin% m, lun%s.
he first ins!irations occasioned a sli%ht de%ree of %iddiness. his 3as succeeded b, and
uncommon sense of fullness of the head- accom!anied 3ith loss of distinct sensation and
/oluntar, !o3er- a feelin% analo%ous to that !roduced in the first sta%e of into.ication: but
unattended b, !leasurable sensation. 1r Bin%la2e- 3ho felt m, !ulse- informed me that it
3as rendered <uic2er and fuller.
his trial did not satisf, me 3ith re%ard to its !o3ers> com!arin% it 3ith the former ones 4 3as
unable to determine 3hether the o!eration 3as stimulant or de!ressin%.
4 communicated the result to 1r Ceddoes> and on A!ril the 1)
th
- he 3as !resent- 3hen the
follo3in% e.!eriment 3as made.
4 did not attem!t to e.!eriment u!on animals- because the, die nearl, in e<ual times in non6
res!irable %ases- and %ases inca!able of su!!ortin% life and !ossessed of no action on the
/enous blood.
8a/in% !re/iousl, closed m, nostrils and e.hausted m, lun%s- 4 breathed four <uarts of
nitrous o.ide from and into a sil2 ba%. he first feelin%s 3ere similar to those !roduced in the
last e.!eriment> but in less than half a minute- the res!iration bein% continued- the,
diminished %raduall,- and 3ere succeeded b, a sensation analo%ous to %entle !ressure on all
the muscles- attended b, a hi%hl, !leasurable thrillin%- !articularl, in the chest and the
e.tremities. he obAects around me became da==lin% and m, hearin% more acute. o3ards
the last ins!irations- the thrillin% increased- the sense of muscular !o3er became %reater- and
at last an irresistible !ro!ensit, to action 3as indul%ed in> 4 recollect but indistinctl, 3hat
follo3ed> 4 2no3 that m, motions 3ere /arious and /iolent.
Dr Beddoes has given some account of this experiment, in his "Notice of some Observations made at
the Medical Pneumatic Institution." It was noticed in Mr Nicholson's Phil. Journal for May 1799.
1/1
hese effects /er, soon ceased after res!iration. 4n ten minutes- 4 had reco/ered m, natural
state of mind. he thrillin% in the e.tremities- continued lon%er than the other sensations.@
his e.!eriment 3as made in the mornin%> no lan%uor or e.haustion 3as conse<uent- m,
feelin%s throu%hout the da, 3ere as usual- and 4 !assed the ni%ht in undisturbed re!ose.
he ne.t mornin% the recollections of the effects of the %as 3ere /er, indistinct- and had not
remar2s 3ritten immediatel, after the e.!eriment recalled them to m, mind- 4 should ha/e
e/en doubted of their realit,. 4 3as 3illin% indeed to attribute some of the stron% emotion to
the enthusiasm- 3hich 4 su!!osed must ha/e been necessaril, connected 3ith the !erce!tion
of a%reeable feelin%s- 3hen 4 3as !re!ared to e.!erience !ainful sensations. 3o
e.!eriments- ho3e/er- made in the course of this da,- 3ith sce!ticism- con/inced me that the
effects 3ere solel, o3in% to the s!ecific o!eration of the %as.
4n each of them 4 breathed fi/e <uarts of nitrous o.ide for rather a lon%er time than before.
he sensations !roduced 3ere similar- !erha!s not <uite so !leasurable> the muscular
motions 3ere much less /iolent.
8a/in% thus ascertained the !o3ers of the %as- 4 made man, e.!eriments to ascertain the
len%th of time for 3hich it mi%ht be breathed 3ith safet,- its effects on the !ulse- and its
%eneral effects on the health 3hen often res!ired.
4 found that 4 could breathe nine <uarts of nitrous o.ide for three minutes- and t3el/e <uarts
for rather more than four. 4 could ne/er breathe it in an, <uantit,- so lon% as fi/e minutes.
:hene/er its o!eration 3as carried to the hi%hest e.tent- the !leasurable thrillin% at its hei%ht
about the middle of the e.!eriment- %raduall, diminished> the sense of !ressure on the
muscles 3as lost> im!ressions ceased to be !ercei/ed> /i/id ideas !assed ra!idl, throu%h the
mind- and /oluntar, !o3er 3as alto%ether destro,ed- so that the mouth6!iece %enerall,
dro!!ed from m, unclosed li!s.
:hene/er the %as 3as in a hi%h state of !urit,- it tasted distinctl, s3eet to the ton%ue and
!alate- and had an a%reeable odour. 4 often thou%ht that it !roduced a feelin% some3hat
analo%ous to taste- in its a!!lication to m, lun%s. 4n one or t3o e.!eriments- 4 !ercei/ed a
distinct sense of 3armth in m, chest.
4 ne/er felt from it an, thin% li2e o!!ressi/e res!iration: #, ins!irations became dee! in
!ro!ortion as 4 breathed it lon%er> but this !henomenon arose from increased ener%, of the
muscles of res!iration- and from a desire of increasin% the !leasurable feelin%s.
Denerall, 3hen 4 breathed from si. to se/en <uarts- muscular motion 3ere !roduced to a
certain e.tent> sometimes 4 manifested m, !leasure b, stam!in% or lau%hin% onl,> at other
times- b, dancin% round the room and /ociferatin%.
At the end of Eul,- 4 left off m, habitual course of res!iration> but 4 continued occasionall, to
breathe the %as- either for the sa2e of enAo,ment- or 3ith a /ie3 of ascertainin% its o!eration
under !articular circumstances.
4n one instance- 3hen 4 had headache from indi%estion- it 3as immediatel, remo/ed b, the
effects of a lar%e dose of %as> thou%h it after3ards returned- but 3ith much less /iolence. 4n a
second instance- a sli%hter de%ree of headache 3as 3holl, remo/ed b, t3o doses of %as.
he !o3er of the immediate o!eration of the %as in remo/in% intense !h,sical !ain- 4 had a
/er, %ood o!!ortunit, of ascertainin%.
4n cuttin% one of the unluc2, teeth called dentes sa!ientiae- 4 e.!erienced an e.tensi/e
inflammation of the %um- accom!anied 3ith %reat !ain- 3hich e<uall, destro,ed the !o3er of
re!ose- and of consistent action.
'n the da, 3hen the inflammation 3as most troublesome- 4 breathed three lar%e doses of
nitrous o.ide. he !ain al3a,s diminished after the first four or fi/e ins!irations> the thrillin%
came on as usual- and uneasiness 3as for a fe3 minutes s3allo3ed u! in !leasure. As the
former state of mind ho3e/er returned- the state of or%an returned 3ith it> and 4 once
ima%ined that the !ain 3as more se/ere after the e.!eriment than before.F
Bert Sorsby
Hull
*uly .//.
1/.
-nit 4 Teaching and 8earning on-line
@n the HST ProjectC $e use t$o regions of the $orld$ide $ebC but please note that
these t$o sites are continually being changed and updatedC so they #ay not appear
e3actly as described belo$>
(irst there are resources and acti%ities at our public $ebsite
!
C $hich e%eryone can
accessC and you can find this by clic?ing on httpDEE$$$>hib>noEshofEhstintE These acti%ities
and infor#ation details all relate to teaching history of science and technology and
also to the HST Project>
The second part of the $orld $ide $eb $e use is called 4erlinC and you $ill need a
pass$ord to enter this site> Lou can find #ore details of 4erlin at
httpDEE$$$>hull>ac>u?E#erlinE as $ell as in section . >belo$>
to de%elop your ability to use the internet to help your o$n teaching and learning
of HST
to de%elop your fa#iliarity $ith the HST online learning en%iron#ent in 4erlin>
Section *H The HST public (ebsite
Lou can use the @nternet in #ainly t$o $ays 1) to get infor#ationC .) to present
infor#ation>
Getting information
To get infor#ation fro# the net you #ust be connected through your co#puter to the
net and you #ust ha%e a net bro$serC $hich enables you to read the infor#ation on
the net> 7etscape and 4icrosoft @nternet E3plorer are the bro$sers #ost people use
and you can get the# for free>
5nce you ha%e a bro$ser you can search the net by using a search engine or you can
go to addresses you ?no$ and $hich you ha%e collected as boo?#ar?s (7etscape) or
fa%ourites (E3plorer)> Since it ta?es so#e ti#e so search the net and the search often
can be disappointing it is i#portant that you collect the good addresses as
boo?#ar?sEfa%ouritesC and that you organise these sensibly> That #eans you organise
the# in folders if you ha%e #any addresses> @n 7etscape and E3plorer it is e3plained
ho$ you can do so> 5ne good address by the $ay is hopefully the address for the HST
$ebsite $here $e ha%e collected lin?sC $hich #ight be useful if you are $or?ing on a
HST project> The address isD httpDEE$$$>hib>noEshofEhstintE
Ahen it co#es to searching the net there are #any different search engines #ost of
the# are free> 4ost search engines find only about a third of the rele%ant infor#ation
on the netC but often that6s enough> @f you $ill find #ore you ha%e to try the different
engines and see $hich gi%es the best result> That of course ta?es ti#e> 5ne fa%ourite
of #ine is +lta ,istaC $hich gi%es reasonable results> The address for this ser%iceD
httpDEE$$$>alta%ista>co#E> + recent $inner in a test of search engines is 8oogle and
you can find this at httpDEE$$$>google>co#EintlEenE
!
The HST public $ebsite has been set upC and is #aintained byC S%ein Hoff
1/3
+nother $ay to get infor#ation is use ne$s groups> 7e$s groups are places $here on
can get infor#ation abut different the#es and participate in discussions about the
the#e> To #ini#ise traffic on the net the infor#ation is #irrored around the $orld>
That #eans that you connect to the ne$s groups through your local ne$s ser%er if you
got one> Three are also free ne$s ser%ers but they are fe$ and tend to get closed after
a $hile> + good bro$ser for the groups is Hotbot atD httpDEEhotbot>lycos>co#EusenetE
$resenting information on the net
To present infor#ation on the net you #ust ha%e access to a $eb ser%er> @f you ha%e
filesharing access to that ser%er you can sa%e a docu#ent directly to it and you are
one the net> Lou can sa%e a file in any for#at to the net ser%er and anyone on the net
can open it they got the address and ha%e the appropriate soft$are to open it> (or
e3a#ple if you sa%e a docu#ent as a 4icrosoft Aord 'ocu#entC a person $ho $ish
to open it #ust ha%e 4icrosoft Aord on hisEhers #achine or a 4icrosoft Aord
1eader>
The #ost co##on file for#at on the net ho$e%er is the ht#l for#at> This for#at can
be read by the $eb bro$sers li?e 7etscape and E3plorer and #a?es it possible to set
up lin?s to other docu#ents> To get a file in this for#at you often ha%e the opportunity
in #ost progra#s to sa%e a file in ht#l for#at> To edit ht#l files you can use an ht#l
editor> E3a#ples are 4icrosoft AordC 7etscape "o#poser and 4icrosoft (rontPage
reduced %ersion> @f don6t ha%e file sharing access but are allo$ed access to a $eb
se%er trough the net you #ust use the publish function of these $eb editors to get your
files on the net>
5nce you get through the starting stage you $ill find that it is %ery easy to present
infor#ation on the net> @t #ight be useful though to ha%e a #ore ad%anced editor than
those already #entioned> @ #yself find the full %ersion of 4icrosoft (rontPage )uite
easy to use and ade)uate for #ost net publishingC but of course there are other good
editors> Publishing pupils $or? to the net $ill be #oti%ating factor in their $or?> @f
you publish $or? done in a HST the#e @ hope you can gi%e the lin? to the HST
$ebsite so that $e can present your $or? through this site
S%ein Hoff
Bergen
7or$ay
*une .///
1/!
Section 2H The Merlin ,n-line 8earning En>ironment
4erlin is a $ebbased learning en%iron#ent that is used in t$o $ays on the HST
Project> (irst it supports the de%elop#ent of the inser%ice teacher courses in history
of science and technologyC and docu#entationC including reports of #eetingsC can be
found on the site> Secondly it is used as part of the actual course deli%ery and as a
#eans of #a?ing sure that all teachers on the course ha%e contact $ith the tutors as
$ell as $ith each other> @t pro%ides a fle3ible and friendly interface and has been
designed to encourage both $ritten and oral co##unication bet$een all #e#bers of
the HST 8roup>
To use 4erlin you $ill needD
+ Aindo$s P" (
+n @nternet connection
4icrosoft @nternet E3plorer B or laterC or 7etscape 7a%igator ->
@t is also useful to ha%eD
#ealPlayer and #ealProducer so that you can listen to and record audio
#essages>
(This is a free do(nload and you can find out "ore a!out this fro" the 7erlin ho"e
page (hen you register- see !elo()
+ #icrophone and spea?ers so that you can record and listen to #essages>
Ahen you ha%e this set up you can access 4erlin fro# any$here in the $orld at any
ti#e of day>
)egistering and 8ogging ,n
9oad your $eb bro$ser (7etscape or @nternet E3plorer)
Type in the 4erlin 019 httpDEE#erlin>ifl>hull>ac>u?ElogonE
Type in your 4erlin userna#e in the first bo3 ,serna"e
"lic? on the te3t bo3 belo$
Type in your 4erlin pass$ord in the second te3t bo3 Pass(ord
"lic? on <og on>
The .oticeboard
The screen you no$ see should loo? li?e thisD
1/B
There are buttons to the left of the screen and also to$ards the top of the central panel>
,ptions allo$s you to change your pass$ord and alter your e#ail address>
;hocs ;ho< gi%es a list of all the people $ho are part of the HST group> Lour na#e
should appear on the list> Lou can generally find out #ore about each #e#ber of the
group by clic?ing on a na#e> Here is #y entry>
;hocs online< sho$s you $ho has their co#puter s$itched on to 4erlin> Lou can
find $ho is $or?ing in other groups as $ell as HST> @t is so#eti#es a co#fort to find
you are not $or?ing alone and you #ight $ant to send an e#ail to the other person
for an online Jchat6>
(or %nformation or Help you need to clic? on (+rEHE9P at the top right of the
screen> +s you $ander around in 4erlin this help button is al$ays a%ailable so you
can get particular help $hen you $ant it>
.,; clic? on the dar? blue type %ntroductory Tas's in the top left hand side of the
centre bo3> @n here @ ha%e put a nu#ber of things for you to do to help you to e3plore
the %arious parts of the 4erlin en%iron#ent>
Lou can al$ays see the buttons to the left of the 4erlin screen and because you are
using a $eb bro$ser you can al$ays see the usual bro$ser buttons at the top of the
screen> Lou $ill find the na%igation buttons Bac' and 0or(ard %ery useful to steer
bet$een screens you ha%e pre%iously %isited>
The buttons on the 4erlin toolbar and $hat they do are described belo$>
1/-
.otice Board
This is $here you $ill find the latest details about the HST Project and the inser%ice
courses>
MailboY
Lou $ill find your inco#ing #essages in here and you can use this section to send
#essages also to people in the HST co##unity> + little red flag appears $hen you
ha%e #essages not yet read> Lou can $rite to so#eone in the group or to lots of
people si#ultaneously if you clic? on .e( Message> Lou can also attach Aord
docu#ents or a sound file to your #essages>
B-T please re#e#ber to sa%e your $riting regularly and it is a good idea to put your
#essage into the 'rafts folderC or clic? Previe( before you try to send it>
+ picture of #y o$n 4erlin 4ailbo3 is printed belo$>
EYchange
This is really only %ersion of #ailbo3C but in here you can post a )uestionC a response
or a #essage $hich $ill be read by e%eryone in the HST group> This is $here open
discussions can ta?e placeC and you can see so#e of the current issues if you clic? on
the button eneral Discussions% Lou can also send details of $ebsites $hich you
ha%e found interestingC as $ell as recei%e copies of the training and resource #anuals
and the inser%ice course progra##e>
The other areas are for closed discussions and at the #o#ent they contain so#e of the
details of the %arious #eetings $hich the tutors ha%e had as $ell as infor#ation about
the funding bids $hich ha%e been #ade for the HST Project>
1/K
$ath(ay
This region contains #aterials $hich are pro%ided to co#ple#ent the face to face in
ser%ice course> @t $ill loo? so#ething li?e this but the site $ill continue to be
de%eloped and there #ay be so#e changes $hen you actually loo? at it>
Path$ay also contains so#e tas?s $hich you $ill loo? at $hen you are $or?ing on
lessons and projects in history of science and technology in your o$n school> So#e of
the# are reflecti%e tas?s $hich $ill re)uire a response> So#e of the# relate to the
action research $hich you $ill carry out to infor# your o$n teaching and to help you
gain accreditation for your $or? as part of the HST Project>
1/;
)esource Centre
@n here you $ill find t$o different sorts of resources to help you teach history of
science and technology> The section abo%e $ill lin? you straight into $ebsites $hich
you can access directly>
@n the .ile 3an+ particularly useful for #aterials $hich ha%e been generated by the
HST ProjectC including $or?sheets for pupils to use as $ell as teaching ideas> So#e
of these ideas are in +ppendi3 . of this HST Training 4anual>
> @n the 2"age <i!rary $e are building up a collection of i#ages of pupils $or?ing on
HST Project> Ae shall also include other i#ages too for e3a#ple pictures of fa#ous
scientistsC diagra#s of apparatus etc> $hich can be a good resource for do$nloading
for teaching sessions in history of science and technology>
@n <ecture Presentations $e are building up a record of so#e of the lectures and
$or?shop sessions $hich $ill ta?e place during the facetoface inser%ice course and
to $hich you #ight li?e to refer fro# ti#e to ti#e> There $ill be other support for
HST teaching in here too as $e build up the collection of Po$erPoint lecture #aterial>
0inally
@f you clic? on EYit at the top leftC then you $ill need to reenter both your userna#e
and pass$ord to get bac? into 4erlin> +t the #o#entC HST in 4erlin is only being
de%eloped for use $ith teachers $ho are in%ol%ed in the European "o#enius funded
courses in history of science and technology> @f future funding is forthco#ing then $e
shall de%elop online learning facilities for pupils and students to use too>
@ hope that you enjoy e3ploring this online learning en%iron#ent and that you find it a
useful $ay of e3tending your o$n teaching of history of science and technology>
Bert Sorsby b>d>sorsbyeduc>hull>ac>u?
Hull 02
4ay .//.
1/<
-nit 5 !ction )esearch in the ClassroomH Ho( effecti>e (as the
teaching and learning<
@n this study unit $e shall consider $ays of e%aluating the teaching and learning in
classroo#s and laboratories $hen history of science and technology is being taught> @t
$ill for# the basis of the assign#ent for those teachers $ho $ant to recei%e
accreditation in HST at higher degree le%el as a result of attending a HST course>

to discuss $hy $e need to carry out classroo#based research into teachingC and
learning&
to consider $ays of e%aluating teaching and learning in the classroo#&
to present so#e of the ad%antages and disad%antages of action research>
;hat is action research and (hy do (e need action research in the classroom<
The short ans$er is that action research is the study of $hat is going on in a
classroo# $ith the intention of i#pro%ing it> Aor?ing fro# this definitionC the reason
for carrying out action research beco#es %ery clear> @t is to #a?e sure that both
teaching and learning of history of science and technology is enhanced>
The first purpose of action research often in%ol%es finding out #ore about the
teaching $hich goes on and then using $hat $e ha%e disco%ered in order to help the
teacher teach better lessons> But this is only part of $hat teachers in%ol%ed in action
research are trying to doC because the real purpose of teaching is so that pupils $ill
learn #ore effecti%ely and $ill achie%e #ore>
;ho carries out action research<
,ery occasionally an e3ternal researcher #ay be in the classroo# but basically action
research is carried out by teachers $or?ing $ith their o$n pupilsC in their o$n
classroo#sC during their ordinary lessons> These are Fnor#alF teachers $ho reflect
upon their o$n practice and upon their pupilsF learningC and $ho then ta?e steps to
#a?e sure that $hat they ha%e disco%ered about effecti%e and ineffecti%e learning
strategiesC are incorporated into their future plans for teaching>
;hat are the pleasures and pitfalls of action research in HST<
So#e of the benefits areD
1> 1 @t gi%es greater autono#y and po$er to the teachers> > Because teachers ta?e
responsibility for the action research it is they $ho are in the dri%ing seatC and it is
they $ho can begin to initiate the change to$ards better )uality learning for their
pupils>
.> @t addresses rele%ant issues in HST teaching and learningC because the )uestions
and issues $hich are studied are the ones identified by the teachers the#sel%es as
being i#portant>
3> @t raises the status and profile of teachers because it #a?es the# #ore research
orientated and reflecti%e> @n a $ordC teachers beco#e #ore professional>
There are ho$e%er a nu#ber of constraints>
1> The $or? #ust be carried out $ithin the li#itations of the curriculu# and ethos of
the school> (or e3a#ple it is no good trying to carry out studies into ho$ child
11/
centred discussions affect learning in HST if the pupils ha%e ne%er before
e3perienced the chance to discuss during their i##ediate school e3perience>>
Si#ilarlyC if there are no resources for practical science $or?C then it is pointless
trying to carry out a teaching sche#e in%ol%ing recreation of classic e3peri#ents
in the history of science>
.> @t is %ery li?ely that at a later stageC other people $ill beco#e in%ol%ed fro#
outside the classroo# so that the research findings #ay be fully e3ploited and put
into action #ore fully> E3tra resources #ay be needed to i#ple#ent the change
and so this $ill include infor#ing other teachersC parents school go%ernors and
inspectors>
3> @t in%ol%es careful planning so that the research itself does not interfere $ith the
learning of the children>
;hat techni=ues can be used in action research<
+ction research does not ha%e any particular set of research techni)uesC but borro$s
its #ethodologies for all aspects of educational research>
Techni)ues $hich you #ay consider using in your classroo# includeD
1> 5bser%ing the pupils> (or e3a#pleC one group of pupils ha%e not done $ell during
a particular piece of practical $or?C and ne3t tie they $or? in this $ay you decide
that you $ill $atch the# especially closely>
.> 8i%ing out )uestionnaires for the pupils to co#plete> (or e3a#pleC can the
children suggest $hy they enjoy using co#puters $hen they study HST= Lou can
use all sorts of )uestionnaires fro# open ended )uestions $hich re)uire $riting a
fe$ sentences to co#plete the#C to attitude scales $here the pupils are as?ed to
respond on a scale of 1 to K ranging fro# strongly agree to strongly disagree>
3> @nter%ie$s $ith the pupils> These are particularly useful because $ith a careful
and e#pathetic approach you can probe #ore deeply than $ith )uestionnaire
responses> Lou can also gain e3tra insights but it is %ery i#portant re#ain neutral
and not lead the pupils to agree $ith your o$n %ie$s> Lou need to ha%e the
insights to see $hen the pupils are saying so#ething just to please you> They #ay
not necessarily belie%e $hat they ha%e just said to you and are only saying it so
that you $ill not )uestion the# any #orew
!> 2eeping a reflecti%e diary of $hat has happened in the classroo#> This too can be
a po$erful $ay of carrying out action research> But you do need to analyse %ery
carefully though $hat $ent $ell and try to say also AHL it $ent $ell> The
a#ount of infor#ation collected in this $ay can be enor#ous so you need to ha%e
a fra#e$or? $hich restricts your data collection>
B> Tests and assess#ents> +nalysing $here children $ere successful and $ere not
successful is %ery i#portantC and you need to try to find out $hy they did not do
$ell on that particular test ite#>
Ho( is it done< ;hat are the stages in carrying out an action research pro:ect<
@ a# te#pted to gi%e the response of (eyerabend> Ahen he $rote about ho$ science
proceedsC he basically saidC F+nything goeswF Each indi%idual research project $ill
indeed ha%e its o$n set of characteristicsC but it is possible to identify a %ery general
fra#e$or? as follo$sD
111
1> (inding a starting point> This is a general idea $hich #ight interest you and $hich
has arisen out of your $or? $ith children as you ha%e been teaching history of
science and technology>
.> @dentifying a research )uestion> Lou need to thin? %ery carefully about thisC and to
#a?e sure especially that it is not too large a )uestion> @t is #uch better to refine
the )uestion right do$n to so#ething that can be tac?led $ithin the ti#e and
resource constraintsC and these are i#posed by your $or?ing en%iron#ent> @t is a
good idea to do so#e e3tra reading here to see $hat other people ha%e published
on your o$n area of interest because this $ill help you to tighten the focus on a
particular )uestion>
3> 'e%eloping strategies for action research and then trying the# out in your o$n
situation> Lou $ill probably find that you $ill need to run a pilot study to chec?
$hether your #ethodology and protocol $ill $or? $hen you try it out on a larger
scale>
!> 1eflecting of $hat you ha%e done and $hat you ha%e disco%ered> Lou $ill need to
consider the $or? of others during this stage too in order to see if your findings
agree or disagree $ith $hat others ha%e done>
B> 0sing $hat you ha%e disco%ered in order to infor# your planning of learning
e3periences for the pupils> This is %ital and it $ill ensure that the $or? $hich
you ha%e done is really $orth$hile in helping the learning process> @t $ill also
#ean that you $ill need to re%isit so#e of your earlier ideas $hich you
considered $hat you set the $or? up originally>
-> 4a?ing the ?no$ledge public> This phase is not strictly necessaryC but it is an
opportunity #issed if you do not share your e3periences and findings #ore $idely
$ith your fello$ professionals>
Some case studies for action research on HST in the classroom
* Ho( effecti>e is a >isit to a museum to study HST
(ollo$ing a %isit to BuffonFs iron$or?s $ith her class of 11 year old pupilsC 4#e
'ebru $as concerned that all the children see#ed to re#e#ber about the %isit $ere
the things they bought in the #useu# shopC and the beefburgers they had for lunch>
She began to $onder about the follo$ing )uestions as the beginning of a piece of
action research on the effecti%eness of #useu# %isits>
hy has their learning a!out HST !een so li"itedK
hat do children learn a!out HST fro" a visit to a "useu"K
hat do they no( +no( a!out HST (hich they did not +no( !eforeK
hat s+ills have they developedK
hat attitudes have they developedK
2H $upilsc misunderstandings and misconceptions
+s a result of #ar?ing a science testC 4r S#ith disco%ered that #any of his 1! year
old pupils still belie%ed that objects only #o%e $hen they are pushed> He $ondered
about the sorts of alternati%e teaching strategies $hich he could use to challenge the
pupils ideas and he began to plan ho$ he could assess $hich $as the best $ay to
ensure that the pupils had #ade progress>
Aith the sa#e classC 4r *ones found that so#e of the pupils had difficulty in history
lessons $hen he as?ed the# to distinguish historical facts fro# opinions> He
#entioned this to 4r S#ith during a coffee brea? and the t$o of the# decided to
11.
carry out a s#all scale study to see if they could help their pupils to co#e to ter#s
$ith these #isconceptions in both history and science>
+ chec?list for "lassroo#based +ction 1esearch in History of Science and
Technology>
+> @dentify an area for study
B> @dentify a precise proble# or )uestion> @s it capable of being
in%estigated=
"> "onsider other (published ) $or? in the area>
'> +nalyse and refine the proble# further as a result of your
reading>
E> Suggest actions that are li?ely to lead to change ($ith
reasons for these)>
(> Plan to carry out the actionsC considering carefully ho$ you
$ill #onitor the effects of these>
8> "ollect data to #onitor the effects of these actions (Ahat
$ill you do to collect data= Ho$ $ill you ensure that it is
(a) %alid and (b) reliable=)
H> +nalyse $hich actions are effecti%e and $hich are not>
@> 1efor#ulate ideas concerning further actions>
*> 1eport and disse#inate your findings #ore $idely>
Bert Sorsby
Hull 02
4ay .//.
113
Au?entend-on par recherche p@dagogi=ue acti>e ")$!# <
0n professeur Glabore toujours un protocole du dGroule#ent de l6acti%itG
B
)u6il
co#pte dG%elopper en classe> @l prG%oitC selon le type d6GlO%e et selon le caractOre de
chacunC telle ou telle rGaction ou inter%ention orale> @l doit donc anticiper les rGponses
et se prGparer Q faire face Q toutes les situations>
*uste aprOs cette acti%itGC dans la journGe tout au plusC l6enseignant note ses
obser%ations ou ses re#ar)ues dans son cahier personnelC propose )uel)ues
#odifications Q l6acti%itG #enGe ou Glabore un autre protocole sur le #R#e sujet )u6il
utilisera l6annGe sui%ante ou a%ec une autre classe>
"ette attitude de recherche avantC d6obser%ation pendantC et d6analyse aprDs la sGance
d6enseigne#entC per#et de progresser dans sa propre faSon d6enseigner co##e de
#ieu3 rGpondre au3 besoins des GlO%esC et cela Q )uel)ue ni%eau )ue ce soit> "6est ce
tra%ail de l6enseignant )ue nous no##ons 1P+ au cours de ce chapitre>
1GflGchir sur sa prati)ue ou sur ce )ue les GlO%es retiennent ou apprennent rGelle#ent
fait partie actuelle#ent de la for#ation initiale des enseignants> @l apparaPt donc plus
)ue nGcessaire d6appli)uer ces rOgles dGontologi)ues Q l6enseigne#ent de l6HST
lors)ue l6on est un professeur de sciences ou de technologie sans for#ation initiale la
plupart du te#ps en HST> 5n pourra rapide#ent alors sa%oir o sont les a%antages et
les plaisirsC les difficultGs et les piOges de ce type d6acti%itG>
!>antages et difficult@s d?une )$! utilisant l?HST
Par#i les a%antagesC citons D
1 0tiliser l6HST donne une grande autono"ie au3 enseignants> "hacun est
responsable du choi3 du thO#e abordG et choisit libre#ent la faSon de l6aborder en
classe> @l peut donc s6e3pri#er plus spontanG#entC plus naturelle#ent>
. 0tiliser l6HST per#et aussi dans certains cas une plus facile
co"prEhension d6un sujet par l6GlO%e car l6HST per#et une approche graduelle d6un
thO#e> 9e professeur aura #ieu3 cernG les difficultGs par l6approche histori)ue et
saura #ieu3 e3pli)uer le thO#e choisi>
3 0tiliser l6HSTC c6est aussi conduire une %Gritable recherche intellectuelle
pour soi co##e pour les GlO%es> "6est donc une activitE valorisante )ui rend
5
On entend par activit, une leon, une sance de travaux pratiques ou dirigs, une sance dexercices
dirigs, etc.
11!
professionnelle#ent plus assurG> En effetC dGcou%rir et rGflGchir sur la faSon dont telle
ou telle dGcou%erte ou inno%ation a GtG faite per#et en retour de dGfinirC d6Gclairer
puis de sur#onter les obstacles GpistG#ologi)ues rencontrGs par les enseignants au
cours de leur for#ation initiale co##e ceu3 rencontrGs par les GlO%es au cours de leur
scolaritG>
@l y a cependant un certain no#bre de contraintes>
1 9e tra%ail doit Rtre #enG Q l6intGrieur des li#ites du progra##e officiel et
du caractOre propre de l6Gtablisse#ent scolaire> Par e3e#pleC il n6est pas bon
d6inno%er en introduisant au ni%eau des GlO%es lors de l6introduction de l6HST notion
dGjQ nou%elle la discussion en classe si les GlO%es n6ontC prGalable#entC ja#ais appris
Q dGbattre entre eu3 en prGsence du professeur dans des disciplines plus classi)ues> 'e
#R#eC si l6Gtablisse#ent ne per#et pas en cours de sciences de procGder Q des
e3pGriencesC il serait dGlicat d6introduire un thO#e portant e3lusi%e#ent sur la
co#paraison d6e3pGriences histori)ues> 'ans cette G%entualitGC l6introduction du te3te
histori)ue n6a de sens )ue si la ou les e3pGriences peu%ent Rtre faites de%ant les
GlO%es> Par e3e#pleC le te3te relatant la co#bustion du fer par 9a%oisier n6est
intGressant )ue si l6e3pGrience de co#bustion est faite de%ant les GlO%es> 'e #R#e
l6e3pGrience de dispersion des couleurs par le pris#e doit acco#pagner le te3te de
7e$ton>
. @l est souhaitable )u6Q un stade ultGrieurC une personne e3tGrieure Q la classe
puisse inter%enir et apporter un regard neuf sur les recherches entreprises (1P+) afin
de pou%oir les e3ploiter plus pleine#ent> 'es ressources e3tGrieures peu%ent aussi Rtre
nGcessaires pour rGaliser cet Gchange et ceci inclut d6infor#er les autres enseignantsC
les parentsC et les personnes responsables de l6Gtablisse#ent ainsi )ue les inspecteurs>
3 Si la 1P+ est une attitude habituelleC Jnor#ale6 en )uel)ue sorte du
professeurC elle de%ient une e3pGri#entation lors)u6elle est appli)uGe Q une discipline
nou%elleC ici l6HST> @l est donc nGcessaire d6organiser soigneuse#ent le planning de
tra%ail et d6inter%ention afin )ue la recherche elle#R#e n6interfOre pas par ailleurs
a%ec l6apprentissage ordinaire des GlO%es>
$rotocole d?application d?une )$! en HST
En faitC il n6y a rien de nou%eau dans la dG#arche )ui soit spGcifi)ue Q l6HST>
1appelons )uel)ues rOgles essentielles Q sui%re D
11B
1 5bser%er les GlO%es au cours de la sGance> Si par e3e#pleC un groupe
d6GlO%es ne tra%aille pas bien sur une sGrie de )uestionsC il faudra s6en occuper
da%antage lors de la sGrie sui%ante>
. 0ne petite en)uRte peut Rtre faite auprOs des GlO%es sur l6acti%itG en HST
)ue l6on %ient de #ener> Par e3e#pleC Q l6occasion de cette disciplineC ontils ai#G
utiliser l6ordinateur = 5u bienC on peut leur de#ander d6apprGcier la dG#arche et les
)uestions touchant l6HST )ue l6on %ient de traiter a%ec une Gchelle de 1 Q K>
3 5n peut aussi poser ce #R#e genre de )uestions orale#entC la rGponse sera
plus spontanGeC #oins acadG#i)ue> 9a discussion per#et de #ieu3 prGciser sa pensGe>
@l peut y a%oir des opinions di%ergentes et il est bon de pou%oir en dGbattre> "6est
aussi l6occasion de re%enir sur tel ou tel aspect de la sGance )ui aurait pu n6Rtre pas
clair pour tel ou tel GlO%e>
! @l est indispensable d6Gtablir un carnet de bord de telles sGances> 5n peut
d6ailleurs charger un ou plusieurs GlO%es de le tenir Q tour de rWle> "e cahier de bord
doit contenir prGcisG#ent et de faSon dGtaillGe les diffGrentes Gtapes de l6acti%itG selon
un protocole )u6il s6agira de dGfinir et )ue chacun successi%e#ent responsable
appli)uera> @l sera contresignG par le professeur> 0n tel cahier de bord responsabilise
l6GlO%e> @l prend conscience de ce )u6est un tra%ail de groupeC et par lQ de son rWle de
futur citoyen> "ela n6interfOre pas a%ec le carnet personnel de l6enseignant )ui est le
lieu de ses rGfle3ions personnelles et )ui doit contenir de faSon trOs dGtaillGe le
dGroule#ent de l6acti%itG et les rGactions des GlO%es )uelles )u6elles soientC positi%es
ou nGgati%es>
B @l est nGcessaire de contrWler les ac)uis des GlO%es> 'e #R#e il est
nGcessaire d6analyser l6ense#ble des rGponses au3 tests donnGs afin de dGgager une
analyse sur le )uestionnaire lui#R#eC tG#oin de l6enseigne#ent )ue l6on a dispensGC
de ses points forts co##e de ses faiblesses>
11-
Auelles sont les @tapes C mettre en oeu>re pour une )$! <
@l n6y a pas de rGponse toute faite> "ha)ue recherche personnelle a ses propres
caractGristi)ues #ais il est possible de dGgager )uel)ues caractGristi)ues d6un cadre
gGnGral D
1 Trou%er un point de dGpart> "6est une idGe gGnGrale bien srC #ais ce point
peut surgir du tra%ail dGjQ fait a%ec les GlO%es lors d6une utilisation de l6HST>
. @dentifier un sujet de recherche> @l faut y penser trOs soigneuse#ent et Rtre
sr )ue ce ne soit pas un sujet trop i#portantC trop %aste ou trop gGnGral> @l est
prGfGrable de dGfinir son sujet plus Gtroite#ent plutWt )ue de jongler a%ec le te#ps et
(ou) de de%oir en restreindre les ressourcesC et ceci est i#posG par l6en%ironne#ent> @l
est bon de faire ici )uel)ues lectures pour %oir si des publications n6ont pas dGjQ GtG
effectuGes sur le sujet retenu> "ela aiderait Q #ieu3 se concentrer sur une )uestion
particuliOre>
3 'G%elopper )uel)ues dG#arches de 1P+ et les essayer dans sa propre
situation> PeutRtre auraton besoin de sui%re )uel)ue Gtude ser%ant de guide au
dGpart puis au fur et Q #esure )ue son propre tra%ail a%anceC on peut s6en G#anciper>
! 1GflGchir sur sa prati)ue et sur ses dGcou%ertes> @l faut aussi considGrer le
tra%ail des autres durant cette Gtape afin de co#parer ses propres dGcou%ertes et
obser%ations Q celles d6autrui et sa%oir ainsi si on est en accord ou en dGsaccord>
B 0tiliser ce )ue l6on a dGcou%ert en l6in%estissant dans l6organisation des
acti%itGs futures a%ec les GlO%es> "eci est %ital et assurera )ue le tra%ail effectuG est
rGelle#ent positif pour l6apprentissage des GlO%es> @l signifie aussi )ue l6enseignant
n6hGsite pas Q re%oir ses idGes prGalables et )u6il est prRt Q les adapter Q la lu#iOre de
l6e3pGrience pGdagogi)ue #enGe>
- (aire connaPtre son e3pGrience> "ette phase n6est pas indispensable #ais ce
serait une opportunitG #an)uGe )ue de ne pas partager son e3pGrience et ses
dGcou%ertes plus large#ent a%ec ses collOgues>
Auel=ues @tudes de cas pour une )$! en HST en classe
*d )endre une >isite au mus@e plus fructueuseH
9acher sa troupe d6GlO%es dans un #usGe des sciences ou des techni)ues sans
prGparation et sans encadre#ent re%ient Q perdre son te#ps> Si on interroge les GlO%es
aprOs la %isiteC ils n6ont retenu )ue ce )u6ils ont achetG Q la bouti)ueC ou ce )u6il ont
pu conso##er Q la cafetariaC G%entuelle#entC l6anecdote un peu drWle )u6ils ont pu
11K
entendre ou dGcou%rir> @ls seront en gGnGral incapables de fi3er leur attention> @l est
donc indispensable de prGparer la %isite> Elle doit %enir en co#plG#ent d6une acti%itG
ou faire partie de l6acti%itG elle#R#e> 'e #R#e il est indispensable de distribuer un
)uestionnaire Q l6entrGe du #usGe> "e )uestionnaire peut se prGsenter co##e un jeu
de piste et per#et de faire une %isite cohGrente et for#atrice autour de )uel)ues objets
ou autour d6un thO#e donnG> 9e reste de la %isite sera libre et dGpendra du got de
chacun> 9a %isite ne doit pas e3cGder une heure> +udelQ l6attention des GlO%es to#be
et on ris)ue de susciter l6ennui> 5n peut donner rendeM%ous Q la fin ou au #ilieu de la
%isite autour d6un objet ou d6un ense#ble cohGrent d6objets et en faire le co##entaire
et susciter des )uestions> 0n telle %isite de#ande un sGrieu3 in%estisse#ent en te#ps
de la part du professeur> @l doit lui#R#e %isiter le #usGe ou du #oins obtenir par
correspondance suffisa##ent de renseigne#ents pour construire sa %isite> Bien srC
certains #usGes peu%ent fournir un guide dont l6e3posG peut Rtre adaptG au type de
public )ui se prGsente> 96objet suscite en gGnGral un co##entaire et un
)uestionne#ent d6GlO%e plus libre )u6un te3te> Plus interessGC l6GlO%e se sou%iendra
plus facile#ent>
2d0ausse compr@hension et fausses conceptions des @l]>es
,oici un cane%as classi)ue des difficultGs constatGes par deu3 enseignantsC l6un de
science et l6autre d6histoire> En corrigeant un test de sciencesC 4> 'upont dGcou%re
)ue plusieurs de ses GlO%es de )uatorMe ans croient encore )ue les objets ne se
dGplacent )ue si une force agit sur eu3
-
> @l se de#ande )uelle sorte de stratGgie
pGdagogi)ue il pourrait appli)uer pour changer les idGes de ses GlO%es et il co##ence
Q rGflGchir Q la #eilleure %oie Q sui%re pour cela>
+%ec la #R#e classeC 4> 4artin trou%e )ue plusieurs de ses GlO%es ont des difficultGs
en cours d6histoire )uand il leur de#ande de distinguer les faits histori)ues des
opinions> @l #entionne cela Q 4> 'upont durant la pause cafG et tous les deu3 dGcident
de #ettre en oeu%re une petite Gtude pour %oir s6ils ne pourraient pas aider leurs
GlO%es Q sur#onter en #R#e te#ps leurs difficultGs en histoire et en science> 96HST
s6i#pose alors co##e do#aine co##un>
6
Obstacle pistmologique classique auquel lhistoire des sciences apporte une rponse.
11;
<iste rEcapitulative pour une #echerche pEdagogi$ue active en
histoire des sciences et des techni$ues
+> @dentifier un do#aine d6Gtude>
B> @dentifier un problO#e ou un sujet prGcis dans ce do#aine
d6Gtude> Peutil Rtre GtudiG =
"> "onsidGrer les publications dans ce do#aine
>
'> +nalyser et prGciser le futur sujet en fonction des lectures faites>
E> SuggGrer des pistes d6Gtude du sujet )u6il serait bon de tra%ailler
en propre (a%ec les raisons pour cela)>
(> Planifier tout le tra%ail projetG en considGrant soigneuse#ent
co##ent on %a en #aPtriser les diffGrents aspects et les
consG)uences>
8> "ollecter les infor#ations pour nourrir et conduire l6Gtude>
"o##ent faire pour collecter ces infor#ations = "o##ent Rtre sr
de la %aliditG des infor#ations collectGes =
H> +nalyser )uelles pistes d6Gtude du sujet peu%ent Rtre retenues
ou non>
@> 1efor#uler G%entuelle#ent les idGes concernant les pistes
d6Gtude retenues>
2> (aire connaPtre large#ent son e3pGrience et ses dGcou%ertes>
'anielle (au)ue
Paris
juillet .///
11<
-nit 6 !dditional Tas's in HST for Teachersc %n-Ser>ice Courses
+s $ell as for#al lectures and structured se#inars and $or?shop session the HST
courses $ill use a nu#ber of tas?s> So#e tas?s $ill be carried out before teachers
attend the fi%eday training course> So#e $ill ta?e place during the course itself and
others $ill for# part of the $or? $hich follo$s up the fi%eday course>
The purpose of this unit is:
to pro%ide the e3tra tas?s in addition to the ones in 0nits 3C ! and B $hich $ill
for# the basis of study of HST by teachers $ho attend the HST Project inser%ice
training courses for European teachers>
There is one #ain tas? $hich has to be carried out before the "ourse begins> @ts
purpose is to find out about the countries and people $ho $ill ta?e part in the in
ser%ice course>
Tas' * $re-course tas'H $oster display preparation
;hat (or' do you carry out (ith your pupils in scienceX history andJor
technology<
Please bring $ith you to the first #eeting of the HST @nser%ice "ourseC so#e details
about your countryC your regionC your schoolC your pupils or students and also so#e
e3a#ples of $or? $hich you #ight ha%e done $ith the# $hich relates to history of
5ne of the first acti%ities on the course $ill be for each teacher to use these #aterials
to set up a s#all display #easuring about 1# 31# so that e%eryone can see $hat is
done in all the European countries represented on the course>
There are also t$o #ain tas?s $hich are ongoing and $hich $ill ta?e place at %arious
ti#es throughout the fi%e day courseC and also after$ards
The purpose of Tas? . is to consolidate and e3tend all that has been learned on the
fi%e day inser%ice course
Tas' 2
/e>eloping HST resources (or' for students and children
Aor? $ith one or t$o other teachers>
0se the ideas and the (ra#e$or? in the TeachersF 1esource 4anual to de%elop or
produce resources $hich $ill directly help your teaching of history of science and
technology $ith a European di#ension>
0se so#e of the resources $hich appear in Part 3 of 0nit ;&
Begin to plan ho$ you $ill send details of your $or? in school to the other
#e#bers of the course so that you can share details of ho$ the $or? has been
carried out in the %arious schools>
Begin to plan ho$ you $ill e%aluate your proposals using action research ( based
on 0nit -)
1./
Tas' 1 Ho( to (rite reflecti>ely - 'eeping a learning log
This is another ongoing tas?C but a personal one> @ts purpose is to allo$ us all chance
to reflect on our learning and also to help in e%aluating the inser%ice course>
'uring the HST inser%ice courseC you $ill be as?ed to ?eep a $ritten log of $hat you
ha%e learned during each day> The notes on reflecti%e $riting are intended to help you
in this $or?>
@f you $ant accreditation for follo$ing the HST courseC then you $ill need to sub#it
your learning log to your tutor to be assessed>
Some notes on reflecti>e (riting
@n adultsC as in childrenC |deep learningC | is hard to define> Ho$e%er deep learning is
to be encouraged rather than superficial learningC and according to a recent project
(@#pro%ing Student 9earning 1<<.) there are se%en ?ey ele#ents $hich foster depth
in learning $ith adultsD
v 1> The first ele#ent in%ol%es encouraging independent learning> +dults ha%e a
fair degree of autono#y o%er the choice of $hat they learnC ho$ they learnC the
pace of their study and so#e choice in the rele%ant assess#ent instru#ents>
v .> This learning ele#ent in%ol%es personal de%elop#ent @t in%ol%es de%elop#ents
in the affecti%e do#ainC including feelings and #oti%ation as $ell as intellect>
v 3> 7e$ learning needs to be related to the real $orld and to brea? ne$ groundC as
opposed to trying to sol%e proble#s by $ell$orn routes>
v !> 7e$ learning can be encouraged by reflection and an i#portant #ethod here
in%ol%es ?eeping learning diaries and reflecti%e journals>
v B> There needs to be an ele#ent of learning by doingC by carrying out practical
acti%ities to elicit and e3plore the possibilities and ra#ifications of the ne$
learning>
v -> @n order to de%elop deep understanding as opposed to ?no$ledge and recall of
facts there has to be an ele#ent of applying the learning to ne$ situations>
v K> There has to be a sense of purpose $ith $hich the student can identify and to
$hich she or he can relate>
Please pause at this point and consider the rele%ance of points 1 to K to your learning
on this course> +re any points #ore i#portant that the others= 'o your pupils learn
best in this $ay= @s there anything here that $ill assist your science teaching in
school=
1.1
+ccording to 1uddoc? (1<<1 p 3.K) ?eeping diaries and journals isC Jthe "ost
o!vious (ay of introducing reflectionIcritical consciousness into (initial) teacher
education %J There is also great e#phasisC at all le%els of teacher educationC to
de%elop the teacher as a |reflecti%e practitionerZC $ith #any boo?s on the subject>
(See Pollard 1<<K for e3a#ple)>
Ahat then should you $riteC and ho$ can this be structured= @ suggest the headings
belo$ #ight help at first but of course you can $rite #uch #ore freely than this if
you find the headings too #uch of a constraint> They are based on a paper presented at
a recent conference on teacher training in pri#ary science (1yan 1<<K)> There #ay
%ery $ell be o%erlap bet$een the points>
v 'ate& topic& su##ary of the ?ey points $hich $ere presented>
v Ahat ne$ learning ca#e out of the sessions for #e=
v Aas this the #ost effecti%e $ay of helping #e to learn= @f it $asC $hy= @f it
$asnFt effecti%eC $hat $ould ha%e been a better $ay of helping #e to learn=
v Ahat )uestions or challenges re#ain based on $hat @ ha%e studied today=
v Ahat $ere #y personal reactions to the conte3tC contentC teaching strategiesC li?esC
disli?es etc>=
v Ahich ideas particularly interested #e= Ahy $as this= Ahich ideas did @ not find
interesting= Ahy $as this= Ahich ideas did @ find difficult= Ahy did @ find these
hard=
v Ahat $ill @ need to study ne3t= Ahat $ill be the best $ay of doing this= Ho$ $ill
@ ?no$ that @ ha%e achie%ed so#ething=
)eferences for this sectionZ
@#pro%ing Student 9earning ProjectC 1<<.C Lutco"es #eport) 53fordC 53ford "entre
for Staff 'e%elop#ent>
PollardC +>C 1<<KC #eflective teaching in the pri"ary school% C 9ondonC "assell
EducationC Third Edition>
1uddoc?C *>C 1<<1C |The language of consciousness and the landscape of actionsD
tensions in teacher education>| 3ritish Educational #esearch 5ournal) *6C(!)C 31<
33!>
1yanC ">C 1<<KC |'iary $riting in initial teacher education> |Third Su""er
Conference for Teacher Education in Pri"ary Science) 'urha#C 0ni%ersity of
'urha#>
1..
Tas' 3 ;hat are your >ie(s about the nature of science<
The purpose of this tas? is for you to e3plore your o$n and other peopleFs ideas about
the nature of scienceC and also the nature of technology> 'o historical studies help our
understanding of these issues=
Aor? $ith t$o or three other teachers and decide if you agree or disagree $ith the
state#ents belo$> Try to co#e to a single decision $ithin your groupC but you
disagree a#ong yoursel%esC then put FundecidedF>
1>Science is o!jective) capa!le of yielding ulti"ate truths) and is concerned (ith proving
things% 2t has a defined and uni$ue su!ject "atter) uni$ue "ethods and is value-free% ()uoted
in Harlen 1<<.)
.>Science is !uilt up (ith facts as a house is (ith stones% 3ut a collection of facts is no "ore a
science than a heap of stones is a house% (*>H> PoincarG 1;;B)>
3>Science is nothing !ut trained co""on sense 0 and its "ethods differ only fro" co""on
sense only so far as the "anner in (hich a guards"an4s cut and thrust differs fro" the (ay in
(hich a savage (ields his clu! (T>H>Hu3ley 1;.B<B)
!> .acts are stupid until !rought into connection (ith so"e general la(> (9ouis +gassiM
1;/KK3)
B> Science searches for relations (hich are thought to e*ist independently of the searching
individual% (+> Einstein 1;K<1<BB)
-> 2t is a capital "ista+e to theorise !efore one has data% 2nsensi!ly one !egins to t(ist facts
to suit theories instead of theories to suit facts% ( Sherloc? Hol#es)
K> 'ny theory is al(ays provisional in the sense that it is only a hypothesis% Mou can never
prove it% &o "atter ho( "any ti"es the results of e*peri"ent agree (ith so"e theory you can
never !e sure that the ne*t ti"e the result (ill not contradict the theory% Ln the other hand)
you can disprove a theory !y finding even a single o!servation that disagrees (ith the
predictions of the theory% ( Stephen Ha$?ing 1<;;)
;> The !elief that science proceeds fro" o!servation to theory is so (idely held that "y denial
of it is often "et (ith incredulity ( 2arl Popper)
<> Surveying the e*peri"ental literature 0"a+es one suspect that a paradig" ( a theory) is
pre-re$uisite to perception itself% (Tho#as 2uhn)
1/% .irst you guess% 0%%this is the "ost i"portant step% Then you co"pute the conse$uences%
Co"pare the conse$uences to e*perience% 2f it disagrees (ith e*perience) the guess is (rong%
2n that si"ple state"ent is the +ey to science% 2t doesn4t "atter ho( !eautiful your guess is) or
ho( s"art you are or (hat your na"e is% 2f it disagrees (ith e*perience) it4s (rong% That4s
all there is to it%(1ichard (eyn#an)
1.3
Tas' 3 EYprimer >os $oints de 2ue Sur 8a .ature de la Science
9e but de ce tra%ail est d6e3plorer %os idGes et celles d6autres personnes sur la nature
de la scienceC autant )ue la nature de la technologie> Estce )ue les Gtudes histori)ues
aidentelles notre co#prGhension de ces sujets=S R O
"ollaboreM a%ec deu3 or trois autres professeurs pour dGcider si %ous etes d6accord
a%ec les phrases sui%antes> (aites de %otre #ieu3 d6arri%er Q une decision unani#e
dans %otre groupeC #ais si %ous n6Rtes pas d6accord #etteM si#ple#ent JindGcis6>
8% <a science est entiDre"ent o!jective% elle est capa!le de donner des vEritEs definitives) et s?occupe
de preuver des thDses% Elle s?occupe d?une discipline uni$ue et prEcise) a des "Ethodes uni$ues et
les valeurs ne la "odifient pas
% ( cite de Harlen 8::N)
N% <a science est construite de faits co""e on construit une "aison de pierres% 7ais une collection
de faits n?est plus la science $u?un tas de pierres est une "aison%
(5%H%Poincare 8BBH)
O% <a science n?est $ue du !on sens !ien dressE%%%et ces "Ethodes se distingue seule"ent du !ons sens
dans la "esure $ue le "anie"ent ha!ile de l?epEe se distingue du sauvage avec sa "atra$ue%
(T%H%Hu*ley 8BNH-:H)

P% <es faits ne servent a rien avant d?Qtre liEs par une rDgle gEnDrale
%(<ouis 'gassiA 8B;9-9O)
H% <a science se "et a la recherche des rapports $u?on croit e*ister independa""ent de l?individu
$ui les cherche%
('% Einstein 8B9:-8:HH)
R% 2l est une erreur fonda"entale d?Ela!orer une theorie avant de se doter des faits% 2nsensi!le"ent)
on finit par changer les faits pour soutenir la thEorie au lieu d?Ela!orer la thEorie fondEe sur les
faits%
( Sherloc+ Hol"es)
9% ,ne thEorie est toujours provisionelle dans la "esure $ue ce n?est $u?une hypothDse% Ln ne peut la
prouver ja"ais% 7e"e si a cha$ue fois $ue les rEsultats d?une e*pErience concordent avec une
thEorie $uelcon$ue) on ne peut ja"ais Qtre sur $ue la prochaine fois les rEsultats ne la contradira
pas% En revanche) on peut rEfuter une thEorie en trouvant une seule o!servation $ui ne correspond
pas au* prEdictions de cette thEorie%
( Stephen Ha(+ing 8:BB)
B% <?opinion $ue la science procDde de l?o!servation a la thEorie est si universelle"ent acceptE $ue
"a dEnEgation de cette opinion provo$ue souvent des rEactions incredules%
( -arl Popper)
:% En passant en revue la litErature e*peri"entale%%% se fait soupSonner $u?un paradig"e (une
thEorie) est indispensa!le pour la perception elle-"e"e
%(Tho"as -uhn)
8;% 'u dE!ut) on divine%%% voila la pre"iDre chose a faire% Ensuite on calcule les consE$uences% Ln
co"pare les consE$uences a l?e*pErience% Si l?un ne s?accorde pas a l?autre) la conjecture n?est
pas !onne% Cette dEclaration contient la clE de la science% Peu i"porte si votre conjecture est
!elle) ou si vous etes tres intElligent) ou si vous etes !ien connu% Si la conjecture ne s?accorde pas
a l?e*pErience) elle a tort% il n?y a plus $ue ca dans l?affaire%
(#ichard .eyn"an)
1.!
-nit 7 )esources and information
There are #any sources of infor#ation for teaching history of science and technology
and in this unit they ha%e been arranged under been arranged under se%en #ain
headings> There are suggestions $hich lin? in $ith #any countries in EuropeC and
there are so#e e3cellent resources a%ailable fro# other parts of the $orld tooC
especially 0S+ and +ustralia>
The purpose of this study unit is
to gi%e you so#e useful contacts and resources to help you to teach history of
science and technology to your pupils>
Ae all need #ore contacts so the tas?s in this unit in%ite you to let the rest of us ?no$
by e#ail andEor by 4erlin us ?no$ of any #ore resources you ha%e found>
Societies and teachersc organisations
There are #any of these and if you ha%e internet access then bro$sing so#e of the
$ebsites belo$ can pro%ide so#e interesting resources> +lternati%ely you can $rite to
the society or association concerned>
British Society for the History of Science
(httpDEE$$$>#an>ac>u?EScienceEngineeringE"HST4EbshsEbshs>ht#)
BSHS E3ecuti%e SecretaryC 31 High StreetC Stanford in the ,aleC (aringdonC 53on
S7K ;9HC 02>
Telephone and (a3D (s!!) 13-K K1;<-3
E#ailD bshshide3>de#on>co>u?
This society has an education section and you can find out #ore about resources for
HST teaching fro# the E3ecuti%e Secretary> There are also details at the SocietyFs
$ebsite of you clic? on FEducation SectionF> Aithin this there is a site called
FHu#anity in School ScienceF $hich is a discussion foru# as $ell as gi%ing #ore
details of resources for teaching HST>
+ssociation for Science Education
httpDEE$$$>ase>org>u?E
+SE C "ollege 9aneC HatfieldC Herts>+9 1/ <++ 02
Tel> (s!!) 1K/K .;3///
(a3 (s!!) 1K/K .--B3.
This is the largest subject teacher organisation in the 02 and it has a publications
depart#ent $hich produces #any resources for teaching HST> There are #ore details
in the publications in the Boo?s and *ournal +rticles sections belo$> @f you %isit the
$ebsite you can order the publications online>
SociGtG franSaise d6histoire des sciences et des techni)ues (S(HST)
httpDEE$$$rc>obsaMur>frEcergaEhdsnEsfhst>ht#l
S(HSTC B rue de ,ertboisC KB1!1 Paris cede3 /3
1.B
9a sociGtG regroupe des chercheurs en GpistG#ologie et en histoire des sciences et des
techni)ues et des enseignants du supGrieur et du secondaire> 9a pro#otion de
l6enseigne#ent de l6HST est un de ses objectifs> 0ne des sessions du congrOs )u6elle
organise Q 9ille du .! au .K #ai .//1 porte sur l6enseigne#ent de l6HST (%oir
S(HST>.//1free>fr)>
0nion des Physiciens (0'P)
httpDEE$$$>cna#>frEheberge#entEudp
"rGGe en 1</- pour rGpondre Q la de#ande des professeurs de physi)ue et de chi#ieC
cette association professionnelle estC depuisC un partenaire i#portant dans
l6Glaboration des rGfor#es dans ces deu3 disciplines> Son Bulletin #ensuel publieC
entre autresC des articles d6HST adaptGs Q l6enseigne#ent secondaire>
0'PC !! boule%ard Saint4ichelC KB.K/ Paris cede3 /->
Tas'
Please contact Bert Sorsby (b>d>sorsbyhull>ac>u? or %ia 4erlin) or 'anielle (au)ue
(danielle>fau)uestanislas>fr or %ia 4erlin)if you ha%e any #ore you $ould li?e to add>
The details $ill beincluded in 4erlin>
Boo's
There are t$o #ain types of boo?s for history of science and technology> 5ne sort
gi%es infor#ation about HST itselfC and there are lots of these $hich co%er all le%els
of e3pertise and all ranges of interests> Lou $ill find e3a#ples of these in the
Bibliography section at the end of this training #anual>>
The other sort of boo? deals $ith issues relating to the pedagogy of HSTC and these
are #uch s#aller in nu#ber>
+s $ell as localC regional and national librariesC if you ha%e access to the internetC
then #any boo?shops no$ ha%e online catalogues $hich are %ery useful> There are
also online boo?sale co#panies such as +#aMon (see httpDEE$$$>a#aMon>co>u? and loo?
under FScience and 7atureF)>$hich can gi%e details of recent boo?s on history of
+n i#portant resource for HST in schools is P1Ete3t Publishing> This is a specialist
#ail order ser%ice for boo?s rele%ant to history of science and technology and these
area a%ailable at discount prices> The address isD
P1Ete3t PublishingC Boston HouseC TB+" Business "entreC 8ro%e Technology Par?C
Aantage 5N1. <(( 02 Tel (s!!) 1.3B ..K.3- e#ail prete3tpubaol>co#
D
There are a nu#ber of publishers too such as 'orling 2indersleyC Blac?$ells and
1outledgeC $ho specialise in boo?s for teaching purposesC and the +ssociation for
Science Education also publishes boo?s for teaching HSTC>
See for e3a#pleD
Solo#onC * (1<<K) Pri"ary Technology Stories ,sing Stories fro" History%
HatfieldD+ssociation for Science Education
1.-
|1eal technology has changed the $ays in $hich $e li%e> Ho$ can $e sho$
our pupils that= Aith these ne$ resources pri#ary teachers can learn #ore
about technology and plan $or? to fit in $ith historyC through schoolbased
@7SET> The stories are about girls and boys in the ti#es of 2S. History units
$ho get e3cited about ne$ technologyD ha##oc?s for the na%yC rail$ay
signalC carsCclay potsC a $ater $heel for grinding cornC a printing pressC a
$or?ing greenhouse and>>>>>lots #orew There are teachersF notes for each
projectC the cost of #aterials is #ini#al but #a?ing s?ills for $ood and
plasticC as $ell as planning and designing s?ills C are learnt $ith e%ery unit>|
+SE (1<<<) 8;; Mears of #adiu" HatfieldD+ssociation for Science Education
|@n 1;<;C 4arie "urie disco%ered t$o ne$ ele#entsC the secondC radiu#C
being by far the #ost radioacti%e ele#ent e%er ?no$n> This pac?ageC $ritten
by #e#bers of the British Society for the History of ScienceC celebrates 4arie
"urieC her $or?C and the subse)uent de%elop#ent of the science and industry
of radioche#istry> +i#ed at pupils fro# age 1! up$ardsC the units in this pac?
do not for# a continuous story> Each unit can stand aloneC pro%iding a
historical conte3tC )uestions and acti%ities teachers are encouraged to select
the #aterials for their o$n uses>|
+SE (1<<K) Henri 3ec$uerel and the 6iscovery of #adioactivity HatfieldD+ssociation
for Science Education
|To celebrate the centenary of the disco%ery of radioacti%ity by Henri
Bec)uerel in 1;<-C +SE has produced a S+T@Sstyle boo? for 2ey Stage !
containing units onD history and disco%ery of radioacti%ity& uses of radioacti%e
substances& radioacti%ity in archaeology & radon& radioacti%ity and geologyC the
age of the earthC plate tectonics>|
-------------------------------------------------------------
9es docu#ents i#pri#Gs en langue franSaise dont on dispose aujourd6hui sont
no#breu3> 'epuis %ingt ansC des articles dans des re%ues professionnellesC des actes
de collo)ues puis des li%res pGdagogi)ues prGsentant des e3e#ples directe#ent
applicables en classeC offre un panel de choi3> 9a S(HST Gdite aussi deu3
#onographies cha)ue annGe>
7ous citerons les plus rGcents d6abord puis nous ajouterons )uel)ues titres plus
anciens )ui rendent encore de grands ser%ices>
1os#orducC * (dir>)C(1<<K)Histoire des sciences et des techni$uesC actes du plan
national de for#ation des professeursC #ai 1<<-C 4orgatC publiG par le "entre
1Ggional de 'ocu#entation pGdagogi)ue ("1'P) de BretagneC 1<<KC
crdp3B#ail>dotco#>fr
> "et ou%rage regroupe plusieurs Gtudes de cas d6application de l6HST en
classe dans les diffGrentes disciplines scientifi)ues>
@d>C Chronologie des sciences et des techni$uesC publiG par "1'P de BretagneC 1<<K>
"e petit li%re co#plOte le prGcGdent ou%rage en donnant des conseils de
#Gthode pour aborder l6HST> @l donne une trOs i#portante bibliographie et une
chronologie #ettant en parallOle les sciencesC les techni)ues et les autres
1.K
G%Gne#ents )ui ont #ar)uG la sociGtG> TrOs facile d6e#ploiC ce petit li%re rend
de grands ser%ices>
@d>C <?histoire des sciencesC collection U les enjeu3 du systO#e Gducatif VC "7'P E
HachetteC !3 )uai de 8renelleC KB
"et ou%rage dGfinit les objets et les #Gthodes de l6histoire des sciences> @l place
aussi les sciences et les techni)ues dans la sociGtG et fournit une abondante
bibliographie>
+ndriesC B et BeigbederC @ (1<<3)> <a culture scientifi$ue et techni$ue pour les
professeurs des EcolesC collection U les enjeu3 du systO#e Gducatif VC "7'P E
HachetteC !3 )uai de 8renelleC KB
Scheidec?er"he%allierC 4 et 9aporte)8 (1<<<)> <a dE"arche de "odElisation en
chi"ieC publiG par EllipsesC 3. rue BargueC KBK!/ Paris cede3 1BC
'es te3tes histori)ues sont e3ploitGs selon un processus didacti)ue per#ettant
de diffGrencier le cha#p e3pGri#ental et le cha#p conceptuel>
Sonne%illeC 4 et (au)ueC ' (1<<K)> <a gravitationC ParisD "entre 7ational de
'ocu#entation Pedagogi)ue>
Te3tes originau3 de "opernic Q EinsteinC a%ec introductionC co##entaires et
)uestions destinGes au3 GlO%es du lycGe sur le thO#e de la gra%itation>
5n peut rappeler les ou%rages sui%ants D
+udigierC ( et (illonC P (dir>)C (1<<1) Enseigner l?histoire des sciences et des
techni$ues) une approche pluridiscipinaireC publiG par l6@71PC .< rue d60l#C KB.3/
Paris cede3 /BC
@l s6agit du co#pte rendu et de l6analyse d6une e3pGrience #enGe par plusieurs
professeurs de disciplines diffGrentes pour introduire l6HST en classe>
+ssociaMione per l6insegna#ento della (isicaC(1<<B) <a fisica nella scuolaC U 9a
storia della fisica nella didattica della fisica VC )uaderno BC anno NN,@@@C sup> al n>.C
aprile8iugno >
+u plan internationalC le #ou%e#ent d6introduction de l6enseigne#ent de
l6HST dans l6enseigne#ent secondaire en Europe a GtG #is en %aleur par le
collo)ue de Pa%ie en 1<;3> ,oir les rGfGrences des actes des collo)ues )ui ont
sui%i celuiciC l6histoire du #ou%e#ent et la bibliographie correspondante dans
l6article de (abio Be%ilac)ua et Enrico 8iannettoC U 9a storia della fisica e la
didattica delle fisicaC un6esperienMa europea VC p> -1-> "e nu#Gro spGcial de
<a fisica nella scuola) publiG par l6association professionnelle italienneC est
entiOre#ent consacrG Q l6enseigne#ent de l6histoire de la physi)ue>
('iparte#ento di (isica dell60ni%ersitQC %ia "a#pi .13E+C !11//C 4odenaC
@talie>
NosG +> (raga (ed>)C (1<<K) Ciencias) educaciTn e historia) 'ctas > Si"posio de
Historia e Ensino das CienciasC Publicaci_ns do Se#inario de Estudos 8alegosC C -.-
pages>
1.;
@l s6agit des actes d6un trOs i#portant collo)ue )ui s6est dGroulG Q ,igoC en
EspagneC en septe#bre 1<
ruel)ues ou%rages adaptGs Q la for#ationC personnelle et gGnGrale en HSTC des
enseignants D
Broc?CA H (1<<.) (The .ontana history of Che"istryC >
7orthC * (1<<!) The .ontana history of 'strono"y and Cos"ologyC
1os#orducC * (dir>)C(1<;K) Histoire de la physi$ueC t> 1C 1<;K et *eanPaul 4athieu
(coord>)C t>.C 1<<1C Gd> 9a%oisierC Tec p 'oc>
Tas'
[ournal !rticles
4any of the #ore acade#ic journals in HST are %ery scholarly indeed and just do not
relate to $or?ing $ith pupils and students in classroo#s> @t is better to loo? through
the journals of science teacher organisations to find articles $hich relate closely to
teaching HST in schools> 'etails of so#e useful journals are gi%en belo$C $ith a fe$
e3a#ples of articles $hich #ay be of interest for teachers>
School Science 1e%ie$>
The online inde3 for this is atD
httpDEE$$$>ase>org>u?EcgibinEdb#anEdb>cgi=db~ssrpuid~default
1ecent articles includeD
S$ainC P>+>C (1<<<) School Science #evie( ;1 (.<!) ;<<!C FBernard "urtois
"he#istry and ?elp>F
Stoc?C *>T>C(1<<<) School Science #evie( ;1 (.<!)<B1//C FThe history and
so#e applications of coulo#etry>F
Brea?through
This is a photocopiable resource $hich is published three ti#es a year and is
dedicated to history of science and technology in school teaching> 1ecent articles
includeD
Pascal and at#ospheric pressure
7e$lands and the periodic table
,oltaFs Pile
Prof> BlondlotFs ne$ diso%ery
Aillia# Aithering
@t is a%ailable fro# D
P1Ete3t PublishingC Boston HouseC TB+" Business "entreC 8ro%e Technollgy Par?C
Aantage 5N1. <(( 02 Tel (s!!) 1.3B ..K.3- e#ail prete3tpubaol>co#
Tas'
1.<
MuseumsX 8ibraries and ;orld ;ide ;eb 8in's
There are thousands of #useu#s across Europe and the $ebsites and brief
descriptions of just a fe$ of these are gi%en belo$> @f you are thin?ing about a %isit to
a #useu# $ith your students then contact the #useu# $ell ahead of your %isit to see
$hat resources they ha%e a%ailable> 9arger #useu#s $ill ha%e education officers $ho
#ay be able to teach your students for you in the #useu# galleries or offer handson
e3periences in the pri#ary #useu# classroo#s> +l#ost all $ill ha%e $or?sheets and
infor#ation pac?s $hich relate to their collections so it is a good idea to see $hat is
a%ailable before you ta?e a group on a %isit>
The Science 4useu#C 9ondon
(httpDEE$$$>n#si>ac>u?E$elco#e>ht#l)
This is one of the great #useu#s for history of science and technology> There
are original object $hich relate to all aspects of science and technology and
the $ebsite is of interest too>
The Aellco#e 4useu# and 9ibraryC 9ondonC 02
httpDEE$$$>$ellco#e>ac>u?EenE1Elib>ht#l
This is an e3cellent resource centre and $ebsite for studies in the history of
#edicine>
4anchester 4useu# of Science and @ndustryC 4anchesterC 02
httpDEE$$$>#si#>org>u?E
This is one of the largest science and technology #useu#s in England $ith
i#portant collections fro# all areas of science and technology>
The 4ary 1ose 4useu# Ports#outh 02
httpDEE$$$>#aryrose>orgE
This specialist #useu# displays 2ing Henry ,@@@Fs $arshipC $hich $as sun?
in the "hannel in 1B!3> The $ebsite has so#e e3cellent ideas for $or? $hich
can be done $ith children> on this topic>

The ;orld ;ide ;eb
There are thousands of $ebsites on the internetC and if you are not yet online so#e
i#portant resources $ill not be a%ailable to you and your pupils>> Here is a s#all
selection of so#e of the #ore rele%ant ones and there are #ore lin?s in the 4erlin
1esource "entre (See Study 0nit B)
The 8alileo Project
httpDEEes>rice>eduEESEhu#socE8alileoEinde3>ht#l
This is an e3cellent $ebsite to generate resources and collect infor#ation for
teaching about 8alileoC his disco%eries and his scientific thin?ing> There are
pri#ary source lin?s too $ith the correspondence fro# his daughter>
The History of Teleco##unications
httpDEE$$$>acclar?e>co>u?Eshc>ht#l
This site is part of the +rthur "> "lar?e (oundation and pro%ides a really
useful ti#eline $hich traces de%elop#ents in all aspects of
teleco##unications>
13/
AAA ,irtual 9ibrary for the History of ScienceC Technology and 4edicine
httpDEE$$$>asap>uni#elb>edu>auEhst#Ehst##ap>ht#
This is a site $hich pro%ides lin?s to hundreds of other HST sites> @t also lin?s
$ith sites for history of #edicine and history of #athe#atics too>
History of 4athe#atics (St +ndre$s 0ni%ersityC Scotland)
httpDEE$$$groups>dcs>stand>ac>u?EhistoryEHistoryTopics>ht#l
This site has interesting articles on topics not just relating to history of
#athe#atics> (or e3a#ple there are articles on longitude and cos#ology $ith
so#e e3cellentC e3tensi%e lin?s #ade to other sites too>
Pri#ary Historical 'ocu#ents fro# Aestern Europe
httpDEElibrary>byu>eduErdhEeurodocsEho#epage>ht#l
+lthough #any of the lin?s here are not directly concerned $ith HSTC it is
good to ha%e these pri#ary sources a%ailable for study by students>
"harles 'ar$inFs "orrespondence
httpDEE$$$>lib>ca#>ac>u?E'epart#entsE'ar$inE
This $ebsite is one of the outco#es of the 'ar$in "orrespondence Project
and it has published all the letters to and fro# this i#portant scientist>
SHiPS 1esources for teachers>
httpDEE$$$1>u#n>eduEshipsE
This +#erican site gi%es so#e useful ideas and contacts for teaching history
of science and technology>
The @nternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
httpDEE$$$>ut#>eduEresearchEiepE
+t this %ery large site you can find out details of the li%es and thoughts of the
philosophers> There is an e3cellent inde3 and a #ost useful ti#eline>
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Copernic est un #oteur de recherche )ui effectue une recherche systG#ati)ue dans
tous les autres sites> @l per#et de sGlectionner trOs rapide#ent les sites internet en
langue franSaise selon des #ots clGs choisis et de tGlGcharger les listes obtenues D
1echerche 7o#bre total de rGponses Sites retenus par#i les plus
consultGs
4usGes d6histoire des
sciences et des techni)ues
11- -
BibliothO)ues d6histoire des
sciences et des techni)ues
1-B -
Histoire des
tGlGco##unications
BK !
5n pourrait sGlectionner selon d6autres critOres de recherche et sur d6autres thO#es D
histoire des transportsC histoires des co##unicationsC na%itation astrono#i)ueC etc>
1etenons donc D
131
Mus@es
4usGes scientifi)ues de Belgi)ue
httpDEE$$$>ulb>ac>beEassocEjsbEgenialE#usee>ht#
.E%olution des sciences et des techni)ues en Aallonie
httpDEE$$$>$allonieenligne>netE$alloniehistoireEhistecono#socialeDchap<.>ht#
34usGu# d6histoire naturelle de 9a 1ochelle
httpDEE$$$>ac>poitiers>frEpedagoE#issionsE#aacEser%eduE#usehn1K>ht#
!"itG des sciences Q Paris
httpDEE$$$>citesciences>frEsciences#usee>ht#
B4usGe des +rts et #Gtiers
httpDEE$$$>cna#>frE#useu#Ere%ueErefEr1Ba/3>ht#l
-+ssociation pour l6histoire des che#ins de fer en (rance
httpDEE$$$>trainsfr>orgEahicfE
BibliothO)ues d6histoire des sciences
11Gseau des bibliothO)ues> Strasbourg
httpDEE$$$scdulp>ustrasbg>frEreseaubibEhstEdochst>ht#l
."atalogue collectif d6histoire des sciences et des techni)ues> 8renoble
httpDEEdodge>up#fgrenoble>frD;//1EfraEthe#esEhis>ht#l
3Site de la BibliothO)ue de (rance
httpDEE$$$>bnf>fr
!BibliothO)ues des sciences > 1e%ues d6histoire des sciences
httpDEE$$$scdulp>ustrasbg>frEreseaubibEhstEre%ues>ht#l
BPGriodi)ues analysGs
httpDEE$$$>inist&frEcou%franEsciht#lElisteperio>ht#l
-BibliothO)ue du 4usGe d6histoire des sciences de 8GnO%e
httpDEE$$$>unige>chEbiblioErepertoireEpartB->ht#l
Histoire des tGlGco##unications
1Histoire des tGlGco##unications
httpDEE$$$>franceteleco#>frE%franceEaproposEgrphistt>ht#
.Petite histoire des tGlGco##unications
httpDEE$$$#o>enstbretagne>frEper#anentEduflotEhistoireEhistoire>ht#l
3'ossiers tGlGco##unications re%ue Pour la Science .!< juin 1<<;
httpDEE$$$>pourlascience>co#Enu#erosEpls.!;Eart1>ht#
!9e tGlGgraphe de "laude "happe
httpDEE$$$ic.>uni%le#ans>frEliu#EchappeEteleco#unications>ht#l
Tas'
Contact an ceYpertc
@t is said that $e are only three telephone calls a$ay fro# the $ord e3pert in any
subject> There #ight %ery $ell be so#eone in your local uni%ersity or college $ho has
special interests in a particular area of history of science and technology> "ertainly
libraries and regional infor#ation centresC including tourist offices can often help $ith
#ore details of HST in a particular area>
'anielle (au)ue Bert Sorsby
Paris (rance Hull 02
*uly .//.
13.
Short Bibliography
These and other boo?s $ill be a%ailable during the HST "ourse The first one (j) is
particularly i#portant>
j 8ood#anC '> and 1ussellC "> (eds>) (1<<1) The #ise of Scientific Europe 8H;;-
8B;;% 9ondonD Hodder and Stoughton Educational>
'ebruC "> (ed) (1<<<)C History of Science and Technology in Education and Training
in Europe "onference Strasbourg .B.- *une 1<<;> 9u3e#bourgD European
"o##unities>
Sonne%illeC 4> et >(au)ueC '> (1<<K) <a =ravitation% ParisD "entre 7ational de
'ocu#entation Pedagogi)ue>
SorsbyC B (.///) JThe @rresistible 1ise of the 7ature of Science in Science "urricula6>
in SorensenC P and SearsC * ( ed>) Current 2ssues in Science Education% 9ondonD
1outledge
133

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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education The HST Project

'e%eloping a HST "urriculu# $ith a European di#ension>

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