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International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences, 2(8), pp.

289-300, 2014
Available online at http://www.ijsrpub.com/ijsres
ISSN: 2322-4983; 2014 IJSRPUB
http://dx.doi.org/10.12983/ijsres-2014-p0289-0300


289
Full Length Research Paper

Floristic And Microbial Diversity In Different Coal Mine Overburdens And Adjacent
Natural Forest Of Chhattisgarh, India

Krishna Kumar Chandra

Associate Professor, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Environmental Sciences, Guru Ghasidas Central University,
Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh- 495009, India; Email: kkckvk@gmail.com

Received 15 April 2014; Accepted 12 July 2014

Abstract. In the present study, percent AMF (Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi) colonization and spore density in different
overburden vegetations and in natural forest was evaluated to study the pattern of recovery of vegetation at overburdens. Total
eight forest species were planted on coal mine overburdens aged 2, 3 and 5 years located in nearby areas of Korba, India.
Sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo), Peltaphorum (Peltaphorum ferrugineum) and Bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) were best in
harboring highest number of AMF. The mean root colonization in tree species was increased 61.98% in 3 years and 110.23%
in 5 years compared with the species of 2 year. The dominant AMF were Acaulospora scrobiculata and Rhizophagus
irregularis in 2 year overburdens and Funneliformis mosseae, Gigaspora and Sclerocystis in older overburdens and forest soil.
The diversity index of AMF was found 1.80, 2.14 and 2.49 in 2, 3 and 5 year overburdens respectively while the diversity
index of other soil fungi was found 1.61 in 2 years, 1.73 in 3 year and 2.10 in 5 year aged of overburdens compared to natural
forest (2.21). Total 11, 25 and 29 ground species were recorded from 2, 3, 5 year overburden respectively and 25 species from
the site of natural forest. The root colonization in ground vegetation was found 28.03%, 31.86% and 39.43% in 2, 3 and 5 year
old re-vegetated overburden respectively in comparison to natural forest (29.08%). The status of soil pH and phosphorus was
also ameliorated in older dumps.

Keywords: AMF, Overburden, Re-vegetation, Succession, Diversity.

1. INTRODUCTION

Mining is a vital activity to the development and
economic growth of developing countries like India.
The products of the mining sector are not only
essential for developmental activities and many
industrial processes, but are also often a valuable
source of foreign exchange earnings (GOI, 2011).
Mining operations involves loss of forest tree species
and ground vegetation, loss of top soil, disturbance of
soil microbial population and creation of waste tailing
overburden. Rehabilitation and reclamation of such
disturbed ecosystems is a difficult task as because
overburden spoils are initially deficient in nutrients
and microbial population (Visser et al., 1979).
Overburden soil is often massive, sandy in texture,
lacking in organic carbon and poor water-holding
capacity. The biological restoration is an only
technique to rejuvenate such sites. Understanding
such ecosystem including the process of primary and
secondary succession may help in the ecological
restoration of these sites (Thompson et al., 1984).
A major component of the soil microbial
community is a group of fungi that form a symbiotic
association with the roots of most terrestrial plants
known as AMF (Brundett, 1991). AMF plays a
significant role in successful rehabilitations of many
stress areas having nutrient deficiencies, soil, water
and air pollutions and plantations by increasing the
absorption of phosphorus and some micronutrients
and also by increasing the performance of pioneer
plants. AMF provide larger network of mycelium
(Jasper et al., 1992) which enable and stimulate host
plant to essential minerals and water absorption
(Jakobson, 1995), growth hormones (Barea and
Azcon-Anguilar, 1982), protect from various
pathogens and compensation of pH and toxicity of
heavy metal (Sylvia and Williams, 1990).
Allen and Allen (1980) reported that the rate of
plant succession on a disturbed site depend on the rate
at which AMF fungal inoculums increase with time.
It is also established that AMF inoculums levels are
inherently important in the establishment and
maintenance of healthy plant community especially
when the conditions are unfavorable for plant
development. The development of microbial
community and colonization of primary vegetation are
dependents on tree species chosen for restoration.
Chandra
Floristic And Microbial Diversity In Different Coal Mine Overburdens And Adjacent Natural Forest Of Chhattisgarh,
India
290
AMF forms associations with the tree and support the
development of root systems and intake of water and
nutrients which increase the viability of plants and
their resistance to diseases (Kernaghan et al., 2002). It
is also established that all the trees does not form
equal rate of symbiosis but this is determined by
interaction between both the component for the
acquisition of photosynthetes and nutrients
particularly phosphorus (Marshner and Dell, 1994).
Only few tree species which are native, fast growing
and mycotrophic performs better who have additional
ability to interact with AMF, develops root system
easier, withstand under adverse condition mined
overburden (Dutta and Agrawal, 2002).
AMF are most beneficial in restoration ecosystems
of many degraded areas where the nutrients are
deficient, scarce in soil moisture, unfavorable pH, and
the plants capable of forming symbiosis is high.
These fungi can make important contribution to the
success of re-vegetation by increasing the supply of
nutrient and water via mycelium network, maintaining
ground diversity by improving the soil nutrient status
however, succession increases the proportion of
specialists within the community and decreases the
number of interactions (Bennett, 2013). The
restoration techniques should focus on the planting of
suitable tree species which not only establish easily on
mined overburden but also allow the development of
other ground flora and microbes to optimize the
biological recovery as earliest with the amelioration of
soil nutrient status.
The restoration of degraded areas now has a
worldwide interest but the available information on
interaction of AMF in relation to the planted tree
species and other ground vegetation is still inadequate.
Although the current period is characterized by strong
attempts to attenuate and revitalize mining heaps,
most of the impacted areas have not yet been revived.
This needs study and experiment on the pattern of
species composition and AMF status in different
plants on overburden dumps to understand the
interaction and associations between the plant species
and AMF. Therefore, present study was conducted to
study the development of AMF in tree species planted
and natural flora to evaluate the composition, diversity
index of vegetation and AMF in different mined
overburdens after restoration in comparison to the
adjacent degraded Sal (Shorea robusta L.) forest to
understand the rate of recovery after mining.

2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

2.1. Study site

The study sites are located within 6 km from South
Eastern Coal Field Limited, Korba, Chhattisgarh,
India and lie between 83
0
4632 E longitudes and 22
0

1851 N latitude. The climate of the study site is
tropical with maximum temperature up to 47
0
C
during May-June and minimum up to 7
0
C in January.
Rainy days mainly occur between June to September
with an annual rainfall ranging from 900 to 1170mm.

2.2. Survey of tree species

Forest Development Corporation and South Eastern
Coal Field Limited has jointly affforested the
overburden using tree species viz. Dalbergia sissoo,
Acacia nilotica, Peltophorum ferrugineum, Gmelina
arborea, Dendrocalamus strictus, Acacia
auriculiformis, Albizzia procera, Ailanthus excelsa,
Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Many other species were
also planted at the overburden but aforesaid were
common in all overburdens selected for study. The
species were planted in a block between July to
September at 3m X 3m spacing with 1111density ha
-1
.
In present investigation 3 overburdens reclaimed 2, 3
and 5 year earlier spread each in 10 ha areas were
selected and degraded Sal (Shorea robusta L.) forest
(15 km away from mining site) were treated as control
site.

2.3. Collection of soil and root samples

A systematic survey was made three times namely
August, December and April month to record the
ground flora in different dumps. The map of each
overburden is divided into grid at 50 m apart from the
boundary and marked the points. From each points
(10 x 10m) tree species were counted, identified and 5
composite samples of soil and root were collected (0-
20cm depth) near the trunk of the tree. The points
marked on the overburden were considered as
replications. Total 7 replications were considered in
the study. One kg sample was taken from each place.

2.4. Estimation of AMF Status in roots and Soil

AMF spore was evaluated by wet sieving and
decanting techniques of Gerdemann and Nicolson
(1963). Number of spores and sporocarps in 100g soil
was counted under stereo-microscope. The spores
were mounted in PVLG and identified using the
manual of Schenck and Perez (1990) and Schubler
and Walker (2010). The development of AMF in roots
of tree and ground vegetation was determined as per
Phillips and Hayman (1970). Fine roots of plant were
washed twice and steamed boiled in 10% KOH
solution for 15 minutes then the excess of KOH in
roots was neutralized by using HCL (5%). The roots
were stained with trypan blue 0.01% and examined
under compound microscope for the vesicles,
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences, 2(8), pp. 289-300, 2014
291
arbuscules and hyphae. Other fungal was isolated in
PDA medium using dilution plate techniques and the
relative colonies of the fungus were counted.

Table 1: Development of AMF fungi in rhizosphere of different tree species used for restoration of coal mine overburdens
Plant Species Year of Plantations on Overburden
2 year 3 years 5 Years
Root
colonization
(%)
Spore
Density
(
100g soil
)
Root
colonization
(%)
Spore
Density
(
100g soil
)
Root
colonization
(%)
Spore
Density
(
100g soil
)
Acacia auriculiformis 17.79 59 38.83 95 61.03 192
Acacia nilotica 20.70 68 19.00 119 18.47 145
Albizzia procera 16.10 46 18.25 85 18.26 109
Dalbergia sissoo 28.18 85 44.60 149 63.04 272
Dendrocalamus strictus 26.18 80 39.91 115 43.50 201
Eucalyptus hybrid 11.45 39 30.80 180 39.88 238
Gmelina arborea 12.53 60 22.25 107 22.31 103
Peltophorum ferrugineum 14.00 63 24.30 133 42.35 105
CD P <0.05 2.021 6.55 2.902 13.165 3.224 11.190

Table 2: Distribution of AMF fungi (Number in 100g soil) in reclaimed coal mine overburden soils and natural forest
AMF Species Reclaimed coal mine overburden Natural
Forest 2 Years 3 Years 5 Years
Acaulospora scrobiculata 16 28 18 21
A. delicate - 4 22 -
A. laevis - 2 2 3
A. bireticulata - - 4 -
Ambispora leptoticha 9 3 15 0
Claroideoglomus etunicatum - 2 1 6
Funneliformis mosseae 4 28 19 56
G. aggregatum 3 - 7 12
G. invermaium - - 10 7
G. deserticola 2 8 - -
Glomus sp. A - - 4 3
Glomus sp. B - 3 - 7
Gigaspora rosea - 4 6 14
G. margarita - - 3 19
G. gigantean 2 1 2 8
Rhizophagus irregularis 17 12 46 25
Scutellospora heterogama - 3 1 12
Scutellospora nodosa 1 - 4 9
Sclerocystis microcarpus - 8 11 20
S. pakistanika - - 6 13
S. clavispora 3 3 6 -
Total No. of spore 57 109 187 236

2.5. Analysis of Soil Samples

Soil samples collected during the survey were dried,
sieved and analysed for physic-chemical
characteristics. Nitrogen content was determined by
Auto Kjeltech, 2300, phosphorus as per Jackson
(1973) methods while potassium by flame
photometer. Organic matter content of soil was
estimated by Black (1965) and pH measured from soil
solution at 1: 2.5 soil water ratio by pH meter. Clay
content was measured by hydrometer techniques.

2.6. Study of Plant succession

Quadrates of 1m and 5 m size were laid down for herb
and shrub respectively from the same points, from
where root and soil samples were collected for tree
species. Three quadrates from each point and
21quadrates from each overburden was taken
following identification, counting of species
composition. Root samples from the ground species
were also collected for AMF examination.
Quantitative analysis of density, dominance and
abundance values of the vegetation was determined.
Diversity index of species and fungi were calculated
as per Shannon (1948) and dominance index by
Simpson (1949).
H
Where H= Diversity index, Pi = Fraction of the
entire population made up of species i, s = Number of
species encountered and = Sum from species 1 to
species.


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Floristic And Microbial Diversity In Different Coal Mine Overburdens And Adjacent Natural Forest Of Chhattisgarh,
India
292
2.7. Statistical Analysis

Critical Difference in AMF colonization and spore
density in different tree species occurred in study sites
and correlation between species abundance value and
percentage root colonization was analyzed using SPSS
software.

Table 3: Relative density, frequency and dominance of naturally occurring ground flora in different age of overburdens and
adjacent natural forest
Species Reclaimed coal mine overburdens Natural Forest
2 Years 3 years 5 years
RD
*
RF RX RD RF RX RD RF RX RD RF RX
Alysicarpus monilifer - - - - - - 1.6 4.87 2.05 - - -
Aristida adscendens 6.25 7.14 13.10 2.77 3.50 6.20 11.85 4.87 5.17 - - -
Atylosia scarabaeoides - - - 1.85 3.50 1.52 1.28 3.65 4.73 1.34 3.07 2.56
Blumea lacera 21.25 11.90 5.35 - - - - - - - - -
Borreria hispida - - - 2.77 3.50 7.66 - - - - - -
Cynodon dactylon 7.50 7.14 2.33 12.03 7.01 1.86 7.37 4.87 4.58 2.02 4.61 1.09
Desmodium triflorum - - - 11.11 7.01 4.0 8.97 6.09 3.39 16.16 7.69 3.47
Eclipta prostrate 10.00 11.90 4.62 - - - - - - - - -
Emilia sonchifolia - - - 0.92 1.75 0.37 - - - - - -
Eragrostis viscose - - - - - - - - - 3.70 4.61 0.88
Euphorbia hirta 3.75 7.14 2.28 1.85 3.50 0.44 1.60 4.87 1.07 2.69 4.61 1.42
Evolvulus alsinoides - - - - - - - - - 2.35 1.53 1.67
E. nummularis 11.25 4.76 0.63 3.70 5.26 1.86 4.80 4.87 0.82 6.06 4.61 2.76
Hedyotis sp. - - - 0.92 1.75 0.94 - - - - -
Hydanthus enneaspermus - - - 1.85 3.50 0.74 0.96 2.43 0.72 4.04 4.61 2.43
Mecardonia procumbens - - - - - - 2.24 2.43 0.42 - - -
Mollugo pentaphylla - - - 0.92 1.75 0.23 - - - - - -
Melochia carchorifolia 7.50 11.90 26.25 - - - - - - - - -
Merrimia tridentate - - - - - - 0.32 1.21 1.85 - - -
Pennisetum pedicelatum - - - - - - 3.51 3.65 4.97 - - -
Pennisetum sp. - - - - - - 3.20 2.43 0.53 - - -
Phyllanthus simplex - - - 2.77 1.75 1.15 - - - 7.40 4.61 4.01
Pteris longifolia - - - - - - - - - 0.67 1.53 3.02
P. pellucid - - - - - - - - - 2.69 3.07 1.65
Saccharum munja 12.50 9.52 15.58 16.66 8.77 13.93 7.37 4.87 6.68 - - -
Scrophulariceae sp. - - - 9.25 5.26 10.67 - - - - - -
Sida cordata - - - 0.92 1.75 0.84 0.96 2.43 1.62 - - -
Tridax procumbens 7.50 9.52 6.57 2.77 5.26 6.94 0.96 3.65 3.05 2.35 4.61 2.71
Vernonia cinerea - - - 0.92 1.75 6.10 1.28 3.65 1.58 - - -
Waltheria indica - - - - - - - - - 3.03 4.61 3.83
Zornia gibbosa - - - 2.77 3.50 5.62 0.96 2.43 1.37 1.68 2.61 1.54
Unknown A - - - 4.62 3.50 6.40 1.92 1.21 0.09 - - -
Unknown B - - - - - - 0.96 2.43 0.53 - - -
Unknown C - - - - - - 1.60 3.65 1.06 - - -
SHRUB
Aschynomene indica - - - - - - 0.64 2.43 1.92 - - -
Calotropis procera 6.25 9.52 15.25 2.77 5.26 1.49 0.64 2.43 3.54 3.36 4.61 16.40
Cassia tora - - - 0.92 1.75 0.20 3.30 3.65 0.56 12.97 6.15 3.83
Crotolaria prostrate - - - 3.70 5.26 1.18 - - - 8.75 4.61 4.16
Hemidesmus indicus - - - - - - - - - 1.68 3.07 2.10
Hyptis suaveolens 6.25 9.52 7.89 4.62 5.26 2.74 25.96 6.09 6.62 2.69 3.07 4.11
Indigofera linifolia - - - - - - 0.96 2.43 1.55 - - -
Lantana camera - - - - - - 1.28 2.43 17.99 - - -
Parthenium sp. - - - - - - - - - 2.35 3.07 11.43
Solanum surattense - - - 3.74 5.26 2.98 - - - - - -
Tephrosia purpurea - - - 2.77 3.50 13.83 - - - - - -
Ulna lobata - - - - - - 3.52 3.65 4.97 2.35 4.61 12.36
Woodfordia floribunda - - - - - - - - - 2.35 3.07 3.73
Xanthium strumarium - - - - - - 1.28 3.65 0.46 1.68 3.07 3.58
Zizyphus jujube - - - - - - 1.28 3.65 23.94 - - -
Zylia xylocarpa - - - - - - - - - 4.37 4.61 3.88
Note RD- relative density, RF- Relative frequency, RX- Relative dominance



International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences, 2(8), pp. 289-300, 2014
293
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1. AMF development in tree Rhizosphere

The results of the present study revealed that all the
forest tree species planted in the selected overburden
were colonized by AMF fungi and significantly
differed the rate of root colonization and spore
populations at P<0.05 (Table 1). The higher
percentages of root colonization by AMF were
recorded in D. sissoo, D. strictus and Acacia
auriculiformis species in all the studied overburdens.
AMF colonization of roots increases with increasing
the age of the dump (Fig.1a). The development of
AMF in root is a dynamic process influenced by many
factors including nutrient status of soil particularly P
and the demand of P by tree species as also reported
by Gianinazzi- Pearson et al., (1991). The presence of
infective AMF spores in soil of overburden might also
influence in the AMF colonization resulted in a higher
percentage of root colonization in older dumps
through the improvement in nutrient status and AMF
population. There was an improvement in pH, organic
carbon and phosphorus content (Fig. 1b, 1c and 1d) in
older dumps stimulating the recovery of AMF in soil
and in roots. Dutta and Agrawal (2002) and Kumar et
al. (2009) reported varying status of AMF under
different tree plantations on mined lands and
identified D. sissoo, D. strictus and E. hybrid as an
effective to hold higher number of AMF spores. It was
also reported that the mycotrophic tree species of
family Fabaceae and Poaceae perform better suited in
mined soil due to their ability of nitrogen fixation and
fibrous root system respectively showing more
tolerance to the edaphic conditions of these degraded
areas.
The AMF density near tree roots ranged 39 to 85
spores/100 g soil in 2 year overburdens, from 85-180
spores in 3 year and 103 to 272 spores/100 g soil in 5
year overburdens (Fig. 1e). The mean AMF spore
density was also improved with the increase in age of
overburden due to the improvement in soil conditions
and biomass accumulation propounded by tree species
planted in overburden and also by the primary
colonizers which interacted with AMF fungi for
nutrient uptake and benefits as reported by Jasper et
al. (1991) and Marschner and Dell, (1994). AMF
spore density in the root zone was not indicative of a
higher percentage of root colonization in other tree
species. Bennett et al. (2013) demonstrated that
succession increases the proportion of specialists
within the community and decreases the number of
interactions. They also reported that AM fungal-plant
mutualism structure changed throughout the growing
season as the number of links between partners
increased. Similar variation was also reported by
Scheltema et al. (1987) under field condition. The
results of the study also indicate that the population of
AMF rapidly increased following restoration
treatments as also reported by Korb et al. (2003.
The distribution of AMF species also varied in
different age of the overburdens. Acaulospora
scrobiculata and Rhizophagus irregularis were
dominant in young overburden while in older
overburdens including these two species
Funneliformis mosseae and Sclerocystis were also
reported in good numbers. However, Acaulospora was
the most dominant in all the overburdens studied
shows better ability and tolerance of Acaulospora
scrobiculata to adverse conditions (Table 2).

3.2. Establishment of Ground vegetation in
Overburden

The number of pioneer ground species were increased
significantly with the age of the overburden (Table 3).
Total 29 ground flora species were identified from
five year old reclaimed overburden including 20 herb
and 9 shrub species mainly dominated by Ziziphus
jujube and Lantana camera. On the other hand 25
species were recorded in the natural forest area, the
dominant species were Calotropis procera, Ulna
lobata and Parthenium species. In the case of 2 year
overburden only 11 species were recorded with
Melochia carchorifolia, Saccharum munja and
Calotropis procera as dominant species, 25 species
were recorded in the 3 year overburden where
Saccharum munja, Tephrosia purpurea and
Scrophulariceae species appear as dominant species.
In 2 year overburden 3 species each of Asteraceae and
Poaceae were recorded while Fabaceae species was
absent but in 5 year overburden the Fabaceaous
species were most dominant (Fig. 2a) and in 3 year
overburden member of Poaceae was dominant
followed by Fabaceae. This indicates that the
Fabaceous species are late colonizer that occurs after
improvement of nutrient and other soil factor with the
planting of nitrogen fixing tree species. The
occurrence of higher number of ground species,
higher percentage of AMF colonized root and
Rhizobium helped in nodulation and AMF association
to other ground species by playing the role of source
for inoculum also ascribed by Kumar et al. (2010).
Preponderance of Poaceae and legume species were
also reported by other workers in mine dumps (Jha
and Singh, 1990, Titus and Moral, 1998, Hanief et al.,
2007).

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(d)
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences, 2(8), pp. 289-300, 2014
295
Table 4: Abundance value and AMF root colonization in natural vegetation of overburden and natural forest.
Botanical name of ground Species Reclaimed coal mine overburden Natural Forest
2 years 3 years 5 years
ADV
*
Percent
colonizat
ion
ADV Percent
colonizat
ion
ADV Percent
colonizat
ion
ADV Percent
colonizat
ion
Alysicarpus monilifer - - - - 1.25 80.00 - -
Aristida adscendens 1.66 46.25 1.50 28.00 9.25 42.76 - -
Atylosia scarabaeoides - - 1.00 61.37 1.33 45.00 2.00 45.00
Blumea lacera 3.40 Nm - - - - - -
Borreria hispida - - 1.50 7.96 - - - -
Cynodon dactylon 2.00 31.81 3.25 60.30 5.75 58.00 2.00 70.39
Desmodium triflorum - - 3.00 66.60 5.60 80.00 9.60 51.95
Eclipta prostrate 1.66 46.46 - - - - - -
Emilia sonchifolia - - 1.00 22.46 - - - -
Eragrostis viscose - - - - - - 3.66 38.50
Euphorbia hirta 1.00 13.00 1.00 26.97 1.25 28.22 2.66 24.54
Evolvulus alsinoides - - - - - - 7.00 56.56
E. nummularis 4.50 49.56 1.33 32.50 3.75 69.40 6.00 66.37
Hedyotis sp. - - 1.00 24.30
Hydanthus enneaspermus - - 1.00 30.16 1.50 46.95 4.00 66.00
Mecardonia procumbens - - - - 3.50 Nm - -
Mollugo pentaphylla - - 1.00 15.33 - - - -
Melochia carchorifolia 1.20 41.00 - - - - - -
Merrimia tridentate - - - - 1.00 80.00 - -
Pennisetum pedicelatum - - - - 1.50 80.37 - -
Pennisetum sp. - - - - 5.00 58.00 - -
Phyllanthus simplex - - 3.00 57.00 - - 7.33 34.00
Pteris longifolia - - - - - - 1.00 Nm
P. pellucid - - - - - - 4.00 Nm
Saccharum munja 2.50 38.00 3.60 45.50 5.75 62.36 - -
Scrophulariceae sp. - - 3.33 Nm - - - -
Sida cordata - - 1.00 62.00 1.50 62.00 - -
Tridax procumbens 1.50 21.66 1.00 17.91 1.00 66.54 2.33 60.16
Vernonia cinerea - - 1.00 21.76 1.00 46.06 - -
Waltheria indica - - - - - - 3.00 Nm
Zornia gibbosa - - 1.50 30.00 1.50 11.15 1.66 3.57
Unknown A - - 2.50 27.96 6.00 43.98 - -
Unknown B - - - - 1.00 11.54 - -
Unknown C - - - - 1.66 9.38 1.34 46.85
SHRUB
Aeschynomene indica - - - - 1.00 28.06 - -
Calotropis procera 1.25 21.66 1.00 21.67 1.00 38.00 3.33 Nm
Cassia tora - - 1.00 10.00 3.33 Nm 9.50 Nm
Crotolaria prostrate - - 1.33 69.51 - - 3.33 Nm
Hemidesmus indicus 2.50 69.45
Hyptis suaveolens 1.25 41.00 1.66 55.33 16.20 82.00 4.00 80.35
Indigofera linifolia - - - - 1.50 13.96 - -
Lantana camera - - - - 2.00 82.09 - -
Parthenium sp. - - - - - - 1.75 31.90
Solanum surattense - - 1.33 9.11 - - - -
Tephrosia purpurea - - 1.50 21.95 - - - -
Ulna lobata - - - - 3.66 Nm 2.33 Nm
Woodfordia floribunda - - - - - - 3.50 Nm
Xanthium strumarium - - - - 1.33 Nm 2.50 27.00
Zizyphus jujube - - - - 1.33 30.00 - -
Zylia xylocarpa - - - - - - 4.33 36.63
Note- ADV- Abundance value, Nm- AMF not detected.

The species which were abundant in 2 year
overburden were replaced by another set of species in
older overburden and natural forest. Blumea lacera,
Eclipta prostrate, Melochia carchorifolia and
Saccharum munja were reported as primary colonizers
as they only appear in younger dumps. On the other
hand, Alysicarpus monilifer, Mecardonia procumbens,
Pennisetum pedicelatum, Indigofera linifolia, Lantana
camera, Xanthium strumarium, Ulna lobata and
Zyziphus jujube only appear in older dumps (Table -
3). Some species viz. Cynodon dactylon, Euphorbia
hirta, Evolvulus alsinoides, E. nummularis, Tridax
procumbens, Calotropis procera and Hyptis
suaveolens were more common in all the overburdens
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296
and forest showing their ability of wide adoptions.
The species in five year overburden were 14% higher
than the plants from natural forest though the variation
existed in species composition as shrub species were
dominant in forest area whereas herbs were dominant
in overburdens. The species composition, richness and
abundance varied in overburdens and in forest area
indicates that more time will be needed to reach its
pre-mining level in species composition and
community structure similar to forest. Similarly Jasper
et al. (1989) Korb et al. (2003), Mukhopadhyay and
Maiti (2009) reported the recovery period of
vegetation in mining area between 4 to 20 years
depending upon the species interaction to AMF and
the improvement in nutrient status of soil.

Table 5: Relative density of other fungi in re-vegetated mining overburdens and natural forest.
Fungal Species Reclaimed coal mine overburden Natural Forest
2 Years 3 Years 5 Years
Aspergillus sp. 20 26 26 9
A.niger 5 5 5 4
A.flavus 7 - 6 5
A. repens - 60 3 -
Cladosporium - 1 - 3
Curvularia - - - 2
Dematiaceous - - 7 -
Fusarium - 2 1 6
Microphomina - - - 4
Mucor 2 1 - 1
Mycelia sterilia - 3 4 -
Penicilium 39 10 1 23
P. meleogrimum - 12 4 -
P. notatum - 2 31 21
Rhizopus - - 14 2
Trichoderma - - 2 4
No of genera 7.00 8.00 9.00 11.00
Fungal diversity 1.61 1.735 2.109 2.211
Dominance index 0.247 0.252 0.167 0.149
Note: Relative density of isolates from 1: 1000 soil dilution plates.


Fig. 2: (a) Family Composition of ground flora; (b) Mean AMF infection (%) in roots of ground flora

There were significant differences (CD= 3.22,
2.80, 4.09 and 3.55 for 2, 3, 5 and natural forest
respectively) in the mean percentage of AMF
colonization in ground species occurred in different
overburdens and natural forest (Table 4). It is evident
that the increasing age of re-vegetated overburden
with higher AMF root colonization and nutrient
modification in soil support the establishment of
primary species reflected into greater diversity of
vegetation, AMF and other fungal diversity. The tree
species planted in overburden might capture the viable
AMF species and transferred to other vegetation since
germination resulted in a higher species composition
and diversity index in older dumps (Table 4). The
highest percentage of root colonization was reported
in Evolvulus nummularis, followed by Eclipta
prostrate and Aristida adscendens in 2 year
overburden and Crotolaria prostrate, Desmodium
triflorum and Sida cordata in 3 year overburden. In
five year overburden 10 species showed more than 60
International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences, 2(8), pp. 289-300, 2014
297
percent root colonization, with highest values in
Lantana camera and Hyptis suaveolens. The mean
AMF colonization of roots of ground flora were
28.03%, 31.86% and 39.43% for 2, 3 and 5 year old
re-vegetated overburden respectively, while in natural
forest the percentage of root colonization was 29.08%
(Fig. 2b). The abundance value of ground species and
percentage of AMF colonization showed a positive
correlation (r2=0.085, r2=0.075, r2= 0.640, r2=0.015
at 2, 3, 5 years dumps and natural forest respectively).
This might be possible due to impact of AMF
associations with species for taking of extra benefits
for better tolerance to drought and for efficient
absorption of P as these two are identified as a major
factors for plant establishment in mined area (Jasper et
al. 1991; Leung et al., 2007; Mukhopadhyay and
Maiti, 2009).


Fig. 3: (a) A Fresh Coal Mine Overburden; (b) Root of D. sissoo colonized by AMF; (c) Acaulospora scrobiculata; (d)
Sclerocystis species; (e) View of root zone occurring AMF

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Like AMF, other fungi of soil were reported higher
with the increasing age of the overburden (Table 5).
Eleven genera of fungi was identified from forest soil
with diversity index of 2.21while, the lowest fungal
diversity (1.61) was reported in 2 year overburden
(Fig. 2c) and increasing with the age of the
overburden. Aspergillus species and Penicillium were
found to be the most dominant fungal groups in all
sites studied. The increasing status of other fungi in
mined soil also might be enhanced the mineralization
process subsequently resulted in to higher nutrients
status in old overburden thus the soil became capable
of supporting higher number ground flora as also
reported by Dwivedi and Soni (2011).
The organic carbon and available P was found to
be improved over succession processes as influenced
by tree species and AMF. Similar findings were also
reported by Jasper et al. (1991) in coal mine areas.
The available phosphorus which influences the
interaction (Marschner and Dell, 1994) was improved
from 4.20 ppm to 7.39 ppm within 3 year period of
restoration however more time will be needed to
achieve the level of natural forest (Fig. -1b, 1c and
1d). In mining operations, the top soil is altered and
dumped in the form of huge overburden which do not
support plant establishment and development due to
loss of organic carbon, nutrients and microbial
population (Jasper et al., 1991). The recovery of
vegetation, habitat development, succession trends in
such degraded sites the applications of top soil,
organic amendments (Hendrychova, 2008), AMF and
selection of native species are important phenomenon.
This process may help the faster recovery of
community structure and soil nutrient status of
overburden to pre-mining level.

4. CONCLUSION

The population densities of AMF fungi increases
following restoration treatments and afforested tree
species capable of higher degree of AMF colonization
and spore multiplication. D. sissoo, Dendrocalamus
strictus and Acacia auriculiformis was the most
favourable species as it harbored and colonized more
by AMF fungi than other tree species. Number of
ground flora occurred on different overburdens after
restoration through these tree species was increased
with the age of the overburden with the modification
in soil characteristics, AMF status and other soil
fungi. The ground vegetation in five year overburden
was reported higher than the forest areas, however
their composition varied with each other indicates that
more times will be needed to achieve the level of
natural forest. The abundance value of ground species
and AMF colonization in root was positively
correlated (r2=0.085, r2=0.075, r2= 0.640, r2=0.015 at
2, 3, 5 years dumps and natural forest respectively)
shows interaction of higher species number, AMF
diversity and other fungi. The soil characteristic in
different mined overburdens was also improved after
restoration and increase in the age of overburden.
AMF may be applied for the successful restoration of
mine overburden and faster recovery of plant species
diversity and microbial populations at overburden.


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Floristic And Microbial Diversity In Different Coal Mine Overburdens And Adjacent Natural Forest Of Chhattisgarh,
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Associate Professor Dr Krishna Kumar Chandra obtained his Master degree from Guru Ghasidas
University, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh (India) in Master of Science in Forestry, Wildlife and Environmental
Sciences in 1992. He later pursued doctoral degree in Forestry from Forest Research Institute, Dehradun
(Deemed University), India with Rejuvenation of Mine land with AMF in 1998. He has 15 years of
experiences in teaching, research and extension on agriculture, forestry and wasteland development.
Currently, Dr. Chandra serves Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Environmental Sciences as
Associate Professor. He has published more than 50 research paper and 50 articles in professional
journals and magazines. He has awarded with gold Medal for Merit in Forestry, best paper presentation
and many other awards. He has completed many research projects and presently working on one major
research project on AMF funded by University Grant Commission, India. His vast experience has enabled him to conduct
numerous talks and seminars at national levels.

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