1. Define heredity. Give example of inherited traits.
The transmission of characters from parents to offspring from one generation to another is called heredity. Inherited traits are characters that are transferred from one generation to another. E.g. Height, skin colour, ability to roll tongue, hemophilia 2.Why do asexually reproducing organisms show very little variation? Asexually reproducing organisms hae same genetic make up, so they sho! ery little ariations !hich is due to "i# small inaccuracies in $%A copying"mutation# "ii# Influence of enironment !hich is not heritable. &. How does creation of variation in a species promote survival' The chance of surial depends on nature of ariation. It has adaptie adantage( the organism is selected by nature and suries. E.g. Heat resistant bacteria. ). Why did Mendel select pea plant in his experiment? "i# *mall and easy to gro! "ii# +isexual flo!er "iii# *elf fertili,ing in nature and also cross bread experimentally. "i# -roduce large number of offspring "# .ife cycle completes in one season "i# Aailable in many contrasting characters. /.Why is the symbol used for a trait (tall denoted by two letters such as !!" !t or tt? +ecause each trait is influenced by both paternal and maternal $%A.0ne trait is dominant !hile other is recessie. 1. What experiment would we do to confirm that #$ generation did in fact have a ratio of %&$&%? +y doing self pollination, TT2 1334 tall plants, Tt2 &51 tall and d!arf plants, tt2 1334 d!arf plants "i# 0nly one of the parental trait is obsered in 61 progeny !hen t!o contrasting character of a trait is considered "ii# The trait in 61 hybrid is dominant one. "iii#7hen 61 hybrid is self pollinated both the characteristics appear in ratio of &51"expressed in 62# !hich sho!s that 61 hybrid has the traits of both characteristics. 8. What is dihybrid cross? What is the ratio of #$ hybrid?
T!o contrasting characters are taken at a time in this cross. 61 hybrid sho!s only dominant characters. 9atio2:5&5&51 :. How do traits get expressed? "i#;hromosomes present in nucleus contain hereditary information. "ii#;hromosomes are made up of $%A and protein. Its important component is $%A. "iii#;hromosomes occur in pair, one comes from mother and others from father. "i#-art of $%A responsible for a trait is called gene "# A gene is expressed in the form of proteins. E.g. for tallness of a plant if proteins !ork efficiently a lot of hormone !ill be produced and the plant !ill be tall. 13.Give example of animals in which sex is not genetically determined. I# snail2can change sex. "II# turtle2High incubation temperature leads to deelop female offspring. "III# .i,ard2High incubation temperature leads to deelop male offspring. 11.Define evolution" give examples. It means <unfolding or unrolling= change from one condition to another. It means members of a species change generation after generation in accordance !ith enironmental re>uirements to turn into ne! species. It is the process of cumulatie change of liing population and in the descendant populations of organisms. Eolution is a change in the genetic composition of a population. It is due to errors in $%A copying as a result of sexual reproduction. Example2222 "A# %AT?9A. *E.E;TI0%2It brings about adaptie relations bet!een organisms and enironment by faoring the reproduction and surial of those indiiduals !hich are found more suited in the gien enironment. "+# @E%ETI; $9I6TA9andom change in the fre>uency occurring by chance irrespectie of its being beneficial or harmful. In small population, for this reason some unfaorable character may be fixed or beneficial character may be lost. ";# ;hanges take place, but the change is not inherited in germ cells, so reappear. 12. Differentiate between inherited and ac'uired traits. A;B?I9E$ T9AIT*A"i# This character deelops in an organism due to influence of enironmental condition, use and disuse of organs etc. "ii# The characters are restricted to somatic cells only. "iii#The traits cannot be inherited. E.g. decrease of !eight due to staration, strong muscle of a !restler. I%HE9ITE$ T9AIT2"i# this character deelops in an organism due to change in the germ cells. The cause of the change is due to inaccuracies in $%A copying. "ii# The trait is coded in genes of chromosomes."iii# The trait is inherited. E.g. colorblindness, hemophilia. 1&.(arrate the contribution of Darwin.What is the limitation in his theory' ;harles $ar!in explained ho! eolution might hae occurred in nature from simple to complex form and origin of species by natural selection. .imitationAHe could not explain ho! liing organism originated on earth surface. HE -90-0*E$ 22 %atural selection *urial of the fittest *truggle for existance Enormous reproductie capacity of liing organism 1).Define speciation. What factors could led to rise of a new species? *-E;IATI0% is origin of ne! species. %e! species are formed due to geographical isolation or any other factor 6A;T09*2"i#natural selection "ii#genetic drift "iii#reproductie isolation "i#mutation 1/.What is the relationship between classification and evolution? The more characteristics t!o species !ill hae in common, the more closely they are related. They !ill also hae a common ancestor. ;lassification is done basing on similarities and dissimilarities. *o classification of species is in fact a reflection of their eolutionary relationship. 11.What are homologous organs? Give examples' The organs !hich hae same fundamental structure but are different in function are called homologues organs. E.g. fore limbs of frog, li,ard, !hale and man.
1C.What are analogous organs give examples' The organs !hich hae similar function but differ in structural details and origin. E.g. 7ings of bat, birds and insects.
18.How do study of fossils help in evolutionary process' 6ossils are remains or impressions of the hard parts of the past indiiduals in the strata of the earth. *ince rocks are laid do!n se>uentially, !ith older rocks laid do!n before, and thus belo!, younger rocks, the chronological se>uence of an organism can be inferred from !here the fossils are found. 1:.Give example to explain that evolution has ta)en place in stages not by a single D(* change' a#6eathers !ere firstly deeloped in dinosaurs proide insulations in cold !eather, later on deeloped in birds used for flight, !hich indicated close relationship bet!een birds and reptiles. This also indicates character !hich deeloped for one function is later used for entirely different function. "b#Eyes2planaria2rudimentary eyes !hich are photosensitie spots. Insects2compound eyes. 0ctopus and ertebrates2complex structure. The structure of eye in each of these organism is different enough for them to hae separate eolutionary origin. "c#Dery dissimilar structure may eole from common ancestral design. E.g.2from !ild cabbage man has deeloped cabbage, cauliflo!er, kohlrabi, kale and broccoli. 23. Why are human beings who loo) so different from each other in terms of si+e colour and loo)s said to belong to same species? +ecause they can interbreed 21.What are characteristics' ;haracteristics are details of appearance or behaior. (,-.! /0-1!23(1 1. If a trait A exists in 10% of a population of an asexually reproducing species and a trait B exists in 60% of the same population, which trait is likely to have arisen earlier Answer: In asexual reproduction, the reproducing cells produce a copy of their DNA through some chemical reactions. However, this copying of DNA is not accurate and therefore, the newly formed DNA has some variations. It can e easily oserved in the aove figure that in asexual reproduction, very few variations are allowed. !herefore, if a trait is present in only 1"# of the population, it is more li$ely that the trait has arisen recently. Hence, it can e concluded that trait % that exists in &"# of the same population has arisen earlier than trait A. '.!ow does the creation of variations in a species promote survival Answer: (ometimes for a species, the environmental conditions change so drastically that their survival ecomes difficult. )or example, if the temperature of water increases suddenly, most of the acteria living in that water would die. *nly few variants resistant to heat would e ale to survive. If these variants were not there, then the entire species of acteria would have een destroyed. !hus, these variants help in the survival of the species. However, not all variations are useful. !herefore, these are not necessarily eneficial for the individual organisms. "# !ow do $endel%s experiments show that traits may &e dominant or recessive Answer: +endel selected true reeding tall ,!!- and dwarf ,tt- pea plants. !hen, he crossed these two plants. !he seeds formed after fertili.ation were grown and these plants that were formed represent the first filial or )1 generation. All the )1 plants otained were tall. 'ross(pollination of tall and short plant !hen, +endel self/ pollinated the )1 plants and oserved that all plants otained in the )' generation were not tall. Instead, one/fourth of the )' plants were short. )elf(pollination of *1 plants )rom this experiment, +endel concluded that the )1 tall plants were not true reeding. !hey were carrying traits of oth short height and tall height. !hey appeared tall only ecause the tall trait is dominant over the dwarf trait. 0. !ow do $endel%s experiments show that traits are herited independently Answer: +endel crossed pea plants having round green seeds ,11yy- with pea plants having wrin$led yellow seeds ,rr22-. An example of dihy&rid crosses (ince the )1 plants are formed after crossing pea plants having green round seeds and pea plants having yellow wrin$led seeds, )1 generation will have oth these characters in them. However, as we $now that yellow seed colour and round seeds are dominant characters, therefore, the )1 plants will have yellow round seeds. !hen this )1 progeny was self/pollinated and the )' progeny was found to have yellow round seeds, green round seeds, yellow wrin$led seeds, and green wrin$led seeds in the ratio of 3:4:4:1. Independent inheritance of two different traits In the aove cross, more than two factors are involved, and these are independently inherited. +#A man with &lood group A marries a woman with &lood group , and their daughter has &lood group ,# Is this information enough to tell you which of the traits - &lood group A or , - is dominant .hy or why not Answer: No. !his information is not sufficient to determine which of the traits 5 lood group A or * 5 is dominant. !his is ecause we do not $now aout the lood group of all the progeny. %lood group A can e genotypically AA or A*. &.!ow is the sex of the child determined in human &eings Answer: In human eings, the females have two 6 chromosomes and the males have one 6 and one 2 chromosome. !herefore, the females are 66 and the males are 62. !he gametes, as we $now, receive half of the chromosomes. !he male gametes have '' autosomes and either 6 or 2 sex chromosome. !ype of male gametes: ''76 *1 ''7 2. However, since the females have 66 sex chromosomes, their gametes can only have 6 sex chromosome. !ype of female gamete: ''76 !hus, the mother provides only 6 chromosomes. !he sex of the ay is determined y the type of male gamete ,6 or 2- that fuses with the 6 chromosome of the female. 8..hat are the different ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in a population Answer:Individuals with a particular trait may increase in a population as a result of the following: ,i- Natural selection: 9hen that trait offers some survival advantage. ,ii- :enetic drift: 9hen some genes governing that trait ecome common in a population. ,iii- 9hen that trait gets ac;uired during the individual<s lifetime. =..hy are traits ac/uired during the life(time of an individual not inherited Answer:!his happens ecause an ac;uired trait involves change in non/reproductive tissues ,somatic cells- which cannot e passed on to germ cells or the progeny. !herefore, these traits cannot e inherited. 0#.hy are the small num&ers of surviving tigers a cause of worry from the point of view of genetics Answer: (mall numers of tigers means that fewer variations in terms of genes are availale. !his means that when these tigers reproduce, there are less chances of producing progeny with some useful variations. Hence, it is a cause of worry from the point of view of genetics. 10#.hat factors could lead to the rise of a new species Answer: Natural selection, genetic drift and ac;uisition of traits during the life time of an individual can give rise to new species. 11#.ill geographical isolation &e a ma1or factor in the speciation of a self( pollinating plant species .hy or why not Answer: :eographical isolation can prevent the transfer of pollens among different plants. However, since the plants are self/pollinating, which means that the pollens are transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of the same flower or of another flower of the same plant, geographical isolation cannot prevent speciation in this case. 12#.ill geographical isolation &e a ma1or factor in the speciation of an organism that reproduces asexually .hy or why not Answer: :eographical isolation prevents gene flow etween populations of a species whereas asexual reproduction generally involves only one individual. In an asexually reproducing organism, variations can occur only when the copying of DNA is not accurate. !herefore, geographical isolation cannot prevent the formation of new species in an asexually reproducing organism. 1"#3ive an example of characteristics &eing used to determine how close two species are in evolutionary terms# Answer: !he presence of feathers in dinosaurs and irds indicates that they are evolutionarily related. Dinosaurs had feathers not for flying ut instead these feathers provided insulation to these warm/looded animals. However, the feathers in irds are used for flight. !his proves that reptiles and irds are closely related and that the evolution of wings started in reptiles. 14#.hat are fossils .hat do they tell us a&out the process of evolution Answer:)ossils are the remains of organisms that once existed on earth. !hey represent the ancestors of plants and animals that are alive today. !hey provide evidences of evolution y revealing the characteristics of the past organism and the changes that have occurred in these organisms to give rise to the present organisms. 1+# ,nly variations that confer an advantage to an individual organism will survive in a population# 5o you agree with this statement .hy or why not Answer: In species, variations that offer survival advantages are naturally selected. Individuals ad>ust to their environments with the help of these selected variations and conse;uently these variations are passed on to their progeny. ?volution of organisms occurs as a result of this natural selection. However, there can e some other variations, which do not offer any survival advantage and arise only accidentally. (uch variations in small populations can change the fre;uency of some genes even if they are not important for survival. !his accidental change in the fre;uency of genes in small populations is referred to as genetic drift. !hus, genetic drift provides diversity ,variations- without any survival advantage. 16#6xplain the importance of fossils in deciding evolutionary relationships# Answer: )ossils are the remains of the organism that once existed on earth. !hey represent the ancestors of the plants and animals that are alive today. !hey provide evidences of evolution y revealing the characteristics of the past organisms and the changes that have occurred in these organisms to give rise to the present organisms. Around 1"" million years ago, some inverterates died and were uried in the soil in that area. +ore sediment accumulated on top of it turning it into sedimentary roc$. At the same place, millions of years later, some dinosaurs died and their odies were uried on top of the sedimentary roc$. !he mud containing dinosaurs also turned into a roc$. !hen, millions of years later, some horse/li$e creatures died in that area and got fossili.ed in roc$s aove the dinosaur fossils. (ome time later, due to soil erosion or floods in that area, the roc$s containing horseli$e fossils are exposed. If that area is excavated deeper, then the dinosaur and inverterates fossils can also e found. !hus, y digging that area, scientists can easily predict that horse/li$e animals evolved later than the dinosaurs and the inverterates. !hus, the aove example suggests that the fossils found closer to the surface of the earth are more recent ones than the fossils present in deeper layers 7ayers of fossils