WorkShop Practice Lab Mannual

NUML- DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING ISLAMABAD
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A HAND BOOK
FOR
ELECTRICAL
WORKSHOP


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CONTENTS

Part 1 General
1. Syllabus
2. Lab rules
3. Safety precautions
4. Electrical engineering - An overview
5. Electric power supply system
Part 2 Study of safety devices
1. Importance of safety devices
2. Circuit breakers MCB, MCCB & RCBO (ELCB) etc
3. Earthing systems
Part 3 House wiring
1. Introduction
2. Systems of distribution of electrical energy
3. Systems of wiring
4. Selection of wiring system
5. Electrical wiring materials
Part 4 Experiments
1. One lamp controlled by one switch
2. Series connection
3. Parallel connection
4. Staircase wiring
5. Hospital wiring
6. Go down wiring
7. Fluorescent lamp wiring
Part 5 Domestic appliances
1. Fan
2. Electric Mixer
3. Electric Iron
4. Refrigerator
5. Air conditioner
6. Electric lamps


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Course Contents

List of study and practical exercises for Electrical Workshop:

Ex. No. 1: Study of power supplies and safety devices
Introduction to electrical supply system
Importance of Safety device in domestic installation
Study of safety devices such as Fuses, MCB, MCCB, ELCB
Earthing.
Ex. No. 2: Electrical wiring practices (House wiring)
Distribution of electrical energy in a domestic electrical
installation
Study of wiring tools & accessories
Various types of domestic wiring
Exercise in wiring practice
One lamp controlled by one switch
Series and parallel connection
Staircase wiring Hospital wiring
Go down wiring
Plug socket connection
Fluorescent lamp wiring
Ex. No. 3: Study of domestic appliances
Study of different types of electric Lamps Incandescent lamp, Fluorescent, CFL, Metal
halide, Mercury vapour, Sodium vapour and halogen lamp.
Study of home appliances Mixie, Fan, Refrigerator, Air Conditioner, Iron box, Water heater
& Energy meter.
Ex. No. 4: PCB fabrication and soldering practice
Assembling and soldering of A stable multi-vibrator circuit on
a copper clad sheet.

Ex. No. 4:
Mini Project


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Table of Contents
Experiment: 1 .................................................................... Introduction to Workshop Lab
8
1.1 General Workshop Rule ........................................................................................ 8
1.2 Electrical Safety Principles: ................................................................................... 8
1.3 WORKSHOP DERESS .......................................................................................... 10
2. Experiment: 2 Measurements of different electrical parameters and safety devices ......... 11
2.1 Some definitions: ............................................................................................... 11
2.2 Study of safety devices ....................................................................................... 12
2.3 Types of safety devices....................................................................................... 13
2.3.1 FUSES ........................................................................................................ 15
2.3.2 MCB and ELCB ............................................................................................. 18
2.3.3 Earthling ..................................................................................................... 21
3. Experiment: 3: House Wiring ...................................................................................... 27
3.1 Systems of distribution of electrical energy ........................................................... 28
3.2 Methods of wiring .............................................................................................. 30
3.3 The advantages and disadvantages of loop-in system are as follows; ....................... 31
3.4 SYSTEMS OF WIRING ......................................................................................... 32
3.5 CTS or TRS Wiring. ............................................................................................ 33
3.6 CHOICE OF WIRING ........................................................................................... 36
4. Tools to be in Electric Wiring .................................................................................. 38
5. STUDY OF WIRING ACCESSORIES ............................................................................ 39
5.1 Cables: ............................................................................................................. 39
5.1.1 Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) Cables: .......................................................... 39
5.1.2 Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS) or Cab Type Sheathed (CTS) Cables: ..................... 40
5.1.3 Lead Sheathed Cables: .................................................................................... 40
5.1.4 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Insulated Cables: ...................................................... 40
5.1.5Weather Proof/Cables .................................................................................... 40
5.1.6 Flexible Cords .............................................................................................. 40
5.2 One-way Switch ................................................................................................ 41
5.2 .1Two-way Switch ........................................................................................... 41
5.2.2 Two-way Centre off Switch ............................................................................ 41
5.2 .3 Double Pole Switch ...................................................................................... 41
5.2 .4 Push-button Switches .................................................................................. 41


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5.2 .5 Table Lamp Switch ...................................................................................... 41
5.2 .6 Bed Switch ................................................................................................. 41
5.3 Ceiling Rose ...................................................................................................... 42
5.4 Socket-Outlets .................................................................................................. 42
5.5 Plugs ................................................................................................................ 43
5.6 Lamp Holders .................................................................................................... 43
5.6.1 Batten Holders ............................................................................................. 43
5.6.2 Pendant or Cored Grip Holders ....................................................................... 44
5.6.3 Angle Holders .............................................................................................. 44
5.6.4 Slanting Holders ........................................................................................... 44
5.6.5 Bracket Holders ........................................................................................... 44
5.6.7 Water Tight Bracket Holder............................................................................ 44
5.6.8 Junction Box ................................................................................................ 44
5. Experiment: 4a Fan .............................................................................................. 45
5.1 Aim: - .............................................................................................................. 45
5.2 Construction ..................................................................................................... 45
5.3 SERVICING ....................................................................................................... 46
6. Experiment: 4b Electric food Mixer ...................................................................... 47
6.1 Aim:- ............................................................................................................... 47
6.2Working principle:- ............................................................................................. 47
7. Experiment: 4c ELECTRIC IRON BOX ........................................................................ 49
7.1Aim: - ............................................................................................................... 49
7.2 Working principle:- ............................................................................................ 49
7.3 Servicing .......................................................................................................... 50
8. Experiment 4d: Refrigerator .................................................................................. 50
8.1Introduction: ...................................................................................................... 50
8.2 The various components of a vapor compression refrigeration system are: ............... 50
8.3Compressor: ...................................................................................................... 51
8.4The basic mechanism of a refrigerator works like this:............................................. 52
8.5 Air Conditioner ..................................................................................................... 52
8.5.1 How Does an Air Conditioner Work? .................................................................. 52
8.6 Induction type single phase energy meter ............................................................... 54
8.7 Electric lamps....................................................................................................... 56


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8.7.1 Incandescent Lamps ........................................................................................ 56
8.7.2Tungsten Halogen Lamps .................................................................................. 57
8.7.3 Fluorescent Lamps .......................................................................................... 58
8.7.4Compact Fluorescent Lamps .............................................................................. 59
8.7.4a Mercury Vapour Lamps ................................................................................ 60
8.7.5Metal Halide Lamps .......................................................................................... 61
8.7.6 Sodium Vapour Lamps ..................................................................................... 62
Experiment No 5: TOOLS TO BE USED IN HOUSE WIRING .............................................. 65
10.1 HOUSE WIRING ............................................................................................... 67
10.1.1 Elements of House wiring: ........................................................................... 67
10.1.2 Wires and wire sizes: .................................................................................. 69
10.1.3 Fundamentals of Electricity: ......................................................................... 69
10.3.5.Safety Precautions :.................................................................................... 74
11. Experiment No: 6 ONE LAMP CONTROLLED BY ONE SPT SWITCH ............................... 76
11.1 Procedure: ...................................................................................................... 76
11.2VIVA QUESTIONS .............................................................................................. 77
12. EXPERIMENT NO: 7 AC Automatic Voltage Stabilizers and Regulators .......................... 78
12.1 A Design Technology Overview, Electronic Servo / Electro - Mechanical Design ........ 78
12.2 Design Advantages ........................................................................................... 79
12.3 Solid State Transductor / Saturable Reactor Design .............................................. 79
12.3.1 Design Advantages ..................................................................................... 80
12.4 Magnetic Induction Solid State Design ................................................................ 80
12.4.1Design Advantages ...................................................................................... 81
12.5 Ferro-Resonant - Super Isolation Solid State Design ............................................. 81
12.6 Electronic Tap Changing Solid State Design ......................................................... 82
Design Disadvantages ........................................................................................... 82
13. EXPERIMENT NO 8: UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM SELECTION,
INSTALLATION, AND MAINTENANCE FOR COMMAND, CONTROL, COMMUNICATIONS,
COMPUTER, INTELLIGENCE, SURVEILLANCE, AND RECONNAISSANCE FACILITIES ............. 83
13.1Principles and configurations .............................................................................. 83
13.1.1Static UPS. ................................................................................................. 83
13.1.2 Rotary UPS. ............................................................................................... 84


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13.2INSTALLATION AND TESTING OF UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS) SYSTEMS
............................................................................................................................. 85
13.2.1Construction and installation of static UPS systems .......................................... 85
13.2.1a Construction features of static systems. There are several construction features
about the UPS that contribute to the system as a whole. ........................................... 85
13.3 Test equipment ................................................................................................ 88
13.3.1 UPS battery maintenance ............................................................................ 90
14. EXPERIMENT NO: 9 BATTERY ................................................................................. 93
Caution: ................................................................................................................. 93
14.1VISUAL INSPECTIONS ....................................................................................... 94
Monthly ............................................................................................................... 94
14.2 BATTERY CARE ................................................................................................ 94
A. Adjustment of Specific Gravity ........................................................................... 94
B. Temperature .................................................................................................... 94
C. Cleanliness ...................................................................................................... 94
D. Spilled Electrolyte ............................................................................................. 94
14.3. CHARGERS ..................................................................................................... 94
A. Every Shift ....................................................................................................... 95
B. Quarterly ......................................................................................................... 95
C. Annually .......................................................................................................... 95
14.4 RECORDS ........................................................................................................ 95
14.5 BATTERY TROUBLES SUMMARIZED .................................................................... 96
14.5 RECOMMENDED ACTIONS ................................................................................. 97
14.6 LEAD-ACID BATTERY PRINCIPLES ...................................................................... 98
PURPOSE ............................................................................................................. 98
FULL CHARGE ...................................................................................................... 98
14.6.1CHEMICAL CHANGES ...................................................................................... 98
WELDING ................................................................................................................ 100
CARPENTRY ............................................................................................................. 109


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Experiment: 1 Introduction to Workshop Lab
1.1 General Workshop Rule
All students in the workshop are expected to adhere to the following guidelines. The students are supposed
to come in proper workshop uniform dress. Wearing shoes in the workshop is compulsory.
Do not fool around in the lab: Take your lab work seriously and behave appropriately in the
laboratory. Be aware of your classmates safety as well as your own at all times. To successfully
complete the experiments in one lab period, you must come prepared to the laboratory. You must
read the experiment in advance and answer the pre-lab questions.
Please treat the instruments with care, as they are very expensive.
Return the components to the correct bins when you are finished with them.
Before leaving the lab, place the stools under the lab bench.
Before leaving the lab, turn off the main power switch to the lab bench.
Keep your work area neat and uncluttered- Have only books and other materials that are needed to
conduct the experiment in the laboratory.
Experiment: The student works with a partner and they both take the data on separate notebooks.
The lab instructor will look at the data and sign on your notebook at the end of the experiment.
Any student missing a lab (not present in the lab) with no proper or reasonable excuse will get a 0
grade on that specific lab and will have his/her final letter grade reduced. Any student missing two
labs with no proper excuse will automatically get a failing grade (F).
This laboratory can be used by students during laboratory hours only.
1.2 Electrical Safety Principles:
When planning and performing work on electrical systems and equipment, keep these principles in mind:
Understand the procedure completely before starting the work.
Use good quality footwear/shoes in order to provide maximum resistance.
Never energize any circuit unless you are sure that no one is working on the circuit. Give electric
supply to the wiring system only after thorough verification.
Before replacing a blown fuse always remember to put the switch off.
Do not touch switch boards, main switches, holder points etc with wet hands.
Do not use broken switches, sockets or plug.
Use non-conductive tools whenever possible.
Before putting the plug pins in socket put off the plug switch and disconnect the plug by pulling the
plug pin and not by pulling cable.


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Take utmost care while handling lamps, lamp holders, switches etc, because these materials are
brittle.
Never drape electrical cords over heat sources
Before beginning work, tie back long hair, and roll up loose sleeves.
Know the location and how to operate shut-off switches and/or circuit breaker panels. Use these
devices to shut off equipment in the event of a fire or electrocution.
Dont over bend cables when pulling them through a bend in a raceway, often a pressure or
squeezing develops causing insulation damage.


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1.3 WORKSHOP DERESS


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2. Experiment: 2 Measurements of different electrical parameters
and safety devices
2.1 Some definitions:
Electric current: Electric current can be termed as a continuous flow of electrons through a conductor. One
ampere is the current produced when a pressure of one volt is applied across a circuit having one ohm
resistance.
EMF: EMF is electro motive force. Potential difference between two points in a circuit is the electrical
pressure difference required to drive a current between them. Potential difference may be termed as voltage.
Voltage of a torch battery is 1.5 V and that of automobile battery is 12V. KSEB supply voltage for domestic
installation is 240 V.
Electric power (watt): Electric power, P = Voltage * current * Power factor Unit of electric power is watt
(W)
Electric energy: Unit of electric energy is KWh (Kilo Watt hour) 1 unit energy = 1 KWh KSEB
provides one KWh meter at every Installation for measuring consumed energy. Resistance is the property of
a substance due to which it opposes the flow of current through it. Unit of resistance is ohm Resistance, R =
Specific resistance * I / A
Where I is the length of material & A is the area of cross section
Effect of temperature on resistance:-When temperature increases resistance of pure metals and Alloys
increases when temperature increases resistance of electrolyte, insulators etc decrease.
Resistance in series:-Consider three resistors connected in series, and then the total resistance of the circuit
will be the sum of the three resistors.
Ohms law:-Ohms law states that, the ratio of potential difference between any two points in a conductor to
the current flowing between them is constant. R = V /1 Keeping temperature constant.
Study of Electric Power Supply:
Eelectricity: Electricity is a form of energy. Electricity is the flow of electrons. We get electricity, which is
a secondary energy source, from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear
power, Hydel power and other natural sources, which are called primary sources.
Electric power supply system:
AC&DC: DC or direct current is steady current. It never changes its direction, and AC is alternating in
nature. AC voltage can be increased or decreased with the help of transformers. By using high voltage AC,
we can drastically reduce the transmission losses. AC can be converted into DC easily but reverse is not so
easy.


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In India state electricity boards are the authorities to generate and distribute electric energy. KSEB generates
electric power at a voltage of 11 KV. This power is transmitted by increasing the voltage at different levels
as 33 KV, 66KV, 110 KV, 220KVor 400 KV from different substations. At load centers this voltage again
stepped down as 11 KV and a feeder network is created. This feeder line energizes the 11KV/415V step
down transformer, and from these transformers electric supply can be given to consumers at 240V and 415
V as single phase or three phases.
All domestic and commercial consumers get electric energy from the distribution network of concerned
electricity boards. Based on the power requirements of consumers Electricity Boards may give 3-phase
connection (for high power) or single phase connection (for low power). In the three phase connections 4
wires are provided, where as in single-phase connection one phase and a neutral connection are provided to
the consumers. Phase to neutral voltage in our country is 230 V and phase-to-phase voltage is 400 V of
frequency 50 Hz. Most of the appliances work on single-phase supply. There are some motors, which
requires three phase supply.
A KWh meter is provided at the consumer end for measuring the electrical energy consumed.
KSEB introduces different tariffs for different consumers, as per their connected load and nature of
connection.
2.2 Study of safety devices
Importance of safety devices
The safety features are inbuilt with electric power distribution. The current is to flow through the path it is
expected to pass and should not take another path through which it is not expected to pass. Conductors made
of copper or aluminium are provided across the path for carrying the current and insulators like PVC, paper
or rubber are provided across the path through which the current is not expected to flow.
Under abnormal condition there can be failure of insulations and current will flow through the undesired
path which can cause damage to equipments and more important the safety of the user. Sometimes the user
may inadvertently touch a live conductor and cause electric shock. The circuit may also carry under short
circuit condition much more than normal value of the current. The inbuilt safety features will isolate the
faulty circuit from the rest of the supply.
The very high currents caused by short circuit situation can cause lots of damage to electrical installation.
Protective devices are needed to break short-circuit and overload currents.
Circuit breakers and fuses are protective devices that control the power going to a particular route of wiring.
In case of an overload or a short on that circuit, the breaker or fuse trips and automatically shuts off power to
that circuit. Fuses are the commonly used protection devices to protect components like wires, transformers


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electronics circuit modules against overload. The general idea of the fuse is that it "burns fuse link" when
current gets higher than it's rating and thus stops the current flowing.

2.3 Types of safety devices
Fuse
Circuit breakers( MCB, MCCB & ELCB)
Earthing
Basically two types of protections are provided in the power supply system of domestic consumers.
1. Protection from over current.
2. Protection from leakage current due to failure of insulation or inadvertent contact with live
conductors by the user.
Over current and Short circuit
One type of situation that wiring needs to be protected against is over current. The electrical wiring is rated
for certain maximum current. If you try to pull more current through it, the wiring will heat considerably.
When the wiring heats too much, it will cause the melting of cable insulation, cause fire if there is something
flammable near cable and even melt the copper conductors in the cable. So protection is needed to guarantee
that in case of something tries to pull too much current through mains wiring, this cannot happen for any
long time until the fuse blows and stops the current.
Many people are familiar with a "short circuit", which is a type of fault that occurs when two conductors of
an electric circuit touch each other. The current flow caused by a short circuit is usually high and rapid and
is quickly detected and halted by conventional circuit protective devices, such as fuses or circuit breakers.
Ground faults are one type of problem when the insulation fails.


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Protection against over current
Every electrical circuit shall be protected against over current by suitable over current devices. These
devices could be
1. Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
2. Molded Case Circuit Breaker
3. Semi enclosed rewirable fuses
4. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) fuses
Typical breaking capacities of protective devices are as follows:
HRC fuses - 80 kA
MCB - 16 kA
Re wire able fuses - 1 to 4 kA
Protection against electrocution
The use of exposed, substandard, badly wired, wrongly connected or damaged equipment as well as
frayed or badly repaired cables reduces the safety of an installation and increases the risk of person
receiving an electric shock.
Electrocution is a passage of current through human body, which is dangerous. The flow of current
through human body effects vital functions.
a. Breathing
b. Heartbeat
A correctly chosen RCCB can detect small currents flowing to earth and reduces the risk of
electrocution. Effect of electric current through human body has been well researched and following
chart summarizes the results:


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Human sensitivity to electricity
500mA Immediate cardiac arrest resulting in
Death.

70-100mA Cardiac fibillarillation; the heart begins
beats at a steady

20-30 mA Muscle contraction can cause respiratory
paralysis

10mA Muscle contraction : the person remains
stuck, to the conductor

1-10 mA Prickling sensations

However, electrocution should not be viewed in terms of current alone but in terms of contact voltage.
A person gets electrocuted by coming in contact with an object that has a different potential from
his/her own. The difference in potential causes the current to flow through the body.
The human body has known limits:
- Under normal dry conditions, voltage limit = 50V.
-In damp surroundings, voltage limit = 25V.

2.3.1 FUSES
Fuse is a wire of short length having low melting point which gives protection against excessive
current. This excessive current may be due to over load or short circuit. Under normal working
condition the current flowing through the circuit is within safe limit. But when some faults such as
short circuit occurs the current exceeds the safe limit value, the fuse wire gets heated and melts. This
will cause breaking of the circuit. After one fusing operation, fuse wire must be rewired with the
same size wire.
This basic guide will help you decide which fuse to fit to ensure the safe use of your household
appliances.


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Appliances up to 700 Watts = 3 Amp fuse
Appliances between 700 and 1000 Watts = 5 Amp fuse
Appliances over 1000 Watts = 13 Amp fuse
COMMON FUSE TYPES
1. Rewirable fuse
2. Cartridge fuse
3. HRC fuse
1. Rewirable fuse:
This is the cheapest method for protecting a circuit from short circuit. Wires of different diameters
made of lead and tin are used in the circuit. When large current flows these wires melts and
disconnects the faulty circuit from the rest of the supply.
There are different types of fuses. The usual type is the rewirable type in which the fuse wire is
carried in a removable fuse link (Fig. a). The fuse link is made of porcelain or other suitable
insulating material. The fuse carrier is push-fitted to the fuse base to make the connection through. An
advantage of this type is that the blown fuse wire can be replaced with negligible cost. But there is a
chance of selecting a wrong size of fuse wire. Another disadvantage with rewirable fuse is that it may
sometimes lead to fire hazards, when the fuse wire blows.

Fig. (a) Rewirable fuse
The semi enclosed rewirable fuses has the following drawbacks:
It normally melts on 50 % to 100 % excessive overload. The melting current cannot be
accurately predicted.
It takes time to rewire the fuse.
Standard fuse wire should be always made available.
However it is the cheapest mode of protection from short circuit.
2. Cartridge fuse
Cartridge fuse consists of a tube with metal end caps at both ends (Fig. b). The tube is usually made


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of glass with no filling material. The fuse wire is placed inside the tube, connected between the end
caps. Since the tube is made of glass, the fuse element can be easily inspected for breakage. When the
fuse is blown, the whole cartridge has to be replaced. The advantages of cartridge fuses are, quick and
easy replacement and the fuse rating is marked on the end cap of the cartridge itself. Cartridge fuses
are mainly: used in various electrical and electronic equipment.

3. High Rupturing Capacity Fuse (HRC):

This is a completely enclosed cartridge type of fuse. These fuses are screwed or linked in the circuit.
Generally it is used in the high power circuits. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) fuse consists of a
porcelain tube! with metal end caps and fixing tags (Fig. c). The fuse element is held inside the tube
between the end caps and the tube is filled with silica sand or granulated quartz. When the fuse
element blows, the silica inside the tube prevent the formation of an arc, and thus avoids the
possibility of fire hazards. HRC fuse links are available in a range of 10A to 800A.
The HRC fuse has the following advantages:

It is very reliable.
It has an enclosed fuse wire, therefore no chance its arc doing any damage
to the surroundings.
It has low temperature rise at rated load.


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Maintenance free.
The drawbacks are:
It is costly.
Take time to replace the fuse.
Circuit breakers
2.3.2 MCB and ELCB
MCB is miniature circuit breaker. It is automatic in action. When excessive current passes through the
circuit, handle of MCB will moves down and thus trips the circuit. After one such an operation we
can manually reset the supply by solving the fault in that circuit. Thus rewiring fault size fuse wire in
the case of fuse can be avoided by using MCBs.
ELCB is earth leakage circuit breaker. It protects the circuit from any leakage of current. It protects
the circuit from lightning and thunder.
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
Miniature circuit breakers are compact devices used in distribution boards for protection against
overload and short circuit. The overload protection is achieved by a thermal trip mechanism using a
bimetallic strip. An electromagnetic trip mechanism is also incorporated for instantaneous tripping in
the event of a short circuit.
When there is a sudden increase in current due to a short circuit, the circuit should open
immediately, but the bimetallic strip does not respond quickly. In this case, the solenoid attracts the
plunger and thus triggers the trip mechanism. After clearing the fault, the MCB can be switched on
manually.


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Fig. below shows the current path in a typical miniature circuit breaker when it is in the 'on' position.
The current passes through a solenoid coil and a bimetallic strip. When an overload condition persists
for a few seconds, the bimetallic strip bends and triggers the trip mechanism.

The principle of operation of an MCB is based on the following two principles.
a) Thermal operation
b) Magnetic operation

a) Thermal operation
In thermal operation, the extra heat produced by the high current warms the bimetal strip. This results
in bending the bimetallic strip and trips the operating contacts. The thermal operation is slow. Hence,
it is not suitable for speedy disconnection required to clear fault currents. However, it is ideal for
operation in the event of small but prolonged overload currents. Thus, in general the thermal
operation is suitable for opening the circuit in the event of excessive current due to the overloaded
machines.
b). Magnetic operation
The magnetic operation, on the other hand is suitable for protection against high short circuit currents.
This magnetic operation is due to the magnetic field set up by a coil carrying the current, which


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attracts an iron part to trip the breaker when the
current becomes large enough. The magnetic operation is very fast and is used for braking fault
currents.
In most cases of MCB' s, both types are provided so that overload currents and short circuit currents
are handled with the same degree. It should however be remembered that the mechanical operation of
opening the contacts takes a definite minimum time, typically 20ms, so that there can never be the
possibility of truly instantaneous operation.

In many installations, MCBs are preferred over fuses mainly because there is no need of rewiring the
fuse wire or replacing the cartridge. MCBs are available in a range of 0.5A to 63A normal operating
current and for the entire range, the, physical dimensions are almost identical.
The major advantages of MCBs are
Instantaneous opening of the contact on short circuit faults
Can be designed to operate even for very small overload currents
They can be quickly reset by hand
They cannot be reclosed if fault persist
In many cases they preferred over fuses as there is no need to rewire it.
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
The earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a protective device, which will automatically trip, when there is
an earth leakage within the installation. It is also known as residual current circuit breaker (RCCB). It works
on the current balance principle. The main part is a core consisting of three windings. Here one winding
carries the phase current, the other winding carries the neutral current and the third winding to the tripping
circuit. Under normal operating conditions the net flux in the core is zero as such no emf induced in the trip
coil. However, when earth fault occurs, the phase and neutral current varies, the net flux in the core will be
different and as such, emf is induced in the trip coil and it is energized. It then opens the circuit. The
functioning of the ELCB can be checked using a switch.


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RCD - Residual Current Device. This is a generic term for the entire range of RCDs.
RCCB - Residual Current Circuit Breaker. This is basically a mechanical switch with an RCD
function added to it. Its sole function is to provide protection against earth fault currents.
RCBO- Residual Current Breaker with Over current Protection. This is basically an over current
circuit breaker (such as an MCB) with an RCD function added to it. It has two functions,
Types of RCD
RCDs can be divided into two categories based on the means by which they detect and respond to
earth fault currents. The two types are Voltage Independent (VI) and Voltage Dependent (VD). These
are sometimes also referred to as electromechanical and electronic types respectively. The VI type
uses the output energy from the CT to activate a relay which in turn activates a tripping mechanism
causing the RCD to trip. The VD type uses electronic circuitry to detect the earth fault current and to
activate a tripping mechanism causing the RCD to trip. The VI device derives its operating energy
from the earth fault current whereas the VD device derives its operating energy from the mains
supply.
2.3.3 Earthling
What is earthing /grounding?

Earthing or grounding is the term used for electrical connection to the general mass of earth.
Equipment or a system is said to be 'earthed' when it is effectively connected to the ground with a


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conducting object. Earthing provides protection to personal and equipment by ensuring operation of
the protective gear and isolation of faulty circuit during:
Insulation failure
Accidental contact
Lightning strike
Importance of earthing
Earthing is necessary for proper functioning of certain equipments. Earthing is done also for
preventing the operating personal from hazardous shocks caused by the damage of the heating
appliances. Consider an electric heater connected to the supply using two-pin plug and socket. If by
some chance the heating element comes in contact with the metallic body of the heater, the body of
the heater being a conducting material will be at the same potential as the heating coil. If a person
comes and touches the body of the heater, current will flow through his body, which will result in an
electric shock.
To avoid unnecessary accident, it is recommended that electric heater be connected to a 3-pin socket
using a 3-core cable. (Note: To see a three-core cable, open a plug of an electric iron. There will be
three wires, red, blue and green. The green wire connected to the body of the iron is the earth wire) In
this case the body of the electric heater is connected to the green wire of the cable, which is connected
to the earth through the earth terminal. Besides the body of the electric heater, bodies of hot plates,
kettles, toasters, heaters, ovens, refrigerators, air conditioners, coolers, electric irons etc could be
earthed using three pin plugs. The resistance of the path to the earth terminal through the earth wire is
very low. Hence, even if the heating element comes in contact with the metallic body and a human
being comes in contact with the metallic body, major part of the current will flow only through the
earth wire (usually the green wire in a 3 core cable). Moreover because of the low resistance path, a
large current will flow through the phase wire and the fuse will blow off. For large current to flow,
earth resistance should be low. To achieve this proper earthing has to be done.
2.3.3a Earthing is classified as:
a. System earthing
b. Equipment earthing
System earthing: It is the earthing of neutrals of generating stations and substations. It is employed
to limit the voltage of live conductors with respect to potential of general mass of earth. This is
necessary to prevent failure of insulation.
Equipment earthing: Is earthing of non current carrying metal parts of electrical equipments. As per
Rules 33 and 61 of Indian Electricity Rule 1956 non-current carrying metal parts must be earthed with


Page | 23

two separate and distinct earth continuity conductors to an efficient earth electrode. However
equipments with double insulation need not be earthed.
Some Definitions:
Earthing: A tower/ equipments connecting to the general mass of earth by means of an electrical
conductor.
Earth Electrode: Connection to earth is achieved by electrically connecting a metal plate, rod or
other conductors or an array of conductors to the general mass of earth. This metal plate or rod or
conductor is called as "Earth electrode".
Earth lead: The conductor by which connection to earth is made.
Earth loop impedance: The total resistance of earth path including that of conductors, earth wire,
earth leads and earth electrodes at consumer end and substation end.
Factors affecting the value of earth electrode resistance
Electrode material.
Electrode size.
Material and size of earth wire.
Moisture content of soil.
Depth of electrode of underground.
Quantity of dust and charcoal in earth pit.
Earth resistance consists of following components
Resistance of metal electrode
Contact resistance between electrode and soil
Resistance of soil away from electrode surface.
The resistance decreases with the presence of moisture and salt in soil. To increase the effectiveness
of earth, the total earth resistance should be reduced. Efforts should be made to reduce the resistance
contributed by each of above three components.
Earth Electrodes
Earth electrodes can be following shapes
Driven Rods or pipes
Horizontal Wires
Four Pointed Stars
Conductive Plates
i) Round Vertical Plates
ii) Square Vertical Plates


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Buried Radial Wires
Spheres made of metal
Water Pipes
Water pipe as earth electrode
As water pipes exist extensively and these are most of the time embedded in earth, they can make a
good earth electrode. Such earthing is not objectionable with alternating currents. But with direct
currents, the flow of fault currents in pipes produces electrolysis and results in heavy corrosion of
pipes. This electrolysis process makes the water also harmful to certain extent. If water pipes are
proposed to be used as earth electrode, then only main water supply pipe should be used as an
electrode. The water supply main pipe should have metal-to-metal joints between its segments. A
perfect electrical connection should be made between water pipe & earth conductor. Pipe should be
cleaned thoroughly with emery paper. Earth conductor also should be cleaned thoroughly. The
cleaned conductor should be wrapped 4 to 5 times and ends clamped by nuts & bolts. The earth
resistance achieved by such an arrangement is usually a fraction of an ohm. Low resistance of such
system is due to long length of water pipe and the fact that it is mostly embedded below earth. This
method is mostly used for grounding in telephone services. Electrodes should be made of a metal,
which has a high conductivity. Normally copper is used. The size of the electrode should be such, that
it is able to conduct the expected value of stray equipments. For example a 3 phase star wound
generator must have its neutral point at earth potential.
The salts commonly used for chemical treatment of soil are
Sodium Chloride
Calcium Chloride
Sodium Nitrate
Magnesium Sulphate

Other factors, which affect the soil resistivity, are
1. Temperature of soil: the resistivity increases when temperature falls below the freezing point. If
the temperature falls from 20degrees C to O degree C, soil resistivity goes up from 7200-ohm cm to
14000-ohm cm.
2. Moisture Content of Soil: Small changes in moisture content seriously affect the resistivity. For
example if the moisture content changes from 25% to 30%, soil resistivity drops from 250000-ohm
cms to 6400-ohm cm. It is important that earth electrodes should be in contact with moist soil. It
should be ensured that the electrodes are deep in soil and if possible below the permanent water level.


Page | 25

3. Mechanical Composition of soil: finer the grading, lower the resistance.
Methods of placing earth electrodes in soil
1. Pipe Earthing:

Fig. E (1) Cross section of pipe earthing
Pipe earthing is done by permanently placing a pipe in wet ground. The pipe can be made of steel,
galvanized iron or cast iron. Usually GI pipes having a length of 2.5m and an internal diameter of
38mm are used. The pipe should not be painted or coated with any non-conducting material.
Fig. E (1) shows an illustration of a typical pipe electrode. The pipe should be placed atleast 1.25m
below the ground level and it should be surrounded by alternate layers of charcoal and salt for a
distance of around 15 cm. This is to maintain the moisture level and to obtain lower earth resistance.
The earth lead of sufficient gauge should be firmly connected to the electrode and it should be carried
in a Gl pipe at a depth of 60cm below the ground level. A funnel with a wire mesh should be provided
to pour water into the sump. Three or four bucket of water should be poured in a few days particularly
during summer season. This is to keep the surroundings of the electrode permanently moist.


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2. Plate earthing

Fig. E (2) Plate earthing
A typical illustration of plate earthing is shown in Fig. E (2). The plate electrode should have a
minimum dimension of 600x600x3.15mm for copper plate or 600x600x6.3mm for Gl plates. The
plate electrode should be placed atleast 1.5m below the ground level. The earth conductor is to be
securely connected to the plate by means of bolts and nuts. The bolts and nuts should be of the same
material as that of the plate. The earth conductor should be carried in a Gl pipe buried 60 cm below
the ground level. The plate electrode should be surrounded by a layer of charcoal to reduce the earth
resistance. A separate Gl pipe with funnel and wire mesh attached is provided to pour water into the
sump.
3. Strip earthing
For all places having a rocky soil bed, this type of earthing is suitable. On this system, wires or strips
made of GI of size 25 mm x 4 mm or made of copper of size 25 mm x 1.6 mm are embedded 0.5 m,
below the soil in the form of a network. The length should not be less than 1.5 m as per ISI
specification. Details are given in figure below.


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Effect of Soil Properties in Earthing

While it is not possible to change the fundamental nature /properties of soil at a given location, but
local variations of soil conditions do occur even in a small area. When a location for making earthing
pit has to be selected, preference should be given to location, which is likely to give minimum
electrical resistance. In the list below, soils have been arranged in ascending order with regard to their
electrical resistance.
Wet marshy lands, or lands containing ashes (Avg Resistivity 2400 ohm cms)
Clay, loamy soil, arable land clay
Clay & loam mixed with varying proportion of gravel & sand (Avg Resistivity 15,800
ohm cms)
Damp & wet sands
Dry sand
Gravel & Stones
3. Experiment: 3: House Wiring
Introduction
A network of wires connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy from the
suppliers meter board to the numerous electrical energy consuming devices such as lamps, fans and
other domestic appliances through controlling and safety devices is known as wiring system.
The suppliers service cable feeding an installation terminates in what is usually called the service
fuses. In an ordinary house the service fuse is called as service cutout. Such cutouts including service
meters remain the property of the supplier and represent the furthest point of the supplier
responsibility. The point at which the consumer's wiring is connected into cutout is known as point
of commencement of supply or consumer's terminals. From consumer terminals onwards the supply
cables are entirely under the control of consumer's and so laid out as per his selection. A typical
house wiring circuit is shown in fig. a


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fig (a)
3.1 Systems of distribution of electrical energy
Since as per recommendations of ISI the maximum number of points of lights, fans and socket-outlet
that can be connected in one circuit is 10 and the maximum load that can be connected in such a
circuit is 800 watts, hence in case more load or more points are required to be connected to the
supply system, then it is to be done by having more than one circuit.
Distribution Board System


Page | 29

In distribution board system, which is most commonly adopted for distribution of electrical energy in
a building, the fuses of various circuits are grouped together on a distribution board, some times
simply known as fuse board.
The two copper strips, known as bus-bars, fixed in a distribution board of hard wood or metal case are
connected to the supply main through a linked switch so that the installation can be switched off as a
whole from both the poles of supply if required. A fuse is inserted in the + ve or phase pole of each
circuit so that each circuit is connected up through its own particular fuse.
In large buildings, however, if only one distribution board were used, some of the points would be at
a considerable distance from it and in such cases it is advisable to employ sub-distribution boards
either to save cable or to prevent too great voltage drop at the more distant points (lamps or fans or
other appliances). In such cases main distribution board controls the circuit to each sub-distribution
board from which the sub-circuits are taken, as shown in fig. a
The number of circuits and sub-circuits are decided as per number of points to be wired and load to be
connected to the supply system. For determination of load of an installation the following ratings
maybe assumed unless the values are known or specified.
a) Fluorescent lamps 40 watts.
b) Incandescent lamps, fans, and socket outlets 60 watts.
c) Power socket-outlets 1,000 watts.
d) Exhaust fans as per capacity of exhaust fans.
The Tree System
Another system of distribution of electrical energy in a building is the tree system. In this system
smaller branches are taken from the main branch, as shown in fig. b and the wiring system resembles
a tree. As each branch is taken off, a fuse is inserted. This system used to be employed in early days.
Now-a-days it is no more adopted due to the following draw-backs in this system.
a) The voltage across all the lamps does not remain the same. The lamps in the last
branch will have least voltage across them on account of voltage drop in leads,
b) A number of joints are involved in each circuit.
c) Fuses are scattered.
d) In case of occurrence of fault all the joints have to be located and if some of these joints
are concealed beneath floors or roof spaces, a lot of difficulties are to be faced.
Sometimes a number of such joints are required to be opened for testing purposes, so
damage is caused to installation, conductors and building.


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3.2 Methods of wiring
There are two methods of wiring known as
a) joint box system (or Tee system) and
b) Loop-in system
1. Joint Box or Tee System:
In joint box system the connections to the lamps are made through joints made in joint boxes by
means of suitable connectors or joint cutouts. In this method though there is a saving in the quantity
of wire or cable required but the same is offset by the extra cost of joint boxes. The other
disadvantage of T-connections is that the number of T-connections made in a wiring system results
in weakness if not properly made. Now-a-days the use of this system is limited to temporary
installations only, as its cost is low.


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2. Loop- in- system:
This system is universally employed for connections of various lamps or other appliances in parallel.
In this system when a connection is required at a light or switch, the feed conductor is looped-in by
bringing it direct to the terminal and then carrying it forward again to the next point to be fed, as
shown in fig. d. The switch and light feeds are carried round the circuit in a series of loops from one
point to another until the last point on the circuit is reached.
The phase or line conductors are looped either in switch board or box and neutral conductors are
looped either in switch board or from light or fan. Line or phase should never be looped from light or
fan.

3.3 The advantages and disadvantages of loop-in system are as
follows;
Advantages
a) Joint boxes are not required.
b) In loop-in system no joint is concealed beneath floor or in roof spaces. As they are made only
at outlets so they are accessible for inspection and opening out merely by removing the
fitments concerned. Hence fault location is easy.
Disadvantages:
a) Length of wire or cable required is more and voltage drops and copper losses are,
therefore, more.
b) Looping-in switches and lamp holders is usually difficult.


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3.4 SYSTEMS OF WIRING
The types of internal wiring usually employed in our country are:
1. Cleat wiring:
In this system of internal wiring the cables used are either VIR or PVC type. The cables are held by
porcelain cleats about 6 mm above the walls or ceiling. The cleats are made in two halves, one base
and the other cap. The base is grooved to accommodate the cables and the cap is put over it and whole
of it is then screwed on wooden plugs (gutties) previously cemented into the wall or ceiling. Thus the
cables are firmly griped between the two halves of the cleats and secured to the supporting wall or
ceiling. The cleats used are of different sizes and different types in order to accommodate cables of
various sizes and different numbers of cables respectively. The cleats are of three typesone groove,
two grooves and three grooves to accommodate one, two, and three cables respectively.

Advantages:
a) It is the cheapest system of internal wiring.
b) Its installation and dismantlement is easy and quick.
c) Material is recoverable after dismantlement.
d) Inspection, alterations and additions can be easily made.
e) Skill required is little.
Disadvantages:
a) It is not good looking.
b) It is quite temporary and perishes quickly.
c) The wires are exposed to mechanical injury.
d) The insulation catches dampness from the atmosphere and common salt like substance appears
on the insulation which lowers the insulation resistance and Causes leakage. Hence this system
of wiring cannot be used in damp places.


Page | 33

e) Oil and smoke are injurious to VIR insulation.
Fields of Application:
The wiring of this type is very suitable for temporary installations in dry places. This is also
acceptable where appearance is not so important and cheapness is the main consideration. This
system is not suitable for use in domestic premises.
2. Wooden Casing and Capping Wiring:
The cable used in this type of wiring is either VIR or PVC or any other approved insulated cables.
The cables are carried through the wooden casing enclosures. The casing consists of V-shaped
grooves (usually two to hold the cables of opposite polarity in different groves) and is covered at the
top by means of rectangular strip of wood, known as capping, of same width as that of casing. The
capping is screwed to the casing by means of wooden screws fixed at every 15 cm on the centre fillet.
To protect the casing against white ants first class seasoned teak wood, varnished by shellac varnish is
employed. Two or three cables of same polarity (either all phases or all neutrals) may be run in one
groove and in no case the cables of opposite polarity should be run in the same groove. The casing ia
usually placed 3.2 mm apart from the wall or ceiling by means of porcelain distance pieces of
thickness not less than 6.5 mm in order to keep the casing dry at the back.

3.5 CTS or TRS Wiring.
In this type of wiring the cables used may be single core, twin core or three core TRS cables with a
circular oval shape. Usually single core cables are preferred. TRS cables are sufficiently chemical
proof, water proof, steam proof but are slightly affected by lubricating oils. TRS eaoles are run on
well seasoned, perfectly straight and well varnished (on all four sides) teak wood batten of thickness
10 mm at least. The width of the batten depends upon the number and size of cables to be carried by
it. The battens are available in width of 13,19,25,31,38,44,50,56,63,69 and 75 mm. The wooden
battens are secured to the walls or ceiling by flat head wood screws to wood or other approved plugs
at an interval not exceeding 75 cm. The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of tinned
brass link clips already fixed on the batten with brass pins and spaced at an interval of 10 cm in case
of horizontal runs and 15 cm in case of vertical runs. The wiring after erection is neatly painted with
two coats of oil-less non-cracking paint as specified in IS 732 and so on.


Page | 34

Advantages
a) Its installation is easy and quick and saving in labor largely compensate for the extra cost
of the cable.
b) Its life is long.
c) Within certain limits it is fire proof.
d) It can withstand the action of most chemicals such as acids and alkalies.
e) It is cheaper than other types of wiring except cleat wiring.
f) If the job is carried out with proper attention, it gives a nice appearance.
Disadvantages
a) Good workmanship is required to make a sound job in TRS wiring.
b) This type of wiring cannot be recommended for use in situations open to sun or rain
unless preventive steps are taken to preserve the insulation of cables.
Fields of Application
The TRS wiring is suitable for low voltage installations and is extensively used for lighting purposes
everywhere i.e. in domestic, commercial or industrial buildings except workshop where it is liable to
mechanical injury.
This type of wiring is suitable in situations where acids and alkalies are likely to be present.
4. Lead Sheathed Wiring
This type of wiring employs conductors insulated with VIR and is covered with an outer sheath of
lead aluminum alloy containing about 95% lead. This metal sheath gives protection to the cable from
mechanical injury, dampness and atmospheric corrosion. The whole lead covering is made electrically
continuous and is connected to earth at the point of entry to protect against electrolytic action due to
leaking current and to provide safety against the sheath becoming a live. The cables are run on
wooden batten and fixed by means of link clips as in TRS wiring. The great part of the cable
employed is flat twin (the cable having two insulated conductors side by side covered with red and
black tape respectively and under one flat covering of lead alloy). Three-core flat type cable is also
used in certain cases as well as single core cables under a circular sheath of lead alloy.
Advantages
a) It provides protection against mechanical injury better than provided by TRS wiring.
b) It is easy to fix and looks nice as it can be run in building without damaging
decoration and can be painted to suit colour scheme of the surroundings.
c) Its life is long if proper earth continuity is maintained throughout.
d) It can be used in damp situations provided protection against moisture effect on


Page | 35

the ends of the cable is given.
e) It can be used in situations exposed to rain and sun provided no joint is exposed.
Disadvantages
a) It is costlier than TRS wiring.
b) It is not suitable for places where chemical corrosion may occur.
c) In case of damage to insulation the metal sheath becomes alive and gives shock, so as
to provide safety against electrical shock it is necessary that the sheath is properly
earthed and an earth wire is run side by side with it and all pieces are properly bounded
or joined together so that not a single cover is left unearthed.
d) Skilled labour and proper supervision is required.
This wiring system is suitable for low voltage (up to 250 volts) installations. It may be used in places
exposed to sun and rain provided no joint is exposed. It may also be used in damp places with a
suitable protective covering. It should not be used in places where chemical corrosion may occur..
This type of wiring is not very common in use these days except for some small installations and
distribution boards etc.
5. Conduit Wiring
In this system of wiring steel tubes, known as conduits, are installed on the surface of walls by means
of saddles or pipe hooks or buried under plaster and VIR or PVC cables are drawn into afterwards by
means of a GI wire of size of about 18 SWG. In damp situations the conduits can be spaced from the
walls by means of small wooden blocks fixed below the pipes at regular intervals. In order to
facilitate drawing of wires numbers of inspection fittings are provided along its length. The conduits
should be electrically and mechanically continuous and connected to earth at some suitable point. The
conduits used for this purpose are of two types namely (i) light gauge (or split type) conduit and
heavy gauge (or screwed type) conduit. Light gauge or split conduit with a seam along its length is
used for cheap work. It is not water tight or even damp proof and is not permitted on medium voltage
(i.e. on voltages higher than 250V). Screwed conduit (solid drawn or with welded seam) is used for
all medium voltage (250 V or 600 V) circuits and in places where good mechanical protection and
absolute protection from moisture is desired. In general the finish of the conduit is black stove-
enamelled, there being a smooth coating of enamel both on the inside and outside surface of the tube.
Galvanized conduit is also employed, especially in damp situation when the conduit is on the surface
but under ordinary conditions buried in walls it offers little, if any, advantage over good enamelled
conduits.


Page | 36

Advantages
a) It provides protection against mechanical damage.
b) It provides complete protection against fire due to short-circuits etc.
c) The whole system is water proof.
d) Replacement and alteration of defective wiring is easy.
e) Its life is long if the work is properly executed.
f) It is shock proof also if earthing and bonding is properly done.
Disadvantages
a) It is very costly system of wiring.
b) Its erection is not so easy and requires time.
c) Experienced and highly skilled labour is required for carrying out the job.
Internal condensation of moisture may cause damage to the insulation unless the system outlets are
properly drained and ventilated
As this system of wiring provides protection against fire, mechanical damage and dampness
so this is the only approved system of wiring for:
a) Places where considerable dust or puff is present such as in textile mills, saw mills, flour
mills etc.
b) Damp situations.
c) In workshops for lighting and motor wiring.
d) Places, where there is a possibility of fire hazards such as in oil mills, varnish factories etc.
e) Places, where important documents are kept such as a record room.
f) Residential and public buildings, where the appearance is the prime thing. The recessed type
conduit wiring is preferred for residential and public buildings.
3.6 CHOICE OF WIRING
The following factors should be considered before selecting a particular type of wiring.
a. Safety: The first and foremost consideration is safety to a person using electricity against
leakage or shock. Where there is a possibility of fire hazard, conduit wiring is used.
b. Mechanical Protection: The wiring must be protected from mechanical damage during use.
c. Permanency: The wiring must not deteriorate unduly by action of weather, fumes, dampness
etc.
d. Appearance: The wiring should he good looking.
e. Durability: The wiring must be durable.


Page | 37

f. Accessibility: In wiring system there should be facilities for extension, renewal or alterations.
g. Initial Cost: The wiring selected should suit the pocket of the owner of the building.
h. Maintenance Cost: The wiring should have, as far as possible, the lowest maintenance cost.
The other factors, in addition to above, to be kept in view while making the choice of wiring is load
voltage to be employed, type of building etc.


Page | 38

4. Tools to be in Electric Wiring


Page | 39

5. STUDY OF WIRING ACCESSORIES

Any device, associated with the wiring and electrical appliance of an installation, such as a switch, a
fuse, a plug, a socket-outlet etc. is called the wiring accessory. The cables, flexible cords and various
wiring accessories in common use are briefly described below

5.1 Cables:
The cable or wire used in internal wiring is covered with insulation. The conductor is covered with
insulation so that it may prevent leakage of current from the conductor and thus minimize the risk of
fire and shock.
The wire employed for internal wiring of buildings may be divided into different groups according to
a. Conductor used
b. number of cores used
c. voltage grading and
d. type of insulation used

According to the conductor material used in cables, these may be divided into two classes known as
copper cables and aluminum cables.

According to the number of cores, the cable consists of, the cables maybe divided into the classes
known as single core cables; twin core cables; three core cables; two core with ECC (earth
continuity conductor) cables etc.

According to voltage grading the cables may be divided into two classes:
(i) 250/440 volt cables
(ii) 650/1,100 volt cables.

According to type of insulation the cables are of the following types:
5.1.1 Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) Cables:

VIR cables are available in 250/440 volt as well as in 650/ 1100 volt grades and are used for general
electrical wiring in cleat, casing-capping and conduit wirings.
VIR cable consists of either tinned copper conductor or aluminum conductor covered with a layer of
vulcanized Indian rubber insulation. Over the rubber insulation cotton tape sheathed covering is
provided with moisture resistant compound bitumen wax or some other insulating material for
making the cables moisture proof. The thickness of rubber insulation depends upon the voltage grade
for which the cable is required.
The copper conductor is tinned to provide protection against corrosion due to presence of traces of
sulphr, zinc oxide and other mineral ingredients in the VIR.


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5.1.2 Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS) or Cab Type Sheathed (CTS)
Cables:

These cables are available in 250/440 volt grades and used in CTS'(or TRS) wiring. TRS cable is
nothing but a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor with an outer protective covering of tough
rubber. These cables are water proof, hence can be used in wet conditions. These cables are available
as single core, circular twin core, circular three core, flat three cores, twin core with an earth
continuity conductor etc. In wiring of a three pin plug separate earth wire may be used, as it will be
cheaper in cost and easy in installation.
These cables are cheaper in cost and lighter in weight than lead alloy sheathed cables, described
later and have the properties similar to those, of lead sheathed cables.
5.1.3 Lead Sheathed Cables:
These cables are also available in 250/440 volt grades and are used for internal wiring where climatic
condition is not dry and has a little bit moisture. The lead sheathed cable is a vulcanized rubber
insulated conductor covered with a continuous sheath of lead. The lead sheath provides very good
protection against the absorption of moisture and sufficient protection against mechanical injury and
so can be used without casing or conduit system. It is available as a single core, twin core, flat three
core and flat twin core with an earth continuity conductor.
5.1.4 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Insulated Cables:
These cables are available in 250/440 and 650/1,100 volt grades and are used in concealed wiring
system. In this type of cable conductor is insulated with PVC insulation. Since PVC is harder than
rubber so PVC cable does not require cotton tapping and braiding over it for mechanical and moisture
protection.
Since the PVC is thermo-plastic insulation, so it is affected at high temperatures and it may soften and
flow down. These cables cannot be used for giving connections to the heating appliances, pendant
lighting etc. Though the insulation resistance of PVC is lower than that of VIR but its effect is
negligible for low and medium voltages below 600 volts,
5.1.5Weather Proof/Cables
These cables are used for outdoor wiring and for power supply or industrial supply. These cables are
either PVC insulated or vulcanized rubber insulated conductors being suitably taped (only in case of
vulcanized rubber insulated cable) braided and then compounded with weather resisting material.
These cables are available in 250/440 volt and 650/1100 volt grades. These cables are not affected by
heat or sun or rain.
Although TRS cables can be used for outdoor purposes but due to their higher cost, weather proof
cables are generally used for outdoor services.
5.1.6 Flexible Cords
A cable containing one or more cores, each formed of a group of wires, the diameter of cores and of
the wires being very small to afford flexibility, is known as flexible cord. These are used as
connecting wires for such purposes as from ceiling rose to lamp holder, or from socket-outlet to
portable apparatus such as radios, fans, lamps, heaters etc. The flexibility of such wires facilitate in


Page | 41

handling the appliances and prevent the wires from breakage. The flexible cords used for house hold
appliances are available in various pleasing colours, sizes and of various thickness of insulation.
These wires should never be used for fixed wiring.
Switches
A manually operated device used for closing and opening or for changing the connections of a circuit
is known as a switch.
The switches used in internal wiring may be classified in various ways. According to the type of base
material they are classified as porcelain or bakelite switches. According to colour of base they are
either white or black or brown coloured switches. According to operation required, they are classified
as one way, two-way, centre off, double pole etc. switches.
5.2 One-way Switch
This type of switch consists of two terminals which can be easily seen from the back side of the
switch as well, without removing the cover. The switch is always connect* din series with the point
(lamp, fan or socket-outlet) to be controlled.
5.2 .1Two-way Switch
The switch of this type consists of four terminals, two of them being short-circuited inside the switch.
The switch of this type is usually used for the stair-case wiring or circuits where one point is to be
controlled from two different places.
5.2.2 Two-way Centre off Switch
The switch of this type is just like a two-way switch but having three operations. In the centre it
becomes off. Such switches are used when two lamps are to be operated alternately.
5.2 .3 Double Pole Switch
This is a combination of two one-way switches, which can be operated simultaneously as ON-OFF
terminals of both the switches, are connected together by a handle made of bakelite. Such switches are
used as interlinked switches when the load current is less than 5A and supply voltage is
under250V.Incaseeither of the voltage or current exceeds the limits mentioned above DPI C switch is
used.
5.2 .4 Push-button Switches
Such switches are used for controlling the electric bells. When the knob is pressed, the circuit is
completed and the bell rings and as soon as the knob is left, the circuit becomes open.
5.2 .5 Table Lamp Switch
This is a small on-off switch which is commonly used in table lamps.
5.2 .6 Bed Switch
Such switches are used to switch off the table lamps or other lamps while going to sleep or making
the lamp on while getting up at night. It is connected in aeries with one of the two flexible wires. The
specialty with this switch is that fluorescent material is applied to its knob so that it may glow at night
and can easily be seen in darkness. This is a pendant type switch.
The switches are of two types known as surface switches (or tumbler switches) and flush switches (or


Page | 42

concealed switches).
5.2.6a Tumbler or Surface Switches
Tumbler switches are those which are fixed on the mounting blocks directly fixed on the surface of
the wall. Such switches project out the surface of the wall and are in common use. Surface switches
are available in round and oblong base. Round base switches are cheap and in common use. Oblong
surface switches are good in appearance, but being costly, are rarely used.
5.2.6b Flush Switches
Flush switches, as obvious from their name, are fixed in flush with the wall and do not
project out. These switches are used where high quality performance and appearance are
required.
5.3 Ceiling Rose
The ceiling rose is used to connect the pendant lamps, fans or fluorescent tubes to the installation
through flexible or silk covered wires. These are not used on a circuit, the voltage of which
normally exceeds 250 volts.
Fig26.8 shows a modern form of molded ceiling rose which includes the earth terminal and a
shrouded terminal for looping in live wire.

5.4 Socket-Outlets

The socket-outlets are used to supply electrical connections whenever required for electrical
appliances such as radios, table fans, table lamps, iron, stoves etc. Socket-outlets are of two types
two pin type and three pin type. Two pin socket-outlets have become obsolete now-a-days. The three
pin type socket-outlet has got three hollow terminals in which three pin plugs can easily be inserted
but not loosely. Two holes being of same size, are meant for making connections to the flexible wire
of the appliance and the third hole, which is bigger comparatively, is meant for earth connections.
Thus three holes or sleeves are for live, neutral and earth connections. The three pin socket-outlets are
also of two types:
(i) 5 A for table fans, table lamps, radios etc, and
(ii) 15 A for power circuits as heater, stove, iron etc.


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Three Pin Socket-Outlets Flush Mounting
5.5 Plugs
Plugs are used to take the supply from the socket-outlets for electrical appliances such as table lamp,
table fan, heater etc. Similar to socket-outlets plugs are also of two types namely two pin and three
pin. Two pin type plugs have become obsolete now-a-days. Three pin type plugs consist of three pins
usually made from brass. To the two pins which are thin and of same size, flexible wires are
connected and then covered up. To the third pin, which is thicker comparatively, earth wire from the
electrical appliance is connected. Similar to 3 pin-socket outlets 3 pin plugs are also of two types5
A and 15 A. (see fig. 26.10)

5.6 Lamp Holders
As the name indicates the function of lamp holder is to support the lamp and also to connect it
electrically. These are designed for quick removal and replacement of the lamp. Lamp holders are of
many types. A few will be described here.
Lamp-holders may be either of brass or bakelite type with porcelain interior. Brass holders are more
durable but may give shock if connections are poor. Though bakelite holders are not durable, but do
not give shock.
The following are the different types of lamp holders
5.6.1 Batten Holders
Such lamp holders are used where the lamp is to be fitted to the roof or to the wall i.e. it is directly
fitted either to batten or to wooden boards. Such lamp holders are bayonet type i.e. in such a lamp
holder the lamp is forced in. turned slightly and left in position.


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5.6.2 Pendant or Cored Grip Holders

Such a lamp holder is used when the lamp is to be suspended from the flexible cord. Such a lamp
holder is hanged vertically downward from the ceiling with flu flexible cord, one end of which makes
electrical connections with the ceiling rose and other with the lamp holder and thus with the lamp.

Pendant Lamp Holder
5.6.3 Angle Holders
Such lamp holders are used when the lamps are to be fixed directly on the walls and to give light at
an angle. Such lamp holders are available in various fancy designs and colors.
5.6.4 Slanting Holders
Such lamp holders are used for lamps to be fixed on advertising boards, for flood lights and for stage
lights. Such lamp holders are used along with shades (hand shape shades) so that light is concentrated
on the material displayed and does not trouble the viewer.
5.6.5 Bracket Holders
Such lamp holders are used to give direct light in the room or above a particular place. These cannot
be fixed on the roof or made to hang. Usually these are fixed on the wall. These may also be used in
table lamps.
5.6.7 Water Tight Bracket Holder
Such lamp holders are provided with tubular glasses fixed with water tight cover. Such lamp holders
are used outside the houses and for street lighting where there is no cover to save the bulb from
falling of water over it.
5.6.8 Junction Box
In joint box system of wiring all joints in conductors are made by means of suitable connectors or


Page | 45

joint cutouts in junction boxes. In looping back system of wiring, which is widely used now-a-days,
junction boxes are not required.
Domestic appliances
Some of the commonly used domestic appliances are
Fan
Food mixer
Iron box
Refrigerator
Air Conditioner
5. Experiment: 4a Fan
5.1 Aim: -
To study the working and maintenance of table fan ceiling fan
Theory:-
Fan is an essential home appliance nowadays and is available in different style and facili-ties.
Generally used types are table fan and ceiling fan. We can mount the ceiling fan on the ceiling for
providing wind to whole the room. As per IE rule the minimum height from floor to fan must be2.5
meter? Table fan can be places on tabletop or any flat surface. But it has minimum space limit
compared to ceiling fan.
5.2 Construction
Main parts of a ceiling fan are
(a) Winding
(b) Capacitor &
(c) Regulator
Winding of the motor can be done manually or by automated machine. Regulator may be electronic
type or resistance type. Electronic type regulator has negligible power loss and compact size. But in
the case of resistance type, resistances are connected in series with the circuit; this may cause power
loss as heat.
In table fan one permanent split capacitor run (PSC) motor is the heart of a fan. This motor consists of
two windings one as starting winding and other as running winding. Starting winding of this motor
has high resistance and low reactance but running winding has low resistance and high reactance. One
capacitor is connected in series with the starting winding and whole of this circuit is put in parallel
across running winding. In the case of ceiling fan these two windings are placed in stator in the inner
side of the fan. Rotor has no winding; it is the outer body of the fan. Ceiling fan motor operates just in
opposite manner as compared to general motor. That is actual rotor of the motor is blocked and the
stator is free to rotate. So ceiling fan runs in anticlockwise direction. At
the same time table fan motor is operated as normal case and so it runs in clockwise direction.
Capacitor connected in series with the starting winding should be value 2.5 micro farad. Pyranel
insulated foil paper capacitor is using for this purpose. It helps to provide a split phase effect from
single phase AC supply.


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5.3 SERVICING
Problems and solutions normally occurring in fans are as follows

1. Fan is not working when supply is given
Check the supply at the consuming end.
Dismantle the fan from ceiling and remove the cover. Check the windings,
if it is burnt rewind it with proper gauge copper wire.
Number of turns must be equal to the previous winding, because it may affect the speed of
the fan. If starting winding is burnt, it alone can be replaced but in the case of running
winding we want change these two sets of windings.

2. Fan is not starting and will work when push to start
Check the voltage at the consuming end
Dismantle the capacitor from fan and connect it to AC supply for 30 sec. Then disconnect
and short circuit the capacitor terminals. At that time we can hear one spot sound if it
working, otherwise it can be replaced by new one.
Check the bearing of the motor; if it is dirty grease may be applied


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6. Experiment: 4b Electric food Mixer
6.1 Aim:-
To study the principle of working and servicing of mixer (Mixy)

6.2Working principle:-
Mixer is an essential home appliance used for dry grinding, wet grinding mixing and other purposes.
Different types of blades are used for these purposes. These blades can be replaced for specific work
on the same shaft itself. The power rating of the mixer is varies from 500W to 600W according to
various manufacturers. The speed of this motor is around 1800 rpm. The motor used in mixer is
universal type. So it can be operated on AC and DC. In this type motor stator winding and rotor
winding are connected in series through two carbon brushes which is in contact with the segments of
the commutator. One over load relay is put in series with this circuit for providing overload
protection. Generally used relay has current rating of 2 A. This relay get tripped when the load
become more than the specified. When mixer become off while using (due to tripping of relay) we
can reset it by pressing the button provided at the bottom of the mixer. One speed controlling knob is
provided for controlling the speed of the motor. This can be done by adjusting the number of field
winding tappings.
Universal motors
The Universal motor is the most common type of high speed motor found in appliances and portable
line operated power tools. Typical uses include vacuum cleaners, floor polishers, electric drills,
routers, and sewing machines. They are likely to be found anywhere medium power, high speed,
and/or variable speed controls are required capabilities.
Construction consists of a stationary set of coils and magnetic core called the 'stator' and a rotating
set of coils and magnetic core called the 'armature'. Incorporated on the armature is a rotating switch
called a commutator? Connection to the armature is via carbon (or metal) contacts called 'brushes'
which are mounted on the frame of the motor and press against the commutator. Technically, these
are actually series wound DC motors but through the use of steel laminated magnetic core material,
will run on AC or DC - thus the name universal.
Changing direction requires interchanging the two connections between the stator and the armature.
This type of motor is found in blenders, food mixers, vacuum cleaners, sewing machines, and many
portable power tools.
Speed control of DC motors: The speed of a dc motor is given by the relation

N Eb/
When Eb = V-IaRa

N V-IaRa/
From the above equation it is clear that the speed of Dc motors can be controlled;

By varying flux per pole. This is known as flux or field control method.

By varying the armature drop, i.e. by varying the resistance of the armature
circuit. This is known as armature control method.


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By varying the applied voltage. This is known as voltage control method.

Field control method: The speed of series motor can be controlled by varying the flux
produced by the series field winding. The variation flux can be brought about by tapping
the field winding.

Tapped field control:

In food Mixers tapped field control method is used for varying the speed. In this method
the number of turns of the series field winding can be changed by short circuiting a part
of it as shown in figure.
We know that the flux produced by the winding depends upon the ampere turns (i.e. Ise x No. of
turns). As the number of turns is reduced, the speed of the motor increased (N 1/ ).

Servicing

1. Mixer produces spark and smoke
Check wires and connections
Check the brushes and replace it, if it gets damaged. We can by the same
brushes from the market for replacing
2. Mixer is not working.
Check the cable and winding
Check the overload relay. Replace it if it gets damaged. This over load relay can be
buying from market.
3. Jar of the mixer becomes loose.
Dismantle the coupler shaft and check the washer.If it gets damaged replace or add
two or three washers.,


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7. Experiment: 4c ELECTRIC IRON BOX

7.1Aim: -
To study the principle of working and servicing of electric iron box
7.2 Working principle:-
Electric iron boxes are very essential home appliance used for ironing garments.
Nowadays this iron boxes are available at different forms with types of facilities.
Generally used two types are as follows.
A. Ordinary
B. Non automatic type

The parts of an ordinary non automatic type iron boxes are chromium plated sole plate, Nichrome
heating element with mica covering, One single plate (Pressure plate) to cover the heating element,
Chromium plated case and ebonite handle.

When supply is given to nichrome heating element it will heated up and the sole plate
Touching with it also gets heated. This nichrome element is mica sheet in order to insulate electricity
and conduct heat easily. The iron box body should be earthed well, since there is a usual chance for
electric shock. While using this ordinary iron box we have to switch off it frequently in order to
prevent over heating; because there is no control for heating of element. The heating element is fitted
between sole plate and pressure plate tightly, to prevent air contact. Ebonite handle of the iron box is
used to move it without heating or electric shock to body. Power rating of this type iron box is around
450 W.
B. Automatic iron box
This type of iron box has a thermostat switch and is connected in series with line. Thermostat controls
the temperature, prevent over heating of Iron box and avoid damage of heating element. The required
temperature for different types of garments can be obtained by adjusting the thermostat knob provided
on the iron box body.
Thermostat is a thermal switch which operates automatically due to the variation of heat
Produced around it. Thermostat consists of two contacts, one as fixed contact and other as moving
contact. The movable contact of thermostat consists of a bimetal which is normally in contact with
another strip of metal having fixed contact.
When supply is given to iron box the current starts to flow through the contacts and the tempera-ture
rises. This increment in temperature causes the contacts of bimetal strip to bent and opens. It will


Page | 50

cause to stop the flow of current through heating element. While ironing when temperature reduces
than pre fixed value bimetal strip regains its normal position and the circuit again com-pleted. An
indicator lamp of 3.8 V is connected in the circuit on the handle of iron box to indicate the working.
Automatic iron boxes are now available in light weight form with power rating 750 W.
7.3 Servicing
1. Iron box is not working
Check the supply at consuming end
Check the thermostat for open circuit
Check the heating element continuity
2. Iron box has no enough temperature when knob is placed at one position.
Check the heating element.
Adjust the screw below the knob to produce enough temperature.
3. Shock on body
Check the continuity of earth wire to body. If it does not get continuity dismantle the
cover and connect earth wire properly.
8. Experiment 4d: Refrigerator
8.1Introduction:
Refrigeration systems are used for maintaining low temperature say from 20 degree Celsius down to
very low temperature, as those required for food prseveration, industrial applications, laboratories etc.
The Purpose of Refrigeration: The fundamental reason for having a refrigerator is to keep food cold.
Cold temperatures help food to stay fresh longer. The basic idea behind refrigeration is to slow down
the activity of bacteria (which all food contains) so that it takes longer for the bacteria to spoil the
food.
Refrigeration: It is the process of removing heat at a low temperature level and rejecting it at a
relatively higher temperature level. By its nature heat flows from a body at a higher temperature to
another at a lower temperature.
Refrigeration is accomplished by various methods such as vapour compression system, absorption
system, steam jet refrigeration cycle. The vapour compression cycle is used in most house hold
refrigerators.

Refrigerant: Refrigerants are heat carrying medium, which during their cycle in the refrigeration
system absorb heat at a low temperature level and discard the heat so absorbed at a higher level.
8.2 The various components of a vapor compression refrigeration
system are:
Evaporator
Refrigerant
Compressor
Condenser and
Throttling device(capillary tube) Thermostat
Fan


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Motor
Evaporator or Heat-exchanging pipes: - Coiled set of pipes inside the unit. The process of heat
removal from the substance to be cooled or refrigeration is done in the evaporator.
Refrigerant: - Refrigerants are heat carrying medium, which during their cycle in the refrigeration
system absorbs heat at a low temperature level and reject it at a higher temperature level.
Freon: Which is commonly used refrigerant in vapour compression refrigerator system. Freon (F) is
trade name given to gas, which is mixture of chlorine, fluorine and carbon. Freon-12, Freon-22, and
Freon-114 are extensively used for domestic
And commercial refrigeration.
A majority of these refrigerants have boiling points much below ordinary room temperature. So they
exist as gases and are only held in liquid state by keeping them under pressure, such as in refrigerant
cylinder.
8.3Compressor:
It is a form of pump for compressing gases in order to increase its pressure.This device is used for
raising the low pressure refrigerant vapour to a high pressure. Rotary compressors are mainly used in
domestic refrigerators; these are most suited for pumping refrigerants having moderate or low
condensing pressures. If the pressure of the refrigerant is raised (2.6 to11.25 kg/cm sq ) then the high
pressure vapour can be condensed in to a liquid by cooling it with the atmospheric air available say at
temperature about 32.2 degree Celsius.
In domestic refrigerator compressor and motor are assembled in a single unit and is called
hermetically sealed unit. The unit is installed at the bottom of the refrigerator and the advantage is
that the problem of gas leakage is minimized as there is no extension of moving parts through the
sealed housing.

Condenser or Heat-exchanging pipes: Coiled set of pipes outside the unit Apparatus used for
condensing vapours in to liquid, it consists of a condenser tube which is freely exposed to air through
which refrigerant vapour is circulating for condensing.
There are three kinds of condensers, namely
Air cooled condenser use air as the cooling medium, water cooled condenser use water as the cooling
medium and the evaporative condenser is a combination of both water and air. In domestic
refrigerator natural air cooling is done by providing metallic fins with condenser coil.
Expansion valve or throttling device: By the use of throttling device the pressure of the liquid can be
reduced to the pressure needed in the evaporator. To lower the pressure of a refrigerant vapour
capillary tube is used.
Thermostat: An instrument which measures changes in temperature, and directly or indirectly controls
sources of heating and cooling to maintain a desired temperature.
Fan: Fan for circulating air over the evaporator or cooling coil.
Motor: Single phase induction motor of rating 1 hp is used in the rotary compressor.
There are two things that need to be known for refrigeration.
A gas cools on expansion.
When you have two things that are different temperatures that touch or are near each other, the
hotter surface cools and the colder surface warms up. This is a law of physics called the Second
Law of Thermodynamics.


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8.4The basic mechanism of a refrigerator works like this:
The compressor compresses the refrigerant gas. This raises the refrigerant's pressure and
temperature (orange), so the heat-exchanging coils outside the refrigerator allow the refrigerant
to dissipate the heat of pressurization.
As it cools, the refrigerant condenses into liquid form and flows through the expansion valve.
When it flows through the expansion valve, the liquid refrigerant is Allowed to move from a
high-pressure zone to a low-pressure zone, so it expands and evaporates. In evaporating, it
absorbs heat, making it cold.
The coils inside the refrigerator allow the refrigerant to absorb heat, making the inside of
the refrigerator cold. The cycle then repeats.

8.5 Air Conditioner

An air conditioner removes heat and moisture from the air by passing it over a cold surface. When
warm, moist "inside" air is blown across the surface of the unit's cooling coil, the air temperature
drops and the water vapor in it condenses making the air cooler and drier and therefore more
"comfortable."
Room air conditions are installed on windows or wall openings. The assembly incorporates a
refrigeration unit, and double shaft fan motor with fans mounted on both sides of the motor, one on
the evaporator side and other for the air cooled condenser. The room (or cooling) side and the outdoor
(or heat rejection) side of the unit are separated by an insulated patrician within the casing.
8.5.1 How Does an Air Conditioner Work?
Air conditioners and refrigerators work the same way. Instead of cooling just the small, insulated
space inside of a refrigerator, an air conditioner cools a room, a whole house, or an entire business.
Air conditioners use chemicals that easily convert from a gas to a liquid and back again. This
chemical is used to transfer heat from the air inside of a home to the outside air.


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The machine has three main parts. They are a compressor, a condenser and an evaporator. The
compressor and condenser are usually located on the outside air portion of the air conditioner. The
evaporator is located on the inside the house.
The working fluid arrives at the compressor as a cool, low-pressure gas. The compressor squeezes the
fluid. This packs the molecule of the fluid closer together. The closer the molecules are together, the
high its energy and its temperature. The working fluid leaves the compressor as a hot, high pressure
gas and flows into the condenser. If you looked at the air conditioner part outside a house, look for the
part that has metal fins all around. The fins act just like a radiator in a car and help the heat go away,
or dissipate, more quickly.
When the working fluid leaves the condenser, its temperature is much cooler and it has changed from
a gas to a liquid under high pressure. The liquid goes into the evaporator through a very tiny, narrow
hole. On the other side, the liquid's pressure drops. When it does it begins to evaporate into a gas. As
the liquid changes to gas and evaporates, it extracts heat from the air around it. The evaporator also
has metal fins to help in exchange the thermal energy with the surrounding air.
By the time the working fluid leaves the evaporator, it is a cool, low pressure gas. It then returns to
the compressor to begin its trip all over again.
A fan is connected to the evaporator that circulates the air inside the house to blow across the
evaporator fins. Hot air is lighter than cold air, so the hot air in the room rises to the top of a room.
There is a vent there where air is sucked into the air conditioner and goes down ducts. The heat
exchanging takes place at the evaporator as the heat is removed from the air, the air is cooled. It is
then blown into the house through other ducts usually at the floor level.
This continues over and over and over until the room reaches the temperature you want the room
cooled to. The thermostat senses that the temperature has reached the right setting and turns off the air
conditioner. As the room warms up, the thermostat turns the air conditioner back on until the room
reaches the comfortable temperature.
The refrigeration cycle in an air conditioner is :
1. The compressor compresses cool Freon gas, causing it to become hot, high-pressure Freon gas
(red in the diagram above).
2. This hot gas runs through a set of coils so it can dissipate its heat, and it condenses into a liquid.
3. The Freon liquid runs through an expansion valve, and in the process it evaporates to become
cold, low-pressure Freon gas (light blue in the diagram above).
4. This cold gas runs through a set of coils that allow the gas to absorb heat and cool down the air
inside the building.


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8.6 Induction type single phase energy meter
Induction type instruments are used only for a.c measurements. These instruments can be used
either as ammeter, voltmeter or wattmeter. However, the induction principle finds its widest
application as an energy meter. Induction type single-phase energy meter is used invariably to
measure the energy consumption in any a.c circuit in a prescribed period where supply voltage and
frequency are constant. Energy meter is an integrating instrument which measures the total quantity of
electrical energy supplied to the circuit in a given period.
Principle:
The basic principle of induction type energy meter is electromagnetic induction. When
alternating current flows through two suitably located coils (current coil and potential coil) produces
rotating magnetic field which is cut by the metallic disc suspended near to the coils, Thus an e.m.f is
induced in the disc which circulates eddy currents in it. By the interaction of rotating magnetic field
and eddy currents, torque is developed and causes the disc to rotate.
Construction
An induction type single phase energy meters, as shown in fig. has the following main parts of the
operating mechanism.
Driving system
Moving System
Braking System
Recording mechanism
Driving System:-
The driving system of the meter consists of two electromagnets,
a. Series magnet
b. Shunt magnet
a. Series magnet:
It consists of a number of U- shaped laminations of silicon steel together to form a core. A core of
thick wire having a few turns is wound on both the legs of U-shaped magnet as shown in fig. This
coil is connected in series with load. Thus it is excited by the circuit current I and is known as
current coil. This magnet is placed below the aluminium disc and produces the magnetic field se
proportional to and in phase with the line current I.
b. Shunt Magnet
It consist of a number of M-shaped laminations of silicon steel assembled together to form a core. A
coil of thin wire having large number of turns is wounded on the central limb of the magnet as shown
m above: Fig. The coil is connected across the load. Thus it is excited by the current proportional to
the supply voltage and is known as, potential or pressure coil. This magnet is placed above the
aluminium disc.
In order to obtain deflecting torque, current in the pressure coil must lag behind the supply
voltage by 90. For this the copper shading band (Short circuiting copper ring) is provided on the
central limb of the shunt magnet. The phase difference of 90 is obtained by adjusting the position of
this shading band. The shading band acts as Short circuited transformer secondary. Since its
resistance Is negligibly small as compared to its inductance, therefore current circulating in the
shading band lags behind the supply voltage nearly by 90. Thus the shunt magnet produced a field
sh
proportional to applied voltage. This field is in phase with the current flowing through the


Page | 55

pressure coil I
p
but is in quadrature with the applied voltage.
Moving System:
It consists of a light aluminium disc mounted on a vertical spindle. The aluminium disc is
positioned in the air gap between series and shunt magnets, The spindle is supported by a cup shaped
jewelled bearing at the bottom end and has a spring jewel bearing at the top end. Since there is no
control spring the disc makes continous rotation under the action of deflecting torque.
Braking system:
A permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the aluminium disc as showin the Fig. forms
the braking system. When the aluminium disc moves in the field of the braking magnet, flux is cat
and currents are induced in the disc. The direction of induced current is such that it opposes the
rotation (lenz's law). Thus braking torque is produced. Since the induced current is proportional to the
speed of the disc (N) therefore braking torque (T ) is proportional to the disc speed (ie) T. x N.
The position of braking magnet is adjustable and therefore, braking torque can be adjusted by shifting
the magnet to different radial positions. If the braking magnet is moved towards the centre of the disc,
flux cut the disc is less which reduces the induced current and thus the braking torque is reduced.
Hence by the inward movement of the magnet, braking torque decreases but the speed of the disc
increases and vice-versa.
Recording mechanism
The function of recording or registering mechanism is to record continuosly a number on the dial
which is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving system. The number of revolutions of
the disc is a measure of the electrical energy passing through the meter.
Working:

When the energy meter is connected in the circuit, the current coil carries the load current and
pressure coil carries the current proportional to the supply voltage. The magnetic field produced by
the series magnet (series coil) is in phase with the line current and magnetic field produced by the
shunt magnet (pressure coil) is in quadrature with the applied voltage (since the coil is highly
inductive). Thus a phase difference exist between the fluxes produced by the two coils. This set up a
rotating field which interacts with the disc and produces a driving torque and thus, disc starts rotating.


Page | 56

The number of revolutions made by the disc depends upon the energy passing through the meter. The
spindle is geared to the recording mechanism so that electrical energy consumed in the circuit is
directly registered in kWh.
The speed of the disc is adjusted by adjusting the position of the braking magnet. For example,
if the energy meter registers less energy than the energy actually consumed in the circuit. Then, the
speed of the disc has to be increased which is obtained by shifting the braking magnet nearer to the
centre of the disc and vice-versa.
8.7 Electric lamps
A brief on electric lamps
The first ever practical model of the incandescent lamp was invented in 1879. Since then,
there has been series of developments in the area of light source and lighting technology.
The first incandescent lamp was made with a carbon filament with a useful light output of
only three lumens per watt. A long time has gone by since then and today there are about
200 thousand different types of demands keeping in view the wattage, size, applications, etc.
It includes about 40,000 types of incandescent lamps alone. Lamp differ from each other in
terms of luminous flux, light, the colour of the light, their colour rendering characteristics,
size and energy consumption. Broadly
Different types of lamps can be classified as follows:
1. Incandescent lamp (GLS)
2. Fluorescent lamps (FTL)
3. High Pressure Mercury Vapour lamps (HPMVL)
4. Halogen lamps
5. High Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamps (HPSVL)
6. Low Pressure Sodium Vapour lamps (LPSVL)
7. Metal Halide lamps
8. Mercury Blended lamps
9. Compact Fluorescent lamps
8.7.1 Incandescent Lamps
Incandescent lamp has a history of over a century. The design of the lamp has changed many
times, but still it remains to be the most popular type due to its simple construction, easy
replacement and cheap cost. Incandescent lamps are available in wattage rating upto 1500W.
Construction
Fig. a illustrates the construction of a general lighting service (GLS) lamp. Incandescent
lamps work on the principle that visible light and infrared radiation are emitted as a result of
heating of the filament wire by a current passing through it. These emissions become
noticeable above 500C. Tungsten is usually used as the filament material since it has high
melting point. The diameter of the filament wire is determined by the operating current and
the length of the filament by the operating voltage. For normal voltages, the length will be
too much and a coiled coil arrangement is adopted to accommodate the long filament wire.
The filament is mounted on leads that carry the current.
Fig.a Incandescent lamp construction


Page | 57

To reduce the effect of vibration, additional filament supports are also employed. The filament
assembly is usually housed in a pear shaped glass bulb. The bulb diameter for 25W, 40W, 60W and
100W coiled coil type lamps is 60 mm. The size of the bulb is decided by the maximum limit for cap
temperature. For the same wattage if the bulb size is reduced, the cap temperature will increase and
eventually result in failure of mounting accessories.
Inside the lamp it may be vacuum or a filling of inert gas like argon or krypton with a small
percentage of nitrogen. The choice between vacuum and gas filling is made after considering the
following factors. Vacuum reduces heat loss and therefore helps to get the highest temperature of the
filament and hence more light output. But it also increases the evaporation rate of tungsten, reducing
its life. Filling with an inert gas reduces evaporation of the filament material, but conducts heat away
from the filament, reducing the temperature and the light output. Generally vacuum is used for low
wattage lamps (15W or below) and gas filling for higher power lamps.
Performance
Incandescent lamp is the most widely used lamp because of its cheap cost and simple usage. It is
available in a wide range of voltage and wattage ratings and do not require any additional accessories
for starting or normal operation. They have excellent colour rendering index and are used as
automobile lamps, panel lamps etc. in addition to general lighting purposes.
The major disadvantage of the incandescent lamp is its low efficacy. A typical 40W lamp may have
an efficacy of around 10 lumens/watt only. Compared to other types
Of lamps, the life is also less - around 1000 hours.
8.7.2Tungsten Halogen Lamps
In incandescent lamps, the filament material (tungsten) evaporates and gets deposited on the inner
surface of the bulb. This affects the performance of the incandescent lamp. First it erodes the
filament material resulting in reduction of current and hence the light produced. It also reduces the
life of the lamp. Also, tungsten deposited on the glass bulb reduces its transparency resulting in
lower light output. These problems are solved to a great extent in tungsten halogen lamps in which
some halogen is also introduced into the bulb along with the filling gas.
When a halogen is added to the filling gas, the tungsten vapour and halogen molecules combine to
form tungsten-halogen molecules. These molecules diffuse back to the filament and dissociate;
tungsten gets deposited on the filament and the halogen will be available for further reaction.


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Commonly used halogens are iodine and bromine. To ensure the combination of tungsten vapour and
the halogen, the lamp envelope also should be at a higher temperature than in ordinary tungsten
lamps. For that, the envelope is made smaller and is usually made of quartz or high melting point
glass to withstand the higher temperature.
The tungsten halogen lamps have longer life compared to incandescent lamps. For the same wattage,
light output is also higher compared to an incandescent lamp. These lamps are commonly used as
projector lamps, photographic lamps, automobile lamps etc. and are also used for flood lighting.
8.7.3 Fluorescent Lamps

Fluorescent lamp is the most widely used discharge lamp. It is an energy efficient lamp
available in low and medium wattage range making it suitable for domestic and
commercial lighting purposes.


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Construction
The construction of a standard fluorescent lamp is shown in Fig. c. It consists of a glass tube of
around 36 mm diameter and a length of 1200 mm. The inner surface of the tube is coated with a
fluorescent powder - usually phosphor coating. Tungsten wire electrodes with bi-pin cap are
provided at both ends. There is an electrode shield around each electrode to reduce the blackening of
the tubes due to deposition of evaporated tungsten. The tube is filled with an inert gas such as argon
to a pressure of 1.5 to 5 mm of mercury. A small drop-let of mercury is also introduced into the tube.
During normal operation this mercury vaporizes and helps to maintain the discharge.

Operation
Fluorescent lamps are designed for switch start operation. A typical switch start circuit is shown in
Fig. c. The starter consists of two bimetallic contacts, housed in a small glass bulb filled with a noble
gas at low pressure. The contacts are positioned with a narrow separation between them. When the
normal voltage is applied, it creates a glow discharge between the bimetallic contacts and due to
heating they bend towards each other. The contacts touch each other for one or two seconds and the
current path is completed through the inductive ballast and the filament electrodes. This current
results in preheating the electrodes. As the bimetallic contacts touch, the glow discharge stops and
now the contacts cool down and leave apart to
open the circuit. The sudden break of current will induce a high voltage (600-1500V) in the ballast
and is applied across -the tube, which in turn trigger the discharge through the tube. The capacitor,
which is connected across the starter contact, is provided to reduce the radio interference due to
switching operations. The starter has no function once the lamp is started.
Like other discharge lamps, fluorescent lamps are also having a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance. This means the resistance of the tube decreases when temperature is increased, resulting
in increase of current. Therefore the ballast is essential during normal operation also to regulate the
lamp current. When the ballast is connected in series with the circuit, it regulates the lamp current.
The capacitor across the supply line is for power factor improvement.
When there is a discharge through the lamp, it produces radiations mainly in the ultraviolet region.
This radiation is converted to visible radiation by the phosphor coating on the inner side of the glass
tube.
Performance
The luminous efficiency of the fluorescent lamp is around 75 lumens/watt, which is much higher
than incandescent lamps. The colour rendering index of this lamp is in the rage of 50-60 and this is
sufficient for normal domestic or commercial lighting. Fluorescent tamps have an expected life
varying from 6000 to 20000 hours. One disadvantage with this lamp is that the power factor of the
circuit is low (around 0.5), but this problem can be solved to some extent by connecting a capacitor
across the supply.
8.7.4Compact Fluorescent Lamps
Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) are now becoming very popular. It is a smaller type fluorescent
lamp that is even more energy efficient. CFLs are available in wattage ratings of 5W, 7W, 9W, 11W,
13W, 18W, 23W etc. and usually they come with an adapter having a cap similar to the incandescent
lamp cap so that the lamp can directly be fixed into an ordinary lamp holder. The adapter contains


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necessary circuits for startup and normal operation of the lamp. The principle of operation is very
similar to ordinary fluorescent lamps, but uses a thin tube. The tube may be U shaped or having
multiple folds. The light output of an 11W CFL is equivalent to that of a 60W incandescent lamp.
This means the energy saving by the use of CFLs is enormous.

8.7.4a Mercury Vapour Lamps
Mercury vapour lamp is a discharge lamp, available in a wattage range of 50 to 1OOO W. It is
commonly used for street lighting, yard lighting etc.
Construction and operation
The lamp has an arc tube inside and an outer envelope as shown in Fig. d The inner side of the
envelope has a phosphor coating. The actual discharge takes place inside the arc tube.

Fig. d Mercury vapour lamp construction


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The arc tube is made of quartz and is capable of withstanding high temperature and pressure. Inside
the discharge tube there are two main electrodes placed at both ends and an auxiliary electrode near to
one of the main electrodes. The tube contains a mixture of mercury vapour and an inert gas - usually
argon. Initially, when the voltage is applied there will be no discharge between the main electrodes,
but the same voltage is available between the auxiliary electrode and the main electrode next to it.
Since the gap between these two electrodes is less, it triggers a discharge between them. A series
resistance limits this discharge current. The heat generated by this discharge evaporates more mercury
and within a few minutes, the discharge starts between the main electrodes, giving its full brightness.
The radiations produced by the tube include ultraviolet and infrared rays in nearly equal proportions.
The ultraviolet rays are converted to visible radiation by the phosphor coating on the outer envelope.
Being discharge type, mercury vapour lamp also has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
Therefore an equipment to regulate the current is necessary. A ballast connected in series with the
lamp serves the purpose.
Performance
There are different types of mercury lamps available and the efficacy and colour rendering index vary
from type to type. The highest efficacy is around 60 lumens/watt, but with colour rendering index of
around 20 only. Certain types of MV lamps have higher colour index at the expense of efficacy.MV
lamps are generally used for street lighting and some commercial exteriors where colour rendering is
not important. These lamps have long life (upto 20000 hours).
8.7.5Metal Halide Lamps
Metal halide lamp is a modified form of mercury vapour lamp. In this lamp,
metals other than mercury are also added to the discharge tube. Due to the spectral contribution of
these metals, light emission occurs over a wide range of visible spectrum and hence the colour
rendering index and efficacy are considerably increased. Commonly used metals are sodium,
scandium, gallium thallium, indium etc. The selection of metals and the composition are dependant
on the type of emission required.

The metals are usually used in the form of their halide salts - hence the name metal halide. The halide


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group includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine but in most commercially available lamps, only
iodine compounds are used, like sodium iodide, scandium iodide etc.
Metal halide lamps are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The power rating is in a range
of 40 - 1800W. One typical construction is very similar to mercury vapour lamps as shown in Fig (d).
Another commonly used type of metal halide lamp has both the leads connected to a bi-pin cap as
shown in Fig (e). The arc tube is made from high quality silica. The electrodes used are of tungsten
and the filling for the arc tube consists of argon, mercury and metal halides appropriate for the
emission required.
Performance
Metal halide lamps have efficacy in the range of 60-80 Im/W and a colour rendering index of 70-85.
That means both the efficacy and colour rendering are better than mercury vapour lamps. Due to this
reason, many users now prefer metal halide lamps over mercury vapour lamps. Metal halide lamps
are widely used as projector lamps, for television and film shooting etc.
8.7.6 Sodium Vapour Lamps
Sodium vapour lamp is also.a discharge lamp. The discharge tube of this lamp contains a mixture of
sodium vapour and an inert gas usually neon. At normal temperature, the sodium inside the tube
shall be in solid state and therefore do not contribute to discharge. The inert gas is added as a 'starting
gas' and the initial discharge shall be due to the presence of this gas. The radiation produced by
sodium lamp is predominantly a monochromatic yellow coloured radiation at 589 nm wavelength.
This wavelength has a speciality that it is very near to the peak of the eye sensitivity curve.
Construction and operation
There are two variants of sodium vapor lamps - low pressure and high pressure types. There is slight
difference in the construction of these two types.

Fig. (f) Low pressure sodium vapour lamp


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Fig. (g) High pressure sodium vapour lamp
Above figure shows the construction of a low pressure sodium vapour lamp. The vapour pressure of
sodium is about 0.1 Pa for this type. The discharge tube is a U shaped glass tube. The inside of the arc
tube is coated with a sodium resistant glass layer. At the two ends of the tube, there are coiled
electrodes. When the lamp is not burning, the sodium will be in solid state deposited on the inner side
of the tube. At startup the lamp functions like a neon lamp with a characteristic pink colour. As the
temperature builds up, the sodium vapourises and starts radiating yellow light. The lamp shall give it
full brightness within a few minutes.
There is an outer envelope for the lamp and the space between the discharge tube and the envelope is
vacuum. Vacuum is necessary to reduce the heat loss from the discharge tube. It is also important to
maintain the temperature of the discharge tube at around 260 C for generating proper radiation. In
high pressure sodium vapor lamp, the vapour pressure is much higher (about 7000 Pa). At
thispressure, the radiation from the discharge covers a good part of the visible spectrum and therefore
the colour rendering properties improves. The temperature of the discharge tube is around 1300 C.
Fig 17.10 shows a typical construction of a high pressure sodium vapour lamp. The operating
temperature is much higher compared to the low pressure type. The arc tube is made of a translucent
ceramic material. This material is particularly selected because it does not react with sodium or loose
its shape even at higher temperatures. There is an outer envelope for the lamp and the space between
the arc tube and the envelope is vacuum or an inert gas filling.
Sodium vapour lamps are also having a negative temperature coefficient of resistance and therefore
requires a ballast to control the current during normal operation. The lamp has another requirement
that for starting, it requires a higher voltage than the normal operating voltage. For low pressure
sodium vapour lamp, the starting voltage is around 450V and for high pressure type the striking
voltage is between 1000 and 4000 V. Fig. 17.11 shows a typical circuit suitable for low pressure
sodium vapour lamp. An autotransformer with high leakage reactance is used for starting and to
control the current during normal operation. High leakage reactance results in higher voltage
regulation. At start the lamp current will be low and the high voltage required for starting will be
available from the auto transformer. As the sodium vapourise, the lamp current increases and due to
the high regulation of the autotransformer, the voltage falls to the normal operating voltage. These
circuits have low lagging power factor between 0.3 and 0.4 and to improve the power factor, a
capacitor is connected across the input.
Electronic igniters are available now for all types of discharge lamps. These igniters are designed to
give the high startup voltage required by discharge lamps.
Performance
Low pressure sodium vapour lamps have very high efficacy of 100 to 180 lumens/watt. This is mainly


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because the radiation produced is in the visible spectrum. On the other hand these lamps have
extremely low colour rendering index since the light output is monochromatic. Low pressure sodium
vapour lamps are available in the range of 18-180 W.
The colour rendering index of high pressure sodium lamps is better than low pressure type (about
25%), but the efficacy is slightly less (65 to 140 lumens/watt). High pressure sodium vapour lamps
are available in the range of 35 - 1000 W.
Due to the low colour rendering properties, the application for sodium vapour lamps is limited to
street lighting, security lighting etc where the colour discrimination is not important. The life of these
lamps is about 20000 hours.


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Experiment No 5: TOOLS TO BE USED IN HOUSE WIRING


Page | 66


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10.1 HOUSE WIRING
Introduction:
Power is supplied to the domestic installations through, the phase and a neutral, forming
a single phase A.C. 230V, two wire system. For industrial establishments, power is supplied
through three-phase four-wire system to give 440V. Figure shows the power tapping for
domestic and industrial purposes. The neutral is earthed at the sub-station of the supply.
As a safe practice all single-phase devices such as switches, fuses etc., are connected
to the live conductor. All electrical conductors and cables are colored coded and must be
correctly connected up. Electrical wiring is defined as a system of electrical conductors,
components and apparatus for conveying electrical power from the source to the point of use.
The wiring system must be designed to provide a constant voltage to the load.
10.1.1 Elements of House wiring:
1. Fuses and circuit breakers
2. Electrical switch
3. Plug
4. Socket outlet
5. Lamp holder
6. Ceiling Rose
7. Main switch
8. Incandescent light


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10.1.2 Wires and wire sizes:
A wire is defined as a bare or insulated conductor consisting of one or several strands.
An insulated wire consists of a conductor (Silver/Copper/Aluminium) with insulating material
made of vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) or Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC).
Wire sizes are specified by the diameter of the wire, using a standard wire gauge
(SWG), which also gives an idea of the current carrying capacity. The specification consists
of both the number of strands and diameter of each wire in it. For Example, the specification
3/18 PVC consists of 3 strands of 18 gauge each.
Various systems of wiring:
1. Cleat wiring
2. C.T.S. / T.R.S.Wiring (Cap tyer sheathed/ Tough rubber sheathed wiring)
3. Wooden casing & capping wiring
4. Lead sheathed wiring
5. Conduit wiring
6. PVC casing & capping
Wiring methods:
1. Series circuit
2. Parallel circuit
10.1.3 Fundamentals of Electricity:
Electricity: Electricity is a form of energy, which cannot be seen. But can be felt and effects
like magnetic effect, Heating effect and Chemical effect.
Voltage: It is a pressure which makes the electricity to flow. The unit of measure is Volt. The
symbol used is V. The instrument used to measure is Voltmeter.


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Current: The free flow of electrons is called as current. The unit to measure current is Ampere.
The symbol is A. The instrument used to measure the current is Ammeter.
Resistance: It is opposition to current. The unit of resistance is Ohm. The symbol of ohm is
. The resistance is measured by Ohmmeter.
Watt: It is the rate of doing work, when potential difference across the current is of volt and
current flowing is ampere per second. The energy consumed is of Watt.
1000 Watts = 1 Unit
746 Watts = 1 H.P.
The following are the formulae for calculation.
Voltage V or E = W / I = WR = IR
Current I = E / R = W / E = W / R
Resistance R = E2 / W = E / I = W / I2
Wattage W = I2R = EI = E2 / R
House Wiring Tools:
Combination Pliers : Used for holding, twisting or cutting of wires.
Side cutting Plier: Used for Cutting at narrow places or ordinary places for removing
insulation.
Round Nose Plier or Flat Nose Plier: Used for holding, twisting or joining the wire at narrow
places.
Firmer Chisel: Used for chipping, scrapping and grooving the wood.


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Cold chisel: Used for chipping, Boring and channeling in walls.
Tenon saw or back Saw: Used for cutting wooden boards, Block casting etc.
Hack saw: Used for cutting conduit GI pipes or mild steel.


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Mallet: Used as a hammer and made of wood
Double Blade Electric knife: It has two blades, one for removing insulation of wires and
another for cleaning the wires
Soldering Iron: Used to solder small joint terminals
Poker: Used for making pilot holes for fixing wood screws.
Line Tester: Used for testing the current.
Royal Plug Tool: It is made of steel and is used for making holes in the stone wall or concrete
wall for fibre made Royal plugs.
Screw driver: Used for loosening, tightening and to keep the screws in position.
Ball Peen Hammer: Used for fitting nails in the walls or wooden boards.
Instructions :
1. When closing the electric switch, always grasp the switch by the insulated handle.
2. Do not run too many electrical items from one point.
3. Use fuses and circuit breakers of proper capacity, so as to interrupt the current before it becomes
dangerous.
4. Disconnect the units to be repaired free from power supply and make sure that they might not be
energized while the repair work continues.
5. Do not pour water to put-off fires in electric wires and electric equipment. You will be subjected to
electric shock or you will be electrocuted. Use sand to put-off fires in electric items.
6. Whenever there is power failure, put-off the power supply to all equipment, in order to prevent
spontaneous recovery.
7. Never remove a plug from an outlet by pulling cord. Always pull by holding the plug.
8. While testing always keep one hand in your packet. If the hands are in contact with a circuit, current will
flow across your body and is more dangerous.
9. Electricity has no respect for ignorance. Do not apply voltage or turn-on any device until it has been
properly checked.
Check earth connection before switching on portable equipment


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10.3.5.Safety Precautions :
1. First we should be insulated
2. Care should be taken while fixing the fuse
3. All the switches should be off before power supply.
4. When power is on, the terminal wires should not be touched


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Exercise:
1. One lamp controlled by one SPT switch.
2. Two lamps Controlled by two SPT switches.
3. Series lamps connection.
4. Staircase Connection.
5. Godown Connection.
6. Fluoroscent lamp Connection.


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11. Experiment No: 6 ONE LAMP CONTROLLED BY ONE SPT
SWITCH
Aim: To give connections to one lamp controlled by one SPT switch.
Sequence of Operations:
1. Circuit diagram
2. Selection of colour
3. Fixing of wire connections
4. Testing of wire connections
Tools Required
1. Insulated cutting plier 200 mm
2. Insulated screw driver 300 mm
3. Double fold knife 100 mm 4. Line tester 230 volts
Electrical Accessories:
1. Battery lamp holder, 5 Amp 1 No.
2. SPT switch, 5 Amp 1 No.
3. Electrical bulb, 230 V 1 No.
4. 1/18 insulated wires, 900 mm length 3 No.
11.1 Procedure:
1. Phase Connection (R) : Red color wire is connected from the phase of power supply to phase of SPT
switch
2. Control Connection (C) : Yellow color wire is connected from control of SPT switch to control lamp
holder.
3. Neutral Connection (B) : Blue or black color wire is connected from neutral of power supply to neutral
connection of lamp holder.
Safety Precautions:
1. First we should be insulated
2. Care should be taken while fixing the fuse
3. All the switches should be off before power supply.
4. When power is on, the terminal wires should not be touched or interchanged.
Observations:
1. Connections should not be loose.
2. Avoid all the closed, open and short circuits.
Uses:


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1. Used for domestic purpose. 2. Used for power calculations.
Calculations:
Power supply E = 230V
Bulb wattage, W = 60 watts
R = E2 / W I = E/R
Result: One lamp Connection controlled by one SPT switch connection is obtained.
11.2VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Name the three fundamental terms related to Electricity
2. What is the relation between current, voltage and resistance.
3. State ohms law.
4. What are the units of current, voltage and resistance
5. Write the symbol of ohm.
6. Draw the circuit diagram of given connection
7. What is the value of voltage of single phase supply
8. What is the value of voltage of three phase supply
9. What is the unit of power
10. State the relation between HP and Watts
11. What do you mean by SPT and DPT
12. Why fluorescent lamp is white
13. What is the use of choke in fluorescent lamp connection
14. Once the fluorescent lamp glows, one item is not necessary in the circuit. What is that ? and why?
15. What is the purpose of stair case connection
16. What is the purpose of godown connection
17. The electricity department gives the bill in units. What is meant by unit
18. What do you mean by KWH
19. In circuit diagram what is the significance of R,Y,B
20. What are the different color wires used in electric circuit
21. How will you represent SPT in circuit diagram
22. State the difference between single phase and three phases connection
23. What is the equivalent resistance When two resisters R1 and R2 connected in series
24. What is the equivalent resistance When two resisters R1 and R2 connected in parallel
25. What is the disadvantage in series lamp connection
26. What type of connection is provided in domestic electric wiring


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27. What are the various tools used in House wiring
28. State the function of given tool
29. What is the relation between power, voltage and current
30. What is meant by SWG
12. EXPERIMENT NO: 7 AC Automatic Voltage Stabilizers and
Regulators
12.1 A Design Technology Overview, Electronic Servo / Electro -
Mechanical Design
For most applications our Servo Electronic -Electro Mechanical Ranges (SES/SESL - Voltage Stabilisers &
PCS - AC Power Conditioners) have proved to be a very reliable and cost-efficient voltage stabilisation
solution, being able to accommodate an input voltage swing of in excess of 40% whilst still delivering an
accuracy of 1% on the output.
Comprising a transformer having its secondary winding connected between the mains supply and the load,
the primary voltage is automatically controlled through a motor driven variable transformer - ensuring a
continuous, smooth and very stable output voltage.

High Voltage / Transient Spikes are normally limited by the inclusion of Spike Clippers. Such clippers
typically limit transients to twice the peak voltage of the supply. To reduce the spikes to totally harmless
levels it is often necessary to ask your supplier to fit additional Spike Attenuation protection. With Ashley
Edison SES / PCS solutions this feature is supplied as standard.
While Electronic Servo stabilisers do contain some moving parts, experience over the last 25 years in some
of the most demanding power conditions has proved the design to be a very reliable method of delivering


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voltage regulation with only a low-level of ongoing maintenance required being deliverable by universally
readily available skill sets.
The long-life expectancy, compact size and low cost of ownership makes servo-electro mechanical
stabilisers economical solutions for a wide variety of applications in industry, commerce, mining, aerospace,
computing and telecommunications and is normally our recommended solution for most clients.
12.2 Design Advantages
1. Size and weight advantages over other methods of stabilization
2. Fast speed of response to voltage changes ideal for most applications
3. Very competitively priced
4. Negligible output waveform distortion
5. Not Frequency dependent
6. Will attenuate voltage spikes if required
7. Unaffected by load or power factor changes
8. Low cost of ownership with ease of serviceability
9. Endurable, with long life expectancy
Design Disadvantages
1. Moving parts requiring limited maintenance
2. Lower speed of response compared to solid state designs
12.3 Solid State Transductor / Saturable Reactor Design
With no moving parts, solid state design based systems utilise the latest in IGBT control circuitry delivering
a very high speed of response and output accuracy maintained to 0.5%. Since all components are of
electronic design, they are virtually maintenance-free


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Solid state based systems (PEN Voltage Stabilisers & PCEN AC Power Conditioners) are ideal solutions for
equipment that must have output voltage accuracy better than 1%.
12.3.1 Design Advantages
1. High speed of response to voltage changes
2. Usually less price competitive when compared to Servo Electronic design
3. Output voltage accuracy better than 1 %, typically 0.5%
4. No Moving parts virtually Maintenance Free
5. High efficiency
6. Not Frequency dependent
7. Output voltage does not collapse on overload or sever input voltage drop
8. Low output waveform distortion
9. Unaffected by load or power factor changes
10. Will attenuate voltage spikes if required
1. High weight to kVA ratio compared to Electronic Servo design
12.4 Magnetic Induction Solid State Design
The design technology utilises a simple, yet highly reliable, rotor and stator design principle to increase or
decrease the magnitude of the voltage in a series transformer winding, which thereby delivers and maintains
a constant voltage.

Unlike the Servo-Electro Mechanical design, this technology does not require carbon brushes and there is no
contact wear. As a result Magnetic Induction based stabilizers are highly reliable and can be viewed as
virtually maintenance free solutions.


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12.4.1Design Advantages
1. High output voltage accuracy
2. Less price competitive when compared to Servo Electronic design
3. High reliability
2 Virtually Maintenance Free with no contact wear or requirement for carbon brush replacement

12.5 Ferro-Resonant - Super Isolation Solid State Design
Based around a highly reliable and endurable Constant Voltage Transformer (CVT), super isolation design
based systems (PCV Single Phase AC Power Conditioners) are able to tolerate very wide input
fluctuations, even when the input voltage drops as low as 40%, the output voltage will be maintained at
nominal voltage 5%.

With no moving parts and no electronic control circuitry there is no need for maintenance and is virtually an
install and forgets solution. The design can withstand high instantaneous overloads and is able to suppress
lightning induced spikes and surges.
Compact in size and quiet in operation, this design has the inherent ability to withstand a ride-through even
when there is a very short power failure, maintaining voltage for 3msecs. This feature is exceptionally useful
for sensitive electronic equipment when there are frequent short breaks or sever voltage dips.
1. High speed of response to voltage changes
2. Output voltage does not collapse on overload or sever input voltage drop.
3. High weight to kVA ratio compared to other stabilization methods.


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4. Attenuates voltage spikes
5. Competitively priced AC Power
6. Conditioning solution for ratings of 5 kVA or below.
8. Highly reliable with extremely high MTBF performance
9. Inherent ride-through ability
10. Endurable, with long life expectancy
1. Not generally competitive in ratings above 10 kVA
2. Frequency dependent not ideal for where severe frequency variations are an issue

12.6 Electronic Tap Changing Solid State Design
The Electronic Tap Changer design principle operates by automatically selecting one of a series of taps on
an auto transformer.

1. Most competitive in price for 2 kVAand below
2. High Efficiency
3. Negligible output waveform distortion 3 Generally / Historically deliver a low MTBF (Mean Time
Between Failure)
1. Poor output voltage accuracy typically no better than 5%


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13. EXPERIMENT NO 8: UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY
SYSTEM SELECTION, INSTALLATION, AND MAINTENANCE FOR
COMMAND, CONTROL, COMMUNICATIONS, COMPUTER,
INTELLIGENCE, SURVEILLANCE, AND RECONNAISSANCE
FACILITIES
13.1Principles and configurations
An UPS system is an alternate or backup source of power with the electric utility company being the
primary source. The UPS provides protection of load against line frequency variations, elimination of power
line noise and voltage transients, voltage regulation, and uninterruptible power for critical loads during
failures of normal utility source. An UPS can be considered a source of standby power or emergency power
depending on the nature of the critical loads. The amount of power that the UPS must supply also depends
on these specific needs. These needs can include emergency lighting for evacuation, emergency perimeter
lighting for security, orderly shut down of manufacturing or computer operations, continued operation of life
support or critical medical equipment, safe operation of equipment during sags and brownouts, and a
combination of the preceding needs.
13.1.1Static UPS.
A static UPS is a solid-state system relying solely on battery power as an emergency source. A static UPS
consists of a rectifier, inverter, and an energy storage device, i.e., one or more batteries. The inverter in the
static UPS also includes components for power conditioning. Modern static UPS systems are constructed
with ratings ranging from about 220 VA to over 1 MVA. Static UPSs ranging from 220 VA to 1 MVA are
constructed without paralleling internal components. UPS with output higher than 1 MVA are built with
some parallel internal components, which result in decreasing reliability. Figure 1-1 shows a simple static
UPS. Design, installation, and maintenance requirements should follow the latest version of applicable codes
and standards from recognized industry and commercial groups.


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13.1.2 Rotary UPS.
A rotary UPS is a system that uses a motor-generator (M-G) set in its design. Figure 1-2 illustrates a simple
rotary UPS. Unlike static units, the basic parts may vary between manufacturers for rotary units. Rotary
units are mainly designed for large applications, 125 kVA or higher. Some reasons for selecting a rotary
UPS over a static UPS are to provide higher efficiency, superior fault clearing capability, capability of
supplying currents for high inrush loads, and isolation from harmonic distortion generated by non-linear
loads in the line. Rotary UPS bearings must be replaced periodically. Although this might make reliability
between the two types debatable, bearing failure is highly predictable with stringent routine testing. Rotary
units produce more heat than do static units due to their M-G sets. They are more costly for small capacities
but become competitive with static units around 300 kVA. Rotary units provide complete electrical isolation
where the static UPS is limited by the static switch. Extremely high voltages or rapidly rising voltages can
pass through the static switch and damage critical loads.


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13.2INSTALLATION AND TESTING OF UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER
SUPPLY (UPS) SYSTEMS
13.2.1Construction and installation of static UPS systems
The construction and installation of the UPS are critical to its proper operation.
13.2.1a Construction features of static systems. There are several construction
features about the UPS that contribute to the system as a whole.
Charger/inverter.
In addition to the basic components of the charger/inverter, an input transformer is normally connected at
the charger for isolating the charger components from the power source. Also, surge suppression devices are
used at the input to protect the charger components from high transient voltages. Various protective and
control devices may be used on static UPS systems including a thermal magnetic circuit breaker at the
system alternating current (ac) inputs (with indicating lights to indicate the breaker open/close position),
devices to detect and alarm loss of ac input, and devices to detect and alarm low/high charger output direct
current (dc) voltage. The power and control components are normally mounted in one or more free standing,
sheet metal cabinets. One cabinet may be adequate for smaller systems. The cabinets
are normally designed for front access. All components can be inspected or removed from the front of the
cabinet by opening a hinged door. Meters, indicating lights, control switches or pushbuttons, and adjustment
potentiometers may be located inside the cabinet or mounted on the hinged door. A static UPS with a power
range of 150 to 750 kVA is shown in figure 4-1.
Electronic control components are normally assembled in a modular construction with drawout removable
modules. The cabinet doors are provided with screened filtered openings for cooling. Cooling may be either
by natural convection or by fans. Fans are typically used in larger systems. The cabinets are normally
designed to allow power and control cables to enter from either the top or bottom.
Batteries and racks for smaller systems.
Batteries for smaller systems (50 kVA and smaller) may be mounted in cabinets or on open racks. Batteries
used in cabinets are normally the valve regulated (VRLA) type sometimes referred to as "maintenance free
type. Also, the individual units normally have a voltage rating of 12 volts. Battery cabinets are supplied
prewired with all inter-connections factory made. The use of battery cabinets is common for lead-acid
batteries in smaller systems and for nickel-cadmium (ni-cad) batteries. Lead-acid batteries for larger
installations are normally mounted on open racks. In open rack installations, the individual battery cells are
mounted on a rack or group of racks specially constructed for this purpose. The racks are constructed of
steel rails, frames, and braces. The battery cells rest on plastic channels. The rack is factory painted with
acid resistant paints. The racks may be of a variety of configurations as shown in figure 4-2. The battery


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rack configuration is usually determined by the cell dimensions, the number of cells, and the space available.
Lead-acid cells are connected by specially designed inter-cell connectors made of lead-plated flat copper.
Ni-cad cells can be connected by specially designed inter-cell connectors made of flat steel. Inter-tier, inter-
rack, and inter-row connectors are also specially fabricated for the cell and rack type used.
Installation requirements.
The static UPS system should be located indoors in a clean, dust free, low humidity location. The
charger/inverter cabinets may be located in the same room with the battery. However, for larger systems, it
is preferable to locate the battery in a separate room for additional safety. The charger/inverter cabinets
should be located as close as practical to the battery to minimize the voltage drop in the battery leads.
Personnel access should be limited to the battery and charger/inverter. The manufacturers instructions and
National Electrical Code (NEC) instructions shall be consulted for access and arrangements. The UPS
cabinets should not be located directly adjacent to office space and work areas unless provided with
acoustically treated enclosures. Although the noise level of static UPS systems is low, the humming caused
by the electromagnetic components (transformers and reactors) may be irritating. Finally, since the static
UPS system causes power supply source voltage distortion, the effect of distortion on other equipment
supplied from the same bus as the UPS system should be taken into consideration. To eliminate the effect of
voltage distortion on other equipment, it is advisable to supply larger UPS systems by a dedicated
distribution transformer whenever possible. When the use of a dedicated transformer is not feasible and a
double-ended substation is available, the loads should be distributed between the two buses as shown in
figure 4-3 to minimize the effect of voltage distortion. By this arrangement, when the UPS goes to bypass,
the loads are supplied from a distortion free source through the transfer switch.


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UPS (inverter/static switch).
Verify the UPS is operational through the rectifier/battery charger and battery, and verify the battery is
charged and on float. Measure the float voltage. Verify the UPS bus incoming breaker is open, inverters A
and B breakers are open, and the static switch is switched to inverter A. Close inverters A and B input
breakers, measure inverters A and B output voltage and read meters, and verify inverters A and B outputs
are in phase. Verify static switch is in inverter A position, open inverter A incoming breaker and verify static
switch switches to inverter B. Measure voltage and ensure a bumpless transfer is made. Close inverter A
incoming breaker and verify static switch switches to inverter A. Measure voltage and ensure a bumpless
transfer is made. Open rectifier/battery charger output breakers and battery breaker and verify that inverts A
and B trip on low voltage.


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13.3 Test equipment
The amount of test equipment available should be appropriate to the amount of local use and should meet
safety requirements. The user in some cases may have had some control over the amount of diagnostic and


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monitoring equipment, plus the special tools specified for UPS systems. In other cases, off-the-shelf
equipment might have been installed. The maintenance personnel may be primarily electrically oriented.
Such personnel may have had some training on UPS systems maintenance at one time. In some cases, highly
qualified electronically oriented technicians may be available because of the need to service computer
equipment. Because of the variations in UPS equipment and maintenance capability, a hard and fast list of
recommended tools and test equipment cannot be given. Some general guidance is provided covering use of
diagnostics, maintenance personnel, and ownership of equipment. Suggested checklists on maintenance test
equipment are advisory only.


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13.3.1 UPS battery maintenance
The basic component that differentiates an UPS system from a power conditioner is the battery. If the
batteries fail before the backup generators come on line, the critical power goes down. Improperly installed,
poorly maintained, and inadequately tested batteries are common happenings. Only the fact that the backup
generators are highly reliable and come on line in a few seconds prevents many UPS battery banks from
failing long before their rated design life. Maintenance costs and maintenance access generally are the
greatest contributing factors to poorly maintained battery systems.
Maintenance costs.
An UPS equipment installation cost will run $750 to $2500 per kVA. Annual maintenance cost will run 3 to
8 percent of the installed cost for a static UPS and 1 to 2 percent of the installed cost for a rotary UPS. An
UPS battery-per-cell installed cost is about $10 with an annual maintenance cost of 120 to 180 percent of the
installed battery-per-cell cost. These battery maintenance costs may appear high; but, compared to the cost
of an unplanned critical load outage, they are relatively small.
Maintenance access
. Redundant UPS systems having a separate but inter-tied battery per UPS module can be maintained
without taking the entire UPS system off line. A single system battery requires an UPS system shutdown on
not less than a quarterly basis. Shutdown should be done in conjunction with the maintenance shutdown for
the UPS equipment. While some battery can be performed without UPS shutdown, they also indicate that the
battery disconnect switch should be open. It is recommended that site maintenance personnel not provide
quarterly maintenance to the battery without an UPS shutdown.
Preventive maintenance.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 450 and IEEE 1106 recommend monthly, quarterly,
and yearly inspections. Some manufacturers recommend weekly inspections. The National Electrical Code
(NEC) requires periodic testing on a schedule acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction. Periodic
maintenance is required and written records of tests and maintenance must be kept. A typical lead-acid
battery inspection procedure shown in table 5-2.
Testing.
Do not overtest. Frequent testing will shorten the service life. IEEE 450 and IEEE 1106 require a
performance test (a current capacity test which discharges a battery to a designated terminal voltage to detect
any change in the capacity determined by the initial test) within the first 2 years of service and then
recommends performance tests at 5-year intervals until the battery shows signs of degradation or has
reached 85 percent of the service life expected. Degradation of lead-acid batteries is indicated when the


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battery capacity drops more than 10 percent of rated capacity from its capacity on a previous performance
test or is below 90 percent of the manufacturer's rating. Degradation of nickel-cadmium (ni-cad) batteries or
extensive capacity loss is indicated when the battery capacity drops more than an average of 1.5 percent per
year of rated capacity from its previous performance test capacity. Then annual performance tests must be
provided. Perform tests in accordance with IEEE 450 or IEEE 1106 requirements.
I nspections.
Inspections should be made under normal conditions and performed on a regularly scheduled basis. Tables
5-2 through 5-5 provide general checklists to be performed on a weekly, monthly, quarterly, and annual
basis. Refer to the appendices of IEEE 450 and IEEE 1106 for more information. The inspections
recommended in this manual are in excess of IEEE requirements.


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14. EXPERIMENT NO: 9 BATTERY
Caution:
Never place probes across a cell or cells (between positive and negative posts), with the meter set on ohms.
The meter may be destroyed and arcing may occur at the battery.
1. Make sure the battery is on float charge before beginning the readings. Obtain an accurate digital micro-
ohmmeter, and set it to the lowest scale.
2. On cell No. 1 take the first reading between the connector lug and the first post (see fig. 2). This reading
will be the resistance between the post and connector lug and will be about one-half the middle readings.
Record all readings on form POM-134A.
3. Take the second reading between opposite polarity posts (not connectors) of cells No. 1 and No. 2.
Following readings will be between positive and negative posts of adjacent cells. These middle readings will
include the resistance of two connections (one on each post) and the intercell lead(see fig. 2). These readings
will be about double the first and last.
4. Take the remaining middle readings as in step 4, proceeding from cell to cell.
5. Take the last reading between the last post on the last cell and the connector lug as shown.
6. If high resistance is found, take readings from each post to its connector to determine which of the two
connections is bad. Mark this and all high-resistance connections for later repair.
7. After readings are complete, disconnect the charger and loads from the battery. Caution: do not remove
or make connections while current is flowing.
Clean problem connections, retorque to manufacturers specifications, and apply no-ox grease. Retest the
repaired connections and record the resistance in the as-left column on form POM-134A.


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14.1VISUAL INSPECTIONS
Visual inspections are made to assess the general condition of the battery, battery room, and safety
equipment. See below and section 1.10 and record on form 133-A.
Monthly
Check for general cleanliness of the battery, mounting rack, and battery room. Check for electrolyte leaks
and cracks in cells, and take corrective action if any are found. Check for corrosion at terminals, connectors,
racks, and cabinets. Check the ambient temperature and make sure ventilation devices (fans and vents) are
operable. Check all the electrolyte levels and correct if necessary. Check for availability and condition of all
safety equipment, gloves, aprons, face shields, etc.. Check for a full gallon of labeled neutralizing solution,
and operability of eyewash station or portable eyewash equipment. Check for operation and cleanliness of
body wash station. Check for a class C fire extinguisher and check that it has been inspected and tested
according to schedule. Check for availability of insulated tools and utensils so short circuits can be avoided.
Check the hydrometer for cleanliness and cracking of rubber parts.
14.2 BATTERY CARE
A. Adjustment of Specific Gravity
Do not add or remove acid in any cell except when following instructions in paragraph 2.17.
B. Temperature
Never intentionally allow electrolyte temperature to exceed 100 EF.
C. Cleanliness
Keep the battery room or cabinet clean and well ventilated. Keep cells, especially the tops, clean, dry, and
free of electrolyte and corrosion residue.
D. Spilled Electrolyte
At each battery room or cabinet, provide a labeled gallon jar of solution consisting of 1 pound baking soda
to 1 gallon of water. Neutralize spilled electrolyte with soda solution, rinse with water, and wipe dry. Do not
allow any solution to enter the cells. Keep vent plugs tight and gas vents open. Any missing or worn vent
plug gaskets should be replaced.
14.3. CHARGERS
Chargers serve two important functions. The main function is to provide dc station power and to keep the
battery charged. The second function is to be able to replace the battery if the need arises. Two main types
available are silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) and ferro-resonant. The two types differ greatly. SCR
chargers consist of a transformer with an SCR bridge and filtering. All control and protection in these


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chargers is electronic. These chargers are usually the cheapest type because the manufacturer can buy SCRs
and electronics off the shelf. Ferro-resonant chargers uses a transformer specifically designed for each
application. When extreme conditions occur, these transformers saturate and limit, by design, the maximum
current and voltage. Additional electronics are not needed. This feature makes the chargers more durable
and dependable in a power plant environment. The ferro-resonant type charger is therefore recommended.
Chargers normally are bought and operated in pairs to share the load. Both chargers operating, with all
safety features activated on both, will less likely have a double failure than if one is operating and one is in
stand-by mode. In an emergency, a charger on standby trying to power up and assume the duties of a failed
charger may exceed its current or voltage limits before safety circuits are enabled. The result may be two
failed chargers. The best way to avoid this problem is to operate both chargers in parallel at all times, each
supplying half the load. The size of the chargers is very important to the life and service of the battery. The
chargers must have enough capacity to easily gas the battery under charging conditions. Chargers with too
little capacity reduce battery life. A smaller charger, though cheaper initially, can be the most expensive
on a long term basis.
A. Every Shift
Check the panel voltmeter to see if the correct float voltage is being used for charging.
B. Quarterly
Check each charger by turning off one, then the other, and see if each charger will carry the total load.
C. Annually
Check the accuracy of the charger panel voltmeter with the digital meter.
14.4 RECORDS
Post a battery data card form POM-157 in a conspicuous location near the battery, and keep accumulated
forms in a permanent file. Loss of capacity over time is shown by a gradual change in specific gravity of
the cells. Keeping accurate records in the battery room is important. Comparison can be made easily
between current and earlier readings. A copy of forms POM-133A and POM-134A are included in the forms
section and are available from Reclamations Technical Service Center in Denver.
Four POM-133A quarterly reports and one POM-134A connection resistance report are required for a 60-
cell battery each year. Special care is necessary to protect data sheets. Keep current records on clip boards or
in a log book near the battery and transfer them to a permanent file at the end of the year.


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14.5 BATTERY TROUBLES SUMMARIZED
A. Lack of Gassing
Lack of gassing while on charge may indicate an internal short between plates, i.e., the cell discharges
internally as fast as it is being charged.
B. Specific Gravity or Voltage
Specific gravity or voltage of a cell lower than other cells is an indication of excessive internal losses and
may result from consistent undercharging.
C. Color
Color or appearance of plates or sediment different from other cells is addressed below:
1. Patches of white lead sulfate on either the positive or negative plates: caused by standing idle or
undercharging for extended periods.
2. Antimony deposit dark-slate patches on negative plates (usually near the terminal): caused by charging at
too high a rate or an aged cell nearing the end of its service life.
3. Top layer of sediment white: caused by undercharging.
4. Lumpy brown sediment: caused by overcharging.
5. All white sediment no visible layers: caused by overcharging after prolonged low float voltage.
6. Large flaking on the interplate collector bar: caused by being on float charge for extended periods at
insufficient float voltage without equalizing charging being performed.
D. Plate Problems
If any checks below are excessive, capacity tests must be run to determine if individual cells or the entire
battery should be replaced.
1. Cracks on the edges of the positive plate grids.
2. Light-colored sulfating spots on edges of plates below cracks mentioned in check No. 1 above.
3. Excessive sediment in the bottom of the case.
4. Mossing or treeing on the tops of negative plates.
E. Water
1. Cell uses excessive water (check fig. 1 for typical water consumption): caused by excess charging rates,
high operating temperatures, or leaking cell.
2. Cell requires very little water: caused by insufficient charging.
F. Buckling of Plates
Buckling of positive plates indicates excessive sulfation caused by undercharging or excessive temperature.


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G. Failure to Supply Rated Ampere-Hour Loads:
Failure to supply rated ampere hours indicates discharged condition, excessive sulfation, or loss of active
material from positive plates. Cells may be worn out or active material may be gone from positive plates.
H. Surface Charge Phenomenon
When a battery has been on float charge for a long time and is put under load with the chargers off, the
voltage will drop rapidly. This drop is caused by plugging of some of the pores on the surface of the plates,
which partially blocks the transfer of ions. The voltage may drop below the low-voltage alarm and trip
settings. After this initial drop, the voltage will usually increase to a level above the low-voltage alarm and
trip settings. The battery will then operate normally until its capacity is exhausted. If the battery is exercised
(partially discharged) on a routine basis, the voltage dip can be reduced or eliminated. Turning off both
chargers and allowing the battery to take the load for at least 15 minutes exercises the battery. The first few
times this procedure is performed, disconnect the low voltage trip relay to prevent an inadvertent trip. The
first time the battery is exercised, the procedure should be performed several times in succession until the
voltage drop stays above the alarm setting. Always give the chargers time to reduce charging current to float
value before turning off the chargers again for the next cycle. Each battery has its own characteristics, and
the frequency of exercising should be adjusted so that the voltage drop does not cause the low voltage alarm.
Start at a monthly cycle and experiment with increasing the time between exercises. The proper time
between exercises exists when the voltage drop is just above the alarm relay setting.
14.5 RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
If any cells seem to be in trouble, the whole battery should be given an equalizing charge, and then specific
gravity readings should be taken on all cells. If all cells gas evenly and specific gravity of every cell is
normal, all the battery needed was the charge. Otherwise, all low gravities should be recorded, and an extra
thorough charge, should be given. The temperature of all cells should be compared by thermometer or IR
camera with the rest of the cells. Sulfated cells will run hot enough tocause damage if not corrected. Any
cells that still will not gas with the extra charging should be investigated for impurities and inspected for
internal short circuits. Additional information may be obtained from IEEE Standard 450-
Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries.
If this standard does not help solve a problem, record the voltage of each cell and the specific gravity of 10
percent of all the cells. Also, record the electrolyte temperature and the ambient temperature, then contact
the battery manufacturer for assistance.


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14.6 LEAD-ACID BATTERY PRINCIPLES
PURPOSE
This section describes the principles of lead-acid battery care and how to determine if the care is adequate
and correct. The most important part of battery care is a proper charging program. Keeping and comparing
accurate records of physical conditions and measured data assists in determining whether the charging
program is correct. Correct charging is critical for long battery life and reliability of service. The following
discussion describes cell conditions with both proper and improper operation and maintenance. These
principles do not take precedence over the manufacturer's instructions, but provide explanations and details.
FULL CHARGE
Knowing when a cell is fully charged is important. A cell is fully charged when, charging at the equalizing
rate, the cell is gassing, specific gravity has stopped rising, and specific gravity remains constant for two
successive readings. Hydrometer readings must be corrected for any changes in cell temperature that have
occurred between readings. These two readings should be taken during the last one-eighth of the charging
period.
14.6.1CHEMICAL CHANGES
A fully charged cell has brown lead peroxide on positive plates and gray sponge lead on negative plates.
On discharge, electric current converts active materials of positive and negative plates to normal lead sulfate
and uses up sulfuric acid to manufacture lead sulfate. This process leaves the acid weak at the end of the
discharge. Lead sulfate is white in color but cannot be seen on plates unless the cell is over-discharged,
which produces over sulfation. This condition makes the plates first lighter in color and finally mottled
white in patches or white all over.
Charging the cell reverses this process, converting lead sulfate in the plates to lead peroxide and sponge lead
and producing sulfuric acid, which restores the specific gravity to normal. Chemical reactions in a storage
cell are:


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As the charge nears completion little lead sulfate remains to convert to lead. The charging current begins to
separate water into oxygen and hydrogen, which bubbles to the top of the electrolyte and forms a mixture of
very explosive gases. Quantity of ampere-hours available from a cell decreases with an increasing rate of
discharge. Available ampere-hours are much less at rapid rates of discharge. The ampere hours also decrease
for cells with weaker specific gravity


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WELDING


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45
WELDING
Introduction :
Welding is a process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals by the application of heat
with or without application of pressure and addition of filler material. The welding is extensively
used in manufacturing industry, construction industry and maintenance work, replacing riveting and
bolting, to a greater extent. The various welding processes are
1. Electric arc welding
2. Gas welding
3. Thermit welding
4. Resistance welding and
5. Friction welding
However only electric arc welding is discussed here. In this process, the work pieces are melted
along a common edge, to their melting point and then a filler metal is introduced to form the joint on
solidification. The materials to be welded must be free from rust, scale oil or other impurities, so as
to obtain a sound weld.
Arc Welding:
In arc welding, the heat required for joining the metals is obtained from an electric arc. Transformers
or motor generator sets are used as arc welding machines. These machines supply high electric
currents at low voltages and an electrode is used to produce the necessary arc. The coated electrode
serves as the filler rod and arc melts the surfaces so that the metals to be joined are actually fused
together. In addition to the welding machine, the following accessories and tools are needed for
carrying out the welding work. The given figure shows the principle of Arc Welding using a transformer.
Welding Cables: Two welding cables are required, one from the machine to the electrode holder
and the other, from the machine to the ground clamp. Cables are specified by their current carrying
capacity say 300A, 400A etc.
Electrodes: Filler rods used in arc welding are called electrodes. These are made of metallic wire
called core wire, having approximately the same composition as the metal to be welded. These are
coated uniformly with a protective coating called flux. While fluxing an electrode about 20mm of
length is left bare at one end for holding it with the electrode holder. It helps in transmitting full current
from electrode holder to the front end of the electrode coating. Flux acts as an insulator of electricity
and protects from oxidization.


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47


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Electrode Holder: The electrode holder is connected to the end of the welding cable and
holds the electrode. It should be light, strong, easy to handle and should not become hot while
in operation. The jaws of the holder are insulated, offering protection from electric shock.
Ground Clamp: It is connected to the end of the ground cable and is clamped to the work or
welding table to complete the electric circuit. It should be strong and durable and give a low
resistance connection.
Bench Vice: It is commonly used for holding the work piece. It has to harden Steel jaws
having serrations to ensure good grip. When the vice handle is turned to a clockwise direction,
the sliding jaw forces the work piece against the fixed jaw and is fixed on the working table.
Hack Saw: The hacksaw is used for sawing all metals except hardened steel. A hand hacksaw
consists of frame, handle blade, prongs, tightening screw and nut.
Steel Rule: The steel rule is one of the most useful tools in the workshop for taking linear
measurements of blanks and articles to an accuracy of 1.0 to 0.5mm
Scriber: A scriber is a slender steel tool, used to scribe or mark lines on metal work pieces.
Try Square: Try square is used for making and testing angles of 90 degrees and is used for
checking the squareness of many types of small works, when extreme accuracy is not required.
Flat File: Flat file is used to remove small amount of material from the surface of the metal
part. It is also used to remove sharp edges from the metal pieces.
Wire Brush or File Card: A wire brush is used for cleaning and preparing the work piece
before and after the welding.
Welding Table: It is made of steel plate and pipes. It is used for positioning the parts to be
welded properly.
Welding Screen: When people are around where welding is done, they may be protected
from the rays of the arc by means of a protected screen.
Face Shield:A face shield is used to protect the eyes and face from the rays of the arc and
from spatter or flying particles of hot metal. It is available in hand or helmet type. The hand type
is preferred to use and they are made of light weight, non reflecting fiber fitted with dark glass.
Hand Gloves: Hand gloves are used for protecting the arms while welding form sparks and
from current.
Flat Tong: A flat tong is used for holding works of rectangular shape during welding and after
welding.


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49
Chipping Hammer: It is made of tool steel and is used for removing slag formation on
welds. One end of the head is sharpened like a cold chisel and the other end to a blunt, round
point.
Ball Peen Hammer: Ball peen hammers are used to stride a job or a tool. It consists of hour
parts namely peen, head, eye and face. Ball Peen hammer is chiefly used for chipping and
riveting.
Welded Joints:
The relative positions of the two pieces being joined determine the type of joint. The following
joints are commonly used in fusion welding.
The Butt Joint : It is used to join the ends or edges of two plates or surfaces located
approximately in the same plane with each other.
The Lap Joint : It is used to join two overlapping plates so that the edge of each plate is
welded to the surface of the other.
The T-Joint : It is used to weld two plates or sections whose surfaces are at approximately
right angles to each other.
The Corner Joint : It is used to join the edges of two sheets or plates whose surfaces are at
the angle of approximately 90 deg to each other. It is common in the construction of boxes,
tanks, frames etc.
Preparation of Work:
Before welding, the work pieces must be thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale or other foreign
material. Thin pieces of metal are generally welded without beveling the edges. However,
thick work pieces should be beveled to ensure adequate penetration and fusion of all parts of
the weld. But, in either case, the parts to be welded must separated slightly to allow better
penetration of the weld.
Different edge preparation is particularly used in fusion welding process for welding butt joints.
These are: square Single-V, Double-V, Single-U and Double-U. The preparation of edges
depends upon the thickness of metal being welded.
Instructions :
General:
1. Always weld in a well-ventilated place. Fumes given off from welding are unpleasant


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and in some cases may be injurious, particularly from galvanized or zinc coated
parts.
51
2. Do not weld around combustible or inflammable materials, where sparks may cause
a fire.
3. Never weld, containers, which have been used for storing gasoline, oil or similar
materials, without first having them thoroughly cleaned.
Arc welding:
1. Check the welding machine to make sure that it is properly grounded and that all
leads are properly insulated.
2. Never look at the arc with a naked eye. The arc can burn your eyes severely. Always
use a face shield while welding.
3. Prevent welding cables from coming in contact with hot metal, water oil or grease.
Avoid dragging the cables around sharp corners.
4. Ensure proper insulation of the cables and check for openings.
5. Always wear the safety hand gloves, apron and leather shoes.
6. Always turn-off the machine when leaving the work
7. Apply eye drops after welding is over for the day to relieve the strain on the eyes.
8. While welding, stand on dry footing and keep the body insulated from the electrode,
any bare parts of the electrode holder and the work
Safety Precautions:
1. Use welding screen, leather apron and leather hand gloves while welding
2. Use flat tong and hand gloves for handling of work pieces during and after welding.
Exercise:
1. Single V Butt Joint.
2. Lap Joint.
3. Lap T Joint
4. Vee corner Joint.
54
VIVA QUESTIONS :
1. Define welding
2. What are the various types of welding
3. What is the thickness of MS Plate used in welding


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4. What is the Job material used in welding experiments
5. What is the main function of electrode
6. What is the use of Flat file
7. For what purpose you are using scriber
8. While performing electric arc welding what is the safety device used in order to
protect your eyes from sparks
9. What type of welding you have done in the workshop lab
10. When work piece is hard what is the holding tool used to carry it
11. What is the sequence of operations in welding
12. In welding process to which cathode is connected
13. In welding process to which anode is connected
14. What do you mean by cathode and anode
15. As a result of welding a black bead is formed. What is its name
16. How slag is removed
17. What is the difference between butt joint and lap joint
18. Draw the symbol of butt joint
19. Draw the symbol of Lap joint
20. Draw the symbol of T joint
21. What is the purpose of try square
22. What is the purpose of Bench vice
23. Why slag is formed in welding
24. What are the electrode materials
25. How do you perform the finishing operations in the welding
26. Why the coating is necessary in electrode
27. Which material is coated on electrode
28. What type of electricity is used in arc welding
29. What is the tool used to cut the MS Flat
30. How will you fix the blade in the Hack Saw Frame


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Page | 109

CARPENTRY


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TOOLS


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CARPENTRY
Introduction:
Carpentry may be defined as the process of making wooden components. It deals with the building work,
furniture, cabinet making etc. Jointly, i.e., Preparation of joints is one of the important operations in all
wood works. It deals with making joints for a variety of applications viz, door frames, window frames,
wardrobes, cupboards, stairs etc. In this chapter tools and works associated with joinery are presented.
Carpentry Material Timber:
Timber is the basic material used for any class of carpentry work. The term timber is applied
to the wood obtained from; well-grown trees. The trees are cut, sawn into various sizes to suit
the required purpose.
Common Varieties of Indian Timber:
Indian timbers most commonly used for various carpentry words are as follows: Babul, Deodar, Mahogany,
Mango, Sal, Sissy and teak.
Carpentry Tools:
In carpentry large numbers of hand tools are used for processing the wood. Here, the details of tools that are
being used in our workshop only are presented.
Marking and Measuring Tools:
Steel Rule: It is strip of steel with graduations on its edges and is used for measuring and setting out
dimensions.
Try Square: Try squares are used for marking and testing of right angles and for testing flatness of surface.
Marking Gauge: It is a tool which has one projected marking pin and is used to mark accurate lines parallel
to the true edge of a wooden piece.
Holding Tools:
Carpenters Vice: It is used for holding the work for planning, sawing and chiseling. The whole vice is
made of iron and steel. It has two jaws one of which is fixed to the side of the table while the other is
movable.
C-Clamp: It is used for holding the work projecting above the top surface of the Bench. This is used to
prevent the wood from moving forward when being planned.
Bench Stop: It is simply a block of wood projecting above the top surface of the bench. This is used to
prevent the wood from moving forward when being planned.


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Cutting Tools:


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Wooden Jack Plane: It consists of wooden body in which blade is set at an angle of 45 degrees to the body
or sole. The cutting blade used is made of high carbon steel and is very similar to a chisel. Jack Plane is a
general purpose plane and is used to produce flat and smooth surfaces on wood.
Hand or Cross-cut Saw: It is used to cut across the grains of the stock or thick wood. The teeth are set
alternately to the right and left of the blade, and its purpose is to make the cut wider than the thickness of the
blade. This allows the blade to move freely in the cut, without sticking. Her teeth are set at 2.5 mm apart.
Tenon Saw or Back Saw : This saw is mostly used for cross cutting when a finer and more accurate finish
is required. The teeth are shaped in the form of an equilateral triangle and generally have 13 teeth for 25 mm
length.
Firmer Chisel or Straight Edge Chisel : It is a general-purpose chisel and is used for cutting and shaping
wood accurately. The width of the blade varies from 1.5 to 50 mm. Adze: Adze is a side axe used to chop
extra wood quickly by carpenters. Adze with very long handle is used to plane long palm tree barks in
standing position and also used as a hammer.
Miscellaneous Tools:
Pincer: It is made of steel with a hinged joint and is used for pulling out small nails from wood.
Claw Hammer : It is a dual-purpose hammer. It has a hammer face, which is used to drive in nails and claw
at the other end for pulling out mails from the wood.
Wood Rasp File: It is a finishing tool used to make the wood surface smooth, remove the sharp edges and
other interior surfaces. Sharp cutting teeth are provided on its surface. This file is exclusively used in
woodwork.
Wood Joints :
There are many kinds of joints used to connect wood stock. Each joint has a definite use and required
marking, cutting and joining together. The strength of the joint depends on the amount
of contact area. If a particular joint does not have much contact area, then it must be reinforced with nails,
screws or dowels.
Lap Joint: Also called halving joint. The aim of this joint is to secure the corners and intersections of the
framing and at the same time in the same plane. They may be usefully employed in many types of framing
where strength and appearance are of secondary consideration.


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Mortise and Tenon Joint: This family of joints is a large one and does probably the wood worker use the
commonest. It consists of a rectangular peg (tenon) fitting into a rectangular hole (mortise).


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Briddle Joint: These are the reverse of mortise and tenon joints in form and are often called the open
mortise tenon. These joints are used where the members are of square or nearsquare or near-square section
and thus unsuitable for making a mortise and tenon joint of good proportions.
Instructions
1. When you are using your thumb as a guide for cross cutting and ripping, raise it sufficiently high.
2. Planning should be done along grains only.
3. Push the chisel away from you while chiseling.
4. Always use marking gauge (or) a mortise gauge for drawing lines.
5. Check the squareness of planned surfaces with try square.
6. Use wooden mallets for driving chisel.
7. Do not test sharpness of the edge of the cutting tools on your hand.
8. Do not keep your hands In front of the sharp edged tools while they are in use.
9. Only un wanted material should be removed.


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Safety Precautions:
General: Make sure that your hands are not in front of sharp edged tools while you are using them.
Saws: Be careful when you are using your thumb as a guide in cross cutting.
Chisels:
1. Never chisel towards any part of the body.
2. Test the sharpness of the cutting edge on wood or paper, not on your hand.
Exercise:
1. Lap Tee Joint
2. Cross Lap Joint or Lap + Joint
3. Dovetail Lap Joint
4. Mortise & Tenon Joint


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LAP TEE JOINT
Experiment No: Date:________________
Aim: To prepare a Lap Tee Joint as per dimensions given in sketch.
Material Required: Teak wood 300mm X 45mm X 35mm
Tools Required:
1. Steel rule 300mm
2. Handsaw 300mm
3. Wooden jack plane 450mm
4. Try square 200mm
5. Marking gauge 200mm
6. C-Clamp 200mm
7. Firmer chisel 150mm
8. Adze 150mm
1. Marking
2. Planning
3. Cutting
4. Setting
Procedure:
1. Select a teak wood material and mark the size as per drawing with the help of marking tools like steel
rule, marking gauge, try square.
2. Planning of sides with the help of wooden jackplane to maintain the required dimensions.
3. Fix the work piece in carpentry vice and cut into two equal pieces of size 150mm X 30mm with the help
of handsaw.
4. Mark the two work pieces for male cutting and groove cutting as per dimensions.
5. Fix the work pieces one by one on the bench with the help of C Clamp and a groove is made as shown
in drawing with the help of chisels and adze.
6. The two work pieces are fitted to make Lap Tee Joint as per drawing.
Precautions:
1. We should be careful while marking and planning
2. Special care is required while cutting the groove with firmer chisel so that the Dimension is not exceeded.
Result: Lap Tee Joint is prepared as per given dimensions
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What are the various types of wood material used in carpentry?
2. What is the sequence of operations in carpentry?
3. Classify the tools used in carpentry.
4. Name some measuring tools.
5. Name some marking tools.
6. Name some cutting tools.
7. Name some finishing tools.
8. Name some work holding devices.
9. What is the use of mortise gauge?
10. What is the use of wooden jackplane?


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11. What are various types of saws?
12. What are various types of chisels?
13. What is the difference between saw and chisels?
14. What is the use of try square?
15. What is the use of C-Clamp?
16. Differentiate between bench vice and C-clamp
17. What is the use of adze?
18. What are the various types of joints
19. Which joint is more strongest.. justify your answer
20. What is the difference between marking gauge and mortise gauge
21. What is the use of claw hammer
22. Why saw setting is required
23. What are the safety precaution should be taken in carpentry
24. Why butt joint is not performed in carpentry
25. Identify the parts of wood jackplane
26. Define carpentry
27. What is the use of pincer
28. Which chisel is convenient for making
29. What is the max. length you can measure with steel rule
30. Identify the given joint.


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Page | 121

35
TIN SMITHY


Page | 122

Introduction :
Many engineering and house articles such as boxes, cans, funnels, ducts etc. are made
from a flat sheet of metal. The process being known as tin smithy. For this the development of
the article is first drawn on the sheet metal, then cut and folded, to form the required shape of
the article.
Allowance should be given in the drawing stage for folding and bending. This allowance
depends upon the radius of the bend and thickness of the sheet metal.
Sheet Metal Materials :
A variety of metals are used in a sheet metal shop such as galvanized Iron, black, Iron,
tin, Stainless Steel, copper and Aluminium.
Hand Tools :
The common hand tools used in sheet metal work are steel, try square, Wire gauge,
Scriber, Ball peen hammer, Nylon Mallet, Snips Divider, Stakes, Cutting plier and Soldering
Iron. Here, the details of tools that are being equipped by our workshop purpose only are
presented.
Wire Gauge: The thickness of sheet is referred in numbers known as standard wire gauge
(SWG). The gaps in the circumference of the gauge are used to check the gauge number.
Steel Rule : It is a strip of steel with graduations on its edges. It is used for measuring and
setting out dimensions.
Scriber : A scriber is a slender steel tool, used to scribe or mark lines on sheet metal.
Snips : Hand shears or snips are used to cut sheet metal.
Straight Snips : These are having straight blades and are used for cutting along straight
lines and for trimming edges.
Curved Snips : These are having curved blades and are used for cutting circles and
irregular shapes.
Divider : It consists of two pointed legs. The points are hardened and tempered to
prevent wear. It is used for transferring the sizes and scribing curves or circles.
Bench vice : It is generally used for holding and bending the work piece.


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37
Hammers : Light weight hammers and mallets are used in sheet metal work.
Ball Peen Hammer : It has a cylindrical, slightly curved face and a ball head. It is a general


Page | 124

purpose hammer used mostly for riveting in sheet metal work.
Cross Peen Hammer : It has a tapered peen end and is perpendicular to the handle. Because
of this, it can reach awkward corners.
Straight Peen Hammer : It has the peen end similar to the cross peen, but it is positioned
parallel to the handle which can be used conveniently for certain operations of folding.
Cutting Plier : Used for holding, cutting and bending works.
Nylon Mallet : It is used for bending and folding work. It is light in weight, covers more area
and do not damage the surface area.
Stakes : Stakes are made of steel and forged in a variety of shapes and sizes. These are
used as supporting tool and to form, seam, bend or rivet sheet metal objects.
Anvil : Anvil provides the necessary support during hammering. It is also useful for operations
such as bending. Its body is generally made of mild steel and a strip of high carbon
steel about 20 mm thick is welded on top to provide hard face.
Sheet Metal Joints :
Various types of joints are used in sheet metal work, to suit the varying requirement.
Some commonly used sheet metal joints and folded edges are shown in the figure. These
are self-secured joints, formed by joining together two pieces of GI sheet metal and using
the metal itself to form the joint.
Sheet Metal Layout :
The shapes of most articles made with sheet metal are in few geometrical forms. All
these forms are made from flat sheet; therefore the first requirement is developing the lines,
which forms the pattern. The development or stretch out of a job is called pattern and developing
lines which forms a pattern is layout. It may be drawn on paper first and then transferred in the
sheet or it may latyout directly on sheet metal. When a pattern is made repeatedly, it is generally
made of metal and referred to as a template.


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39
Insturctions :
1. Draw the development of object to be prepared with true dimensions only.
2. Use curved snip for trimming along inside curves.


Page | 126

3. Always provide folding (Hem) for top edges of the object to avoid sharp edges and to
stiffen the sheet.
4. Ground properly the exposed metal parts of electrically heated soldering iron.
5. For good soldering the metals to be joined must free from dirt, grease and oxide.
6. Do not pull (or) peel the cut portion by hand while cutting with snip.
7. Do not bend the sheet with hand, always use nylon mallet with proper support.
Safetry Precautions :
1. Use hand leather gloves while handling heavy sheets.
2. Avoid feeling the cut portion by hand while cutting with snip.
3. Do not let sheet metal slip through the hands.
4. Never carry tools in pockets.
Exercise :
1. Plain pipe
2. Rectangular tray
3. Triangular tray
4. Funnel
41
PLAIN PIPE
Experiment No. Date :
Aim : To prepare a plain pipe as per dimensions.
Materials Required : 122 mm x 100mm size Galvanized Iron sheet.
Tools Required :
1. Steel rule 300 mm
2. Scriber 150 mm
3. Try square 200 mm
4. Straight snip 210 mm
5. Ball peen hammer 750 gm
6. Nylon mallet 450 gm
7. Cutting plier 200 mm
8. Cylindrical stake 35 mm
1. Marking 2. Cutting 3. Folding 4. Bending 5. finishing
Procedure:


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1. Take a galvanized iron sheet.
2. Mark the rectangular length of 122mm and 100mm with scriber as per sketch.
3. Cut the rectangular piece from sheet with straight snip.
4. Mark a bend of 4mm on two parallel sides for joining two edges of the sheet.
5. Using nylon mallet and cutting plier join the two edges of the sheet as per sketch. So
that the final circumference length is 110mm.
6. Select the cylindrical stake and roll it to obtain correct shape of plain pipe.
Precautions:
1. Should pay attention while marking.
2. Bending and finishing should be done neatly and straight.
3. Cutting should be done carefully along the marked lines, and while cutting care should
be taken to cut it at the further end. Otherwise the metal sheet might bend giving wrong
shape.
Result: Required plain pipe having diameter 35mm and height 100mm is obtained.
42
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the raw material used in Tin smithy for doing experiments
2. Classify the tools used in Tin smithy
3. Name some measuring tools
4. Name some marking tools
5. Name some cutting tools
6. Name some finishing tools
7. What is the use of Nylon mallet
8. What is the purpose of given tool
9. Differentiate between mallet and Hammer
10. Differentiate between straight snip and curved snip
11. What is the purpose of snip
12. What is the use of anvil
13. What is the purpose of Stake
14. What is the use of scriber
15. What is use of cutting plier
16. What is the supporting tool used to obtain the final shape of the Model
17. What type of development is applied for Plain Pipe


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18. What type of development is applied for Rectangular tray
19. What type of development is applied for Funnel
20. What is the full form of SWG
21. Tell some precautions should be taken in Tin Smithy Trade
22. What are the various types of hammer
23. What do you mean by Galvanization
24. Draw any sheet metal joint symbols
25. Name different parts of anvil
26. What is the difference between cross peen hammer and straight peen hammer
27. What are the different types of metal sheets available
28. What is the use of divider
29. What is the sequence of operations in Tim Smithy
30. How did you join metal

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