29

Chapter IV
THERMAL EXPANSION OF ROCKS
Thermal expansion of rocks is relatively small in magnitude and, from the standpoint of
change in volume or bulk density, has only minor effects. Thermal-expansion behavior,
however, may have significant effects on the structure of rocks. Differences in thermal-
expansion characteristics of different minerals in the assemblage of mineral grains can cause
structural damage upon heating the rock. In addition, differences in thermal expansion along
different crystallographic axes of the same mineral can also cause structural damage upon
heating. Table IV-1 shows values of thermal expansion for several common rock-forming
minerals (Clark, 1966).
TABLE IV-1
Thermal expansion of rock-forming minerals relative to crystallographic axes.
Source: Clark (1966).
Mineral Axis Percent exDansion from 20C to:
100C 200C 400C 600C
Quartz I C
I1c
Orthoclase II a
II b
1001
Plagioclase II a
101 0
Calcite 1 C
II c
Hornblende 11 00
II b
I1c
0.14
0.08
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.09
0.03
0.19
-.04
0.05
0.06
0.05
0.30
0.1 8
0.1 4
0.1 0
.005
0.22
0.06
0.48
- . l o
0.1 2
0.17
0.1 3
0.73
0.43
0.48
0.04
.065
0.50
0.16
1.12
-.18
0.29
0.39
0.29
1.75
1.02
0.90
0.1 3
.155
0.83
0.29
1.82
-.22
0.48
0.64
0.46
Following is a report on linear thermal expansion measurements on three dry sandstones
over a large temperature range and some results of bulk and pore thermal expansions tests run
on fluid-saturated sandstones under simulated subsurface stress conditions but for a limited
temperature range.
30
1 THERMAL EXPANSION OF DRY SANDSTONES
Linear expansions of three outcrop sandstones (Bandera, Berea, and Boise) have been
measured in the temperature range Of 25" to 1000C (Somerton and Selim, 1961). Expansion
measurements were made on oven-dried test specimens cut in directions parallel and
perpendicular lo the bedding.
The differential thermal expansion apparatus used in the tests was that described by
Mitoff and Pask (1956). The test specimens were heated in an electric furnace at a
temperature-rise rate of 6"C/minute. The lengthening of the specimens upon heating was
compared with the small and known expansion of a fused silica rod. The change in length was
transmitted to an X-Y recorder by means of a Stratham transducer. A maximum error of ~1 . 5
percent has been obtained with this apparatus for materials of known linear thermal expansion.
Upon reaching maximum test temperature, the test specimen was cooled at a rate appoxirnately
the same as the rate of heating and the specimen contraction was recorded. The final length of
the cooled test specimen was measured to test the reliability of the final recorded value.
Linear thermal expansions of Berea sandstone both parallel and perpendicular to the
bedding are compared in Fig. IV-l with the known expansions of quartz, perpendicular and
1.8
1.6
1.4
N
0
7
x 1.2
1 1.0
2 0.8
-1
-I
C
0
.-
m
Q
x
f 0.6
m
Q
.-
-I 0.4
0.2
0 1 I I I I I I I
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Temperature " C
Fig. IV-1. Linear thermal expansion of Berea sandstone and quartz parallel and
perpendicular to bedding and C-axis, respectively, on heating and cooling cycles.
31
parallel to the C-axis (Somerton and Selim, 1961). The most important features of Fig. IV-1
are: (1) the close ageement between the heating curves for Berea sandstone and the heating
curve for quartz perpendicular to the C-axis and, (2) the lack of agreement between the heating
curves for Berea sandstone and for quartz parallel to the C-axis. Discontinuities in the curves
at approximately 575" C are due to the a-P inversion of the quartz. The cooling curves for
Berea sandstone deviate considerably from the heating curves, the difference representing the
permanent elongation of the lest specimens at the conclusion of the test.
Linear thermal expansions of the three sandstones perpendicular to the bedding are
compared with the expansion of quartz perpendicular to the C-axis in Fig. IV-2. Results of
expansions parallel to the bedding are not shown for Bandera and Boise sandstones because of
their similarity to Berea sandstone results. All sandstone samples showed permanent elongation
upon cooling. Bulk volume expansions were calculated as the sum of the perpendicular thermal
expansion and two times the expansion parallel to the bedding (Mitoff and Pask. 1956). Results
of these calculations are shown in Fig. IV-3.
I
1.6 -
1.4 -
N
0
X
7 1.2 -
i
4 1.0 -
-I
I
C
0
.-
g 0.8 -
Q
w
a,
C
-I
k 0.6 -
.-
0.4 -
--- Quartz It to
C-Axi s
Temperature "C
Fig. IV-2. Linear thermal expansion of three sandstones compared with quartz.
32
Interpretation of the linear thermal expansion data is as follows:
1) Quartz contents of the three sandstones range from about 50 percent for Boise to 80
percent for Berea. yet the thermal expansions for the three sandstones were nearly the same
and close to that for quartz perpendicular to the C-axis. The presence of quartz, probably above
some minimum amount, appears to control the expansion behavior of sandstones.
4.8 -
-
-
-
9
4.0 -
s
4
c
0
u)
I 3.2 -
.-
-
Boise
Bandera
Quartz
2.4 -
2
---
w
_-----
-
-
-
-.-.-
0
>
0.8
-
0 -
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Temperature - "C
Fig. IV-3. Volumetric thermal expansion of three sandstones compared with quartz
2) Expansion of quartz perpendicular to the C-axis has a predominating effect on the
expansion characteristics of sandstones. Since the expansions of the sandstones in the directions
parallel and perpendicular to the bedding were approximately the same, random orientation of
the quartz crystals would be expected.
3) Permanent elongation of the test specimens after cooling resulted from deformation of the
test specimen due primarily to differential thermal expansion of the quartz grains. At
temperatures above the a-b quartz inversion temperature, where the coefficient of expansion
for quartz becomes negative, the role of other mineral constituents becomes important in
controlling expansion and deformation behavior of the sandstones.
2 EXPANSION OF FLUID-SATURATED ROCKS UNDER STRESS
Measurements of thermal expansion of rocks under simulated subsurface reservoir
conditions present a number of difficult problems. Most of these problems were resolved in the
work to be reported here with the exception that the temperature range of the tests was limited
33
Temperature
Control
Electric -
Heater
to 25" to 175C. In addition to linear thermal expansion, pore-volume contraction was also
measured (Somerton et al., 1981).
r
-
-
T
-.
I.
2.1
Bulk and pore thermal expansion tests were run on 5.1 cm (2 in) diameter by 5.1 cm
(2 in) long test specimens of Bandera, Berea, and Boise sandstones. Change in lengths were
measured by strain gauges mounted directly onto the test specimens. Pore volume changes were
measured by use of a precision high-pressure, hand-operated displacement pump. The jacketed
test specimens were mounted in a pressure vessel using Dow-Corning 200 silicone oil as the
external pressuring fluid. External heaters were used to raise the temperature of the vessel
and the test specimen at a controlled rate of 1C per minute. Fig. IV-4 is a schematic diagram of
the experimental apparatus.
The strain gauges used to measure longitudinal strain had an upper limit in operating
temperature of 290C for continuous use. A thin coating of high temperature epoxy cement was
used to mount the strain gauges onto the test specimen. A thin coating of silicone rubber was
used over the gauges and the lead lines to prevent fluid leakage and provide electrical insulation.
The specimens were jacketed with shrink-fit teflon tubing which sealed the specimens to end
TC
Pressure
Gauge
Volumetric
Pressure Vessel
Test Specimen
Insulation
Constant
Rate Pump
kQ
Vacuum
Pump
Fig, IV-4. Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus for measuring
thermal expansion of rocks subjected to elevated temperatures, confining
pressures and pore-fluid pressures.
34
caps containing pore-fluid tubing connections. The specimens were vacuum-saturated with
water before being mounted in the pressure vessel. Several pore volumes of water were flowed
through the test specimens at a back-pressure of 2.5 MPa (360 psi) to assure that all air had
been removed from the pore-pressure system.
Changes in pore volume were measured by use of the hand-operated, precision-volume
displacement pump. The pump is capable of detecting a change in volume of as little as
0. 0005~~. The system was calibrated for dead-fluid volume at several pore pressures and as a
function of temperature in ranges used in the experiments (6.9, 13.8, and 20.7 MPa. and 30"
to 175C). Corrections were also made for thermal expansion of pore water by use of I.F.C. data
(International Formulation Committee, 1968).
2.2 J inear Thermal F x D a m
Results of the measurements of linear thermal expansions of the three liquid saturated
sandstones under a confining stress of 20.7 MPa (3000 psi) and pore pressure of 6.9 MPa
(1000 psi), are compared with the dry unstressed test results for the same sandstones in Fig.
IV-5. Although the agreement is fair, the slopes of the curves for Boise and Bandera are
steeper, compared to earlier data, but the slope for Berea is less steep. This would indicate that
the coefficients of thermal expansion are greater for Boise and Bandera but less for Berea,
compared with earlier data. Table IV-2 shows comparison of thermal expansion coefficients
in the temperature range of 100 - 200C.
0.8
N
z
X
4 0.6
-1
I
I
C
. : 0.4
C
m
Q
W
0)
C
-1
& 0.2
.-
0
Berea SS
Dry-Zero
Stress
Present
/ I Dat a,
Bandera SS
Dry-Zero
Stress
Present
Boi se SS
Dry-Zero
Stress
Present
0 200 400 0 200 400 0 200 400
Temperature "C
Fig. IV-5. Comparison of linear thermal expansions of dry sandstones and
water-saturated sandstones under stress.
35
The thermal expansion values shown in Table IV-2 compare with a value of 16 x 10-6
("C-1) for quartz in the same temperature range. No thermal expansion data for liquid-
saturated rocks, and very little data for rocks under stress, have been found in the literature to
compare with the present results. Sweet (1978) estimated the effect of stress on thermal bulk
expansion based on existing data showing the effects of temperature on rock compressibility. His
results indicated that the thermal bulk expansion of rocks should decrease with increased
stress. For example, for a low porosity sandstone he estimated that the bulk expansion should
decrease by 25 percent upon increasing the stress from atmospheric to 100 MPa (14,500
psi). Of the three sandstones tested in the present work, only Berea showed a decrease of this
magnitude. Wong and Brace (1979) ran tests on Cheshire quartzite at substantially higher
stresses and found a decrease in thermal expansion of about 25 percent between stresses at 100
and 500 MPa (14,500-72,500 psi).
TABLE IV-2
Thermal expansion coefficients for three sandstones in the range 1 0O-20O0C,
("C-1) after Somerton et al. (1981).
Condition Berea SS Bandera SS Boise SS
Dry 15. x 10-6
15. x 10-6 16. x 10-6
Saturated 13. x 10-6 20. x 10-6 17. x 10-6
2.3 m-
Earlier work by Von Gonten and Choudhary (1969) showed that pore-volume
compressibilities of sandstones increased with increased temperature. From these results, one
would expect that pore volume would decrease with temperature at constant stress. Results of
tests by Ashqar (1979) and J anah (1980) showed this to be the case. Figure IV-6 shows pore-
volume thermal contraction of the three sandstones tested. One should note in particular that
the amout of contraction is small until temperatures of about 90-120C are reached. Above
this temperature range the thermal contraction increases to nearly constant rates. Both the
temperature at which the increased contraction begins and the slopes of the contraction curves
are related to the porosity of the sandstones. For the lowest porosity sandstone (Bandera) the
increased slope begins at a lower temperature and the slope is greater.
The relationship between the amount of pore contraction and the porosity of the
sandstone noted above would be expected since it is the thermal expansion of mineral grains into
the pore space that causes the decrease in pore volume. Thus the greater the fraction of mineral
solids in the bulk volume, the greater would be the reduction in pore space. Although
differences in mineral composition probably have some effect on the magnitude of the
contraction, earlier results of linear thermal expansion tests on the same sandstones showed
36
1.6
N
1.2
X
a
?
5 0.8
0.4
I
-
P,,,, =20.7 MPa
bORE =6.9 MPa
-
-
-
Fig. IV-6. Pore-volume contraction of three sandstones as function of
temperature at constant stress conditions.
that the quartz content of the sandstones had a dominant effect on the magnitude of the expansion
(Somerton and Selim, 1961). However, the importance of the effects of differences in mineral
composition on pore volume contraction needs to be considered. The low coefficient of pore-
volume contraction for Boise sandstone may be due in part to the relatively low quartz content of
this sandstone.
The effects of stress on the pore-volume contraction curves are more difficult to
explain. The stress-strain curves for sandstone generally show large strains at low stress
levels. This is attributed to the "tightening up" of the grain structure as stress is first applied.
However, since the tests reported here were run at elevated and constant stress conditions, this
should not be a factor.
The magnitude of the stresses applied to the sandstones during heating has a rather small
effect on pore volume contraction. Figure IV-7 shows the effect of changing confining stress
while keeping pore pressure constant for Bandera sandstone. Increasing confining stress
decreased both the amount and the rate of pore-volume contraction but the decrease is small,
close to being within the limits of accuracy of the measuring system. However, the change in
the amount of contraction with increased pore pressure at constant confining stress is
substantial as shown in Fig. IV-8. The amount of contraction in pore volume decreased with
increased pore-fluid pressure.
In terms of effective stress (difference between confining stress and pore-fluid
pressure), there appears to be anomalous behavior depending on whether the confining stress
37
1.6
1.2
:
X
n
>
4
0.8
0.4
0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature (" C)
Fig. IV-7. Effect of varying confining stress at constant pore-fluid pressure
on pore-volume contraction versus temperature for Bandera sandstone.
1.6
1.2
z
? 0.8
c
X
n
I
0.4
0
Bandera
PCoNF =27.6 MPa
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature (" C)
Fig. IV-8. Effect of varying pore-fluid pressure at constant confining stress
on pore-volume contraction versus temperature for Bandera sandstone.
38
or the pore-fluid pressure is changed. In the former case. increase in effective stress leads to a
decrease in contraction, whereas in the latter case, increase in effective stress results in
increased contraction. However, since the thermal contraction is considered to be due to
mineral grains expanding into the pore spaces, it would be expected that pore pressure would
have the dominant effect. Increase in pore pressure should decrease mineral-grain expansion
into the pore space. This is in agreement with Zoback and Byerlee's (1975) observations that
pore-fluid pressure changes have a much larger effect on pore-dominated properties
(permeability in this case) than do changes in confining stress.
3 coNcLusloNs
From the above reported work (Somerton el al., 1981) a number of conclusions can be
reached:
1) Linear thermal expansions of liquid-saturated sandstones under stress are not much
different from values for dry, unstressed samples. The presence of quartz appears to dominate
the thermal expansion behavior in both cases.
2) Pore volume of liquid-saturated sandstones under stress decreases with increased
Pore-volume thermal contraction is a strong function of porosity of the rock,
Quartz content of the rock probably also has some effect on
temperature.
decreasing with increased porosity.
pore-volume contraction.
3) The magnitude of pore-volume thermal contraction is only slightly affected by changes in
However, change in pore-fluid pressure has a more pronounced effect, confining stress.
increase in pore-fluid pressure resulting in decreased thermal contraction.
4)
Changes in porosity of rocks due to reservoir heating are probably not very large. For
example, calculations based on the above data show that for a 20 percent porosity sandstone at a
depth of 1000 meters with pore fluid at hydrostatic pressure heated from 100" to 200C would
undergo a reduction in porosity of about one percent. The amount of reduction in porosity would
of course increase at lower pore pressures and with greater increase in temperature.