PRESENTATION ON PHOENIX AND PRESENTATION ON PHOENIX AND PRESENTATION ON PHOENIX AND PRESENTATION ON PHOENIX AND

MYRIAD OF NATURAL DRAFT MYRIAD OF NATURAL DRAFT

COOLING TOWER AT COOLING TOWER AT COOLING TOWER AT COOLING TOWER AT
DADRI (4 x 210 MW) DADRI (4 x 210 MW)
BY
K. ELAMURUGHU DGM.
SATISH.C.VERMA SR.ENGINEER
OF
OFFSITE MAINTENANCE DEPTT.
DADRI (COAL)
NATURAL DRAFT COOLING TOWERS (4 X 210 MW) DADRI
Principle of Cooling Tower p f g w
In cooling tower heat is dissipated from the In cooling tower heat is dissipated from the
surface of a body of water by
evaporation,radiation and convection. The heat is
largely due to evaporative cooling The driving largely due to evaporative cooling.The driving
force is the difference in enthalpy rather than in
temperature. The water temperature tends to
approach the wet bulb temperature rather than approach the wet bulb temperature rather than
dry bulb temperature of the air. This offers and
inherent advantage in making it possible to cool
the water to a temperature lower than the dry the water to a temperature lower than the dry
bulb temperature.This cooling is accomplished by a
combination of sensible heat transfer and
evaporation of a small proportion of water evaporation of a small proportion of water.
Principle of Natural Draft Cooling Tower
Natural draft cooling tower were depend on the
airflow caused by the natural driving pressure due airflow caused by the natural driving pressure due
to difference in density between the cool outside
air and the hot, humid air inside. The driving
pressure P is given by pressure P
d
is given by.
P
d
= (
o
-
i
) * H * g/g
c d
(
o

i
) g g
c

o
density of out side air Kg/M
d i f i id i k i f h fill K /M
i
density of inside air taken at exit of the fill Kg/M
H Height of the tower above the fill.
g gravitation acceleration m/sec
g
c
- conversion factor 1.0 Kgm/N.S
Principle of Natural Draft Cooling Tower Principle of Natural Draft Cooling Tower
This driving pressure must balance the air pressure
loss through the tower. Because (
o
-
i
) is very
small H must be large to result in the desired Pd small, H must be large to result in the desired Pd.
Therefore NDCTs are always very tall. The
hyperbolic profile found to offer superior strength
d h d d l d and the greatest resistance to out side wind loading
compared with other forms so that, substantially
less materials is needed. It has little to do with
the inside airflow.
Principle of Natural Draft Cooling Principle of Natural Draft Cooling
Tower (contd.)
Unlike fan driven cooling tower, NDCTs effectiveness
depends upon atmospheric humidity, wet bulb temperature
and dry bulb temperature i.e.
More the (
o
-
i
), Air velocity increases with
effectiveness.
Less the (
o
-
i
), Air velocity decreases with
effectiveness.
That is why, in winter and during monsoon season, AIR
VELOCITY will always be more, except during peak
summer where humidity is less
Definitions (As per CTI code) p
Evaporation loss: Water evaporated from the circulating water
into the atmosphere by the cooling process.
Evaporation rate:- The rate at which a liquid turn into vapor
and leaves a system.
Drift Loss:- water lost from cooling tower as liquid droplets
entrained in the exhaust air.It is independent of water lost by
evaporation. Units may be in lbs/hr. or percentage of
l fl f l l h l Circulating water flow. Drift eliminators control this loss
from the tower.
C l f t ti It di l d lid i k Cycle of concentration:- It compares dissolved solids in make
up water with solids concentrated through evaporation in the
circulating water. Since chlorides are soluble in water. For
example, the cycles of concentration are equal to the ratio of example, the cycles of concentration are equal to the ratio of
chlorides in circulating water to chlorides in make up water.
Important Key notes
Approach:- Theoretical temperature difference left out by
the cooling tower in the cooling water.
Approach = Cold water temp - Wet bulb temperature
Design value is 5c.
Range:-Actual cooled C Wby the cooling tower.
Range = Hot water temp - Cold water temp
C T effectiveness = Actual cooled C W X 100 / (Maximum (
temp. can be cooled)
i.e. (HWT-CWT) X 100) / (HWT-WBT).
If the Air velocity of C T increases, Approach will decrease
d ll b h b lb and Range will increase but it can not reach wet bulb
temperature.
Evaporation loss = (C Wflow x C T range) /675.
NATURAL DRAFT COOLING TOWER
AT 4 X 210 MW DADRI AT 4 X 210 MW DADRI
There are four numbers of natural There are four numbers of natural
draft cooling towers at NCPP stage I
(4x210 MW) designed supplied and (4x210 MW) designed, supplied and
erected by M/s WIG Brothers in
technical collaboration with M/s Blacke
Durr. Germany. Major designed
parameters and dimension of cooling
f ll towers is as follows.
DESIGN PARAMETERS OF DADRI NDCTs
1. Hot Water Temperature 43
0
C
2. Cold Water Temperature 32
0
C
lb f b
0
3. Dry Bulb Temp of Ambient air 35.96
0
C
4. Wet Bulb Temp of Ambient air 27
0
C
5. Relative Humidity of Ambient air 49.98 %
6. Cooling Range 11
0
C
7. Approach 5
0
C
8. CW Flow rate 25000 T/Hr
9. Heat dissipated in Cooling Tower 275 x 10
6
Kcal/Hr
10. Evaporation Loss 1.8 %
11. Drift Loss 12500 Kg/Hr
VARIABLE DESIGN PARAMETERS WITH RESPECT TO
TIME/SEASON
1
Hot Water Temperature Depends upon
1.
Hot Water Temperature Depends upon
condenser and CWT
2
Cold Water Temperature Depends upon
2.
Cold Water Temperature Depends upon
Cooling tower water distribution,holding time
of water in the air and air properties of water in the air and air properties.
3.
Dry Bulb Temp ,Wet Bulb Temp and and
Relative Humidity of Ambient air decides the Relative Humidity of Ambient air decides the
specific heat carrying capacity and volume of
air flow inside the cooling tower. g
4.
CW Flow rate decides quantity of
evaporation, density of air and the volume p y
of air flow inside the tower
COOLING TOWER AS A HEAT EXCHANGER
1 Two medias are air and water Where heat load is picked up by the air 1. Two medias are air and water. Where heat load is picked up by the air
and dissipates to atmoshphere.
2. Heat transfer takes place in three zones of cooling tower.
1 NOZZLE OUT LET TO TOP OF FILL MATERIAL THROUGH d l t 1. NOZZLE OUT LET TO TOP OF FILL MATERIAL THROUGH droplet
modelling
2. INSIDE THE COOLING FILL MATERIAL THROUGH fill modelling
3. BELOW THE FILL MATERIAL THROUGH droplet modelling.
3. The specific heat carrying capacity and volume of air flow inside the
cooling tower are governed by volume of water, temperature inside
the tower and dry bulb temp ,wet bulb temp and and relative
humidity of ambient air which is in outside the tower .
4. Water distribution and nozzle spray to tiniest water particle increases p y p
the maximum heat dissipating water surfaces and evaporative
cooling.This also increases the volume of water vapor inside the cooling
tower to increase the air flow for heat transfer.
SCOPE ON DESIGN PARAMETERS TOWARDS
IMPROVEMENT ON AN EXISTING COOLING TOWER
1. Hot Water Temperature 43
0
C
2. Cold Water Temperature 32
0
C
3. Dry Bulb Temp of Ambient air 35.96
0
C
0
4. Wet Bulb Temp of Ambient air 27
0
C
5. Relative Humidity of Ambient 49.98 % 5. Relative Humidity of Ambient
air
49.98 %
6. CW Flow rate 25000 T/Hr
7. Drift Loss 12500 Kg/Hr
COMPONENTS OF COOLING TOWERS.
Chimney structure,
Inlet pipes distribution channel supporting Inlet pipes, distribution channel, supporting
structure
Distribution pipes, cooling fill materials, spray
l nozzles.
Basin, outlet structure, sludge disposal
Other accessories
Stair way to reach water distribution system.
Aviation warning light.
Earthling and lightening protection as per norms.
PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF DADRI NDCTs
1.
OVERALL HEIGHT 117.00 Mtrs.
2.
AIR INLET HEIGHT 6.10 Mtrs.
3.
WATER INLET HEIGHT 8.50 Mtrs.
4.
DEPTH OF CT BASIN 2.25 Mtrs.
5.
DIAMETER OF CT BASIN 81.994 Mtrs.
6.
DIAMETER OF CT AT FILL MATERIAL
77.744 Mtrs.
7.
DIAMETER OF CT AT OUTLET 49.744 Mtrs
8.
DIAMETER OF CT AT THROAT 46.648 Mtrs.
Cooling fill used at NCPS coal is the make from M/S MM
Aqua Technologies Limited q g
DESCRIPTION COOLING
FILL
PARAMETERS AT NCPS COAL
Type C10.19 TOTAL HEAT LOAD- 275 x 10
6
Kcal/Hr
TOTAL WATER LOAD=25000M/HR
TOTAL SURFACE AREA FOR EXCHANGE
Flute Size 19mm
S f f 148
2
/
3
- 59,000 M
VOLUME OF FILL/CT- 4000 M(APPROX.)
DISTANCE BETWEEN FILL TOP AND
Surface of
Exchange
148m
2
/m
3
Min. Waterload 5m
3
/m
2
h
NOZZLE SPRAY - 500 MM
HEIGHT OF COOLING FILL- 900 MM
Material
Thickness
0.2/0.25mm
Weight 27kg/m
3
g g
Field of
application
Counter - flow processes
Advantage of film fill AND expected problems.
Continous Forming : Continous forming process is adopted where
one end of fill is always free & material supply from other end is
always available during the time of formation. Additional requirement
of raw material is met hence no thinning effect takes place at crests &
troughs.
Double Edge Folding : MM Aqua's manufacturing technique has the g g q g q
ability to fold the edges of the sheets providing stronger edges, which
gives extra protection against rough handling during installation &
maintenance. It also protects the fill from erosion. maintenance. It also protects the fill from erosion.
Uniform Thickness : Uniform thickness provides long retention time
& also provide uniform time for heat transfer.
L L th O j d t f L l th i th t it Longer Length : One major advantage of Longer length is that, it
allows the water to be inside the fill media for maximum time. It also
facilitate to decrease the number of support beam thus in turn reduces
th d & l d th t f t ti the pressure drop & also reduces the cost of construction.
Better distribution = less mineral scale
P di ib i i li i Proper water distribution in cooling towers is
essential in the prevention of mineral scale and
deposits in the cooling tower fill deposits in the cooling tower fill.
General vs. local deposits
Scale deposits can occur generally or locally Scale deposits can occur generally or locally.
The deposits are said to be general if they are
occurring all over, and are said to be "local" if g ,
they are only occurring in spots.
General deposits are usually caused by poor
water treatment, whereas localized deposits on
the fill are usually caused by poor water
di t ib ti distribution.
Evaporation concentrates minerals
Cooling towers are designed to evaporate
water to dissipate the heat in the water p
to the atmosphere.
Typically cooling water is pumped to the Typically, cooling water is pumped to the
distribution basins, where it flows down
the cooling tower by gravity passing the cooling tower by gravity, passing
through nozzles and what is called the
fill, the labyrinth-like packing below the fill, the labyrinth like packing below the
water distribution decks. The fill
disperses the flowing water into a larger disperses the flowing water into a larger
surface area to enhance evaporation.
Fill types
Fills can be splash or filming types. Splash-type p g yp p yp
fills consist of cascading horizontal bars that
break up the down-flowing water into droplets.
Film type fills consist of vertical corrugated Film-type fills consist of vertical, corrugated-
like plates upon which the down-flowing water
spreads or film. p
The nozzles are designed to disperse the water
evenly throughout the fill, while the fill is
d i d t i th f f t designed to increase the surface area of water
to enhance evaporation.
As the water evaporates it leaves minerals As the water evaporates, it leaves minerals
behind, increasing their concentration, and thus
increasing their potential to precipitate. With
hi i i i proper water treatment, this precipitation
potential can be reduced or prevented.
Treatment may not be enough
H ith t However, even with proper water
treatment, if you do not have sufficient
t t k th i l i l ti water to keep the minerals in solution,
the minerals will precipitate.
To prevent precipitation and deposition,
you must also ensure adequate water
distribution.
common causes of inadequate water distribution:
Plugged nozzles. Its common to find nozzles plugged gg p gg
with rust chips, especially during spring start-up. The
rust chips are caused by corrosion during the winter
lay-up. When the nozzles are plugged, flow is reduced y p p gg ,
through the fill. If this is the case, certain areas will
have a good water flow, while other areas will barely
trickle.
When the cooling tower fan runs, it literally pulls the
water toward it. In areas where the water flow is
already minimal this suction force is enough to already minimal, this suction force is enough to
temporarily pull any remaining water off the fill, leaving
a microscopic amount of minerals behind.
These microscopic minerals act as nucleation points for These microscopic minerals act as nucleation points for
new deposits to build upon. With these, more minerals
are precipitated every time the fan cycles on and off.
The resulting deposition is usually more pronounced in
the outer edges of the fill. This phenomenon is
sometimes referred to as the dryness of evaporation.
Broken or missing nozzles. Distribution basins are
equipped with nozzles that aid in dispersing the water
evenly over the fill. A broken or missing nozzle will not y g
disperse the water evenly and will cause the water to
channel narrowly down the fill, leading to poor water
distribution and deposition. p
Plugged strainers. Plugged strainers can also reduce
flow. As the flow is reduced, it may not supply enough
water to the distribution basins The result will be an water to the distribution basins. The result will be an
insufficient water flow to the farthest ends of the
basins, leading to poor water distribution in the fill, and
again mineral deposition again, mineral deposition.
Microbial growth on the fill. Insufficient water flow
may also result in insufficient contact with the biocides.
In t n thi m indi e tl e lt in lo li ed mi obi l In turn, this may indirectly result in localized microbial
growth. Microbiological substances can be bacterial or
algal. Because of their slimy cell surfaces, they attract
i ki d f ilt ith i b t various kinds of silts either airborne or water
treatment-induced. As the microbial growth attracts
more suspended solids, the water distribution is further
t i t d
THINGS TO BE BORNE IN OUR MIND
ALL THE COOLING TOWERS ARE DESIGNED FOR WORST CONDITION ALL THE COOLING TOWERS ARE DESIGNED FOR WORST CONDITION.
WORST CONDITION PREVAILS ONLY FOR FEW MOMENTS IN A YEAR
AND EVEN IN THAT SITUATION ALSO WE SHOULD ACHIEVE THE DESIGN
PARAMETERS. IF NOT THEN .FOLLOWING ARE THE PROPABLITIES:- PARAMETERS. IF NOT THEN .FOLLOWING ARE THE PROPABLITIES:
1. DESIGN FAULT AND FAULTY CONSTRUCTION. THIS CAN BE CONFIRMED
BY PG TEST AND TRIAL OPERATION TESTS.
2. IMPROPER MAINTANENCE AND QUALITY OFSPARES THIS CAN BE Q
CONFIRMED BY THE ABRUPT CHANGE IN PARAMETERS AFTER
MAINTANENCE.
3. IMPROPER INSPECTION AND AND ANALYSE THIS CAN BE CONFIRMED
BY THE REDUCTION OF PARAMETERS IN A PARTICULAR PATTERN DUE BY THE REDUCTION OF PARAMETERS IN A PARTICULAR PATTERN DUE
TO WEAR AND TEAR OF SPARES.
IMPORTANT:-
HISTROY OF INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT/SPARES SHOULD BE AVAILABLE HISTROY OF INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT/SPARES SHOULD BE AVAILABLE
DURING MAINTANENCE.
REGULAR ANALYSE OF SYSTEM PARAMETERS ON MONTHLY BASIS BY
OPERATION AND MAINTANENCE PERSONS WITH RESPECT TO PG OPERATION AND MAINTANENCE PERSONS WITH RESPECT TO PG
TEST/TRIAL OPERATION PARAMETERS AND POST OVERHAULING
PARAMETERS. THIS WILL PIN POINT THE EXACT PROBLEM IN
INDIVIDUAL SPARES.
FEASIBLITY STUDY IN IMPROVEMENT ON AN
EXISTING COOLING TOWER
1
.
Hot Water
Temperature
AND
Cold Water
IF THE COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE IS AS PER
DESIGN, THEN THE HWT WILL BE ALWAYS LOW UNLESS
THE CONDENSER PERFORMANCE IS POOR.
FOR NDCT THE MORE HWT MORE AIR FLOW AND MORE Cold Water
Temperature
FOR NDCT THE MORE HWT MORE AIR FLOW AND MORE
EFFICIENT.
IMPROPER DISTRIBUTION OF WATER DROP LETS OVER
COOLING FILL, CHOKING OF FILL MATERIAL IN THE OOL NG F LL, HOK NG OF F LL M E L N HE
BOTTOM OR MIDDLE WHICH WILL REFLECTS IN LOW
VOLUME OF WATER VAPOUR DUE TO LOW EVAPORATION
LOSS IN THE COOLING TOWER TO SUCK THE VOLUME
OF AIR OF AIR.
LOW HOT WATER FLOW / PARTIAL LOADING IN MAIN
PLANT WILL ALSO CONTRIBUTE THE AIR FLOW.
2
.
AREA FOR
DETAIL
STUDY
AIR PROPERTIES AND AIR DISTRIBUTION INSIDE THE
COOLING TOWER, WATER PROPERTIES AND WATER
DISTRIBUTION INSIDE THE COOLING TOWER AND STUDY DISTRIBUTION INSIDE THE COOLING TOWER AND
ACTUAL AIR PROPERTIES OUTSIDE THE COOLING TOWER
WITH RESPECT TO TIME AND SEASON.
PHOENIX OF NTPC DADRI
COAL NDWCT COAL NDWCT
P f f NDCT (4 210 MW DADRI) Performance of NDCT (4 x 210 MW DADRI)
Performance of NDCT since year
1999.
Analysis of individual cooling tower to
freeze behavior with respect to freeze behavior with respect to
seasons.
f f Performance of NDCT since year 1999.
PERFORMANCE OF NDCTs DURING MAY, 2003
70 53
100
40.08
51.42 51.80 51.93
70.53
18.75
26.98
32.86
24.442
24.107
24.801
25.336
8.92
7.76
7 46
10
APPROACH (0C)
AIR VELOCITY (M/SEC)
HUMIDITY (%)
CW FLOW ( x 1000 CUB M/HR)
EFFICIENCY (%)
7.76
7.46
6.16
3.79
3.9
4.35
EFFICIENCY (%)
2.82
1
UNIT-I UNIT-II UNIT-III UNIT-IV
PERFORMANCE OF NDCTs DURING JULY, 1999
90
92 93 93
100
80.65
82.76
85.61
84.62
28.703
29.417
25.39
26.127
10
APPROACH (0C)
AIR VELOCITY (M/SEC)
HUMIDITY (%)
CW FLOW ( x 1000 CUB M/HR)
EFFICIENCY (%)
3
4.68
4.87
4.46
4.71
EFFICIENCY (%)
3
2 2 2
1
UNIT-I UNIT-II UNIT-III UNIT-IV
PERFORMANCE OF NDCTs DURING AUGUST, 2004
70 33
72 71
100
66.89
67.85
70.33
72.71
66.46
67.28
69.00 68.59
26.144 26.37
24.473
25.305
10
APPROACH (0C)
AIR VELOCITY (M/SEC)
HUMIDITY (%)
CW FLOW ( x 1000 CUB M/HR)
EFFICIENCY (%)
4.95
4.65
4.56
4.63
4.41
3 44
EFFICIENCY (%)
2.54
2.72
3.44
1
UNIT-I UNIT-II UNIT-III UNIT-IV
PERFORMANCE OF NDCTs DURING DEC 2004
74
66
70 33
100
66
60
70.33
66.98
64.08
62.38 62.75
10
APPROACH (0C)
AIR VELOCITY (M/SEC)
HUMIDITY (%)
CW FLOW ( x 1000 CUB M/HR)
EFFICIENCY (%)
7
7.4
7.6 7.6
3 5
4.5
5
4
EFFICIENCY (%)
3.5
1
UNIT-I UNIT-II UNIT-III UNIT-IV
PERFORMANCE OF NDCTs DURING FEB 2001
74.57
100
44.83
58.92
45.42
47.58
67.74
64.83
63.47
24.891
24.144 24.155
25.748
10
APPROACH (0C)
AIR VELOCITY (M/SEC)
HUMIDITY (%)
CW FLOW ( x 1000 CUB M/HR)
EFFICIENCY (%)
4.45
5.09
5.88
6.14
3.75
EFFICIENCY (%)
2.6
2.89
3.04
1
UNIT-I UNIT-II UNIT-III UNIT-IV
NDCT BEHAVIOUR UNIT 1 (210 MW) DADRI
46 5
50
40.06
42.5
40.85
37 7
46.5
40
45
33.98
37.7
30.62
30
31.05
36.36
37
35
23.16
28
26.42
20.93
23.5
22.415
25
30
WBT (0C)
HWT (0C)
CWT
AIR VELOCITY (M/SEC)
HUMIDITY (%) x 2
CWFLOWX 2000
16.48 16.5 16.43
12.45 12.40
12.70 12.65
15
20
CW FLOW X 2000
4.46
3.44 3.5
5
10
2.6
2.82
3.44
0
5
FEB 2001 MAY 2003 JULY 1999 AUG 2004 DEC 2004
NDCT BEHAVIOUR UNIT 2 (210 MW) DADRI
50
37 63
41.79
39.6
40.67
45
40
45
31.95
37.63
37.1
29.29
32.6
30
31.11
29.46
33.925
33
35
20 37
26.38
27
26.46
21.26
23.9
21.78
25
30
WBT (0C)
HWT (0C)
CWT
AIR VELOCITY (M/SEC)
HUMIDITY (%) x 2
CWFLOWX 2000
16.18
20.37
16.5
12 072 12.221
13.485
14.352
13.185
15
20
CW FLOW X 2000
3.75
3 37
4.68
4.5
9.375
12.072 12.221
5
10
2.82
3.37
2.54
0
5
FEB 2001 MAY 2003 JUNE 2002 JULY 1999 AUG 2004 DEC 2004
NDCT BEHAVIOUR UNIT 3 (210 MW) DADRI
46 5
50
41.9
41.69
46.5
40
45
32.83
35.03
36.2
29 15
30
31.54
33.445
30
35
22.99
28
26.59
21.99
29.15
23.6
22.71
25
30
WBT (0C)
HWT (0C)
CWT
AIR VELOCITY (M/SEC)
HUMIDITY (%) x 2
CWFLOWX 2000
16.55
16
20.04
12 0775
12.668
13.0635 13.072
15
20
CW FLOW X 2000
2 89
4.35
4.71
4.41
5
12.0775
5
10
2.89
0
5
FEB 2001 MAY 2003 JULY 1999 AUG 2004 DEC 2004
NDCT BEHAVIOUR UNIT 4 (210 MW) DADRI
46
50
41.46
41.68
40
41.17
38.04
46
37 835
40
45
32.44
30.84
36.4
31.26
30.67
29
31.06
35.165
37.835
35.165
35
23.5
26.85
27
26.5
21.08
21.77
29
21.68
23.6
23.79
25
30
WBT (0C)
HWT (0C)
CWT
AIR VELOCITY (M/SEC)
HUMIDITY (%) x 2
CWFLOWX 2000
15.63
16
13.49
12.874
12 0535
12.671
14.7085
12.2365
13.1205
15
20
CW FLOW X 2000
3 04
3.79
4.87
4
12.0535
5
10
3.04
0.96
2.72
0.71
0
5
FEB 2001 MAY 2003 JULY 2000 JULY 1999 AUG 2004 NOV 2002 DEC 2004
MYRIADS
AIR, WATER AND ,
EVAPORATION
AIR
ROLE OF AIR PROPERTIES IN NDCT
DENSITY VARIES WITH DENSITY VARIES WITH
TEMPERATURE,ALTITUDE,HUMIDITY/
VAPOUR PRESSURE AND OTHER V OU SSU N O
PARAMETERS LIKE
SPECIFIC HEAT, ,
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY,
EXPANSION COEFFICIENT,
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY AND PRANDTL NUMBER FOR
TEMPERATURES BETWEEN -150C AND 400C.
FOLLOWS FOLLOWS
Gas
Con
Consta
nt
Pre
ssu
re
Consta
nt
Vol
um
e
Specifi
Temp.
(
C)
Density
(Kg/
m
3
)
Viscosity
(Pa-s)
Kinematic
Viscosity
(m
2
/s)
Con
sta
nt
(J/
kg
re
Spe
ctfi
c
Hea
e
Spe
cifi
c
Hea
p
c
Hea
t
Rat
io
g
K) t
(J/
kg
K)
t
(J/
kg
K)
io
0 1.29 1.71 10-5 1.33 10
-5
287 1000 716 1.40
50 1.09 1.95 10
-5
1.79 10
-5
287 - - -
100 0.946 2.17 10
-5
2.30 10
-5
287 1010 723 1.40
150 0 835 2 38 10
5
2 85 10
5
287 150 0.835 2.38 10
-5
2.85 10
-5
287 - - -
200 0.746 2.57 10
-5
3.45 10
-5
287 1020 737 1.39
250 0.675 2.75 10
-5
4.08 10
-5
287 - - -
300 0.616 2.93 10
-5
4.75 10
-5
287 1040 758 1.38
400 0.525 3.25 10
-5
6.20 10
-5
287 1070 781 1.37
500 0.457 3.55 10
-5
7.77 10
-5
287 1090 805 1.36
All properties are under 1 atm (1.01325105 Pa; 760 mmHg;
14.6959 psi) unless specified otherwise.
Density of air Density of air
The density of air, (Greek: rho) (air density), is
th it l f E th' t h d the mass per unit volume of Earth's atmosphere, and
is a useful value in aeronautics. Air density
d ith i i ltit d d i decreases with increasing altitude, as does air
pressure. At sea level and at 20 C, air has a density
f i t l 1 2 k / 3 of approximately 1.2 kg/m3.
The density of water, which is about 1000 kg/m3 (1
g/cm), is about 800 times more than the density of
air at sea level.
Effects of temperature and pressure
The formula for the density of dry air is given by: The formula for the density of dry air is given by:
where is the air density in kilograms per cubic
meter, p is pressure in pascals, R is the specific gas
constant, and T is temperature in kelvins.
The specific gas constant for dry air is:
Therefore:
At IUPAC standard temperature and pressure (0 C
and 100 kPa), dry air has a density of 1.2754 kg/m3.
At 20 C and 101.325 kPa, dry air has a density of
1.2041 kg/m3. g
At 70 F and 14.696 psia, dry air has a density of
0 074887 lbm/ft3 0.074887 lbm/ft3.
Effect of water vapor
The addition of water vapor to air (making the air
humid) reduces the density of the air, which may at
fi t t t l i first appear contrary to logic.
This occurs because the molecular mass of water
(18) i l th th l l f i ( d (18) is less than the molecular mass of air (around
29). For any gas, at a given temperature and
pressure the number of molecules present is pressure, the number of molecules present is
constant for a particular volume. So when water
molecules (vapor) are introduced to the air, the molecules (vapor) are introduced to the air, the
number of air molecules must reduce by the same
number in a given volume, without the pressure or
temperature increasing. Hence the mass per unit
volume of the gas (its density) decreases.
Effects of altitude
To calculate the density of air as a function of altitude, one
requires additional parameters. They are listed below, along
with their values according to the International Standard
Atmosphere, using the universal gas constant instead of the
specific one: specific one:
sea level standard atmospheric pressure p0 = 101325 Pa
l l t d d t t T0 288 15 K sea level standard temperature T0 = 288.15 K
Earth-surface gravitational acceleration g = 9.80665 m/s2.
l L 0065 K/ temperature lapse rate L = .0065 K/m
universal gas constant R = 8.31447 J/(molK)
molar mass of dry air M = 0.0289644 kg/mol = (28.9644
g/mol)
Temperature at altitude h meters above sea level is
given by the following formula (only valid inside g y g ( y
the troposphere):
Th t ltit d h i i b The pressure at altitude h is given by:
Density can then be calculated according to a molar
form of the original formula: g
Importance of temperature
The below table demonstrates that the properties of air change significantly with
temperature. Table speed of sound in air c, density of air , acoustic impedance Z
vs. temperature C
Effect of temperature
C c in m/s in kg/m Z in Pas/m
10 325.2 1.342 436.1
5 328 3 1 317 432 0 5 328.3 1.317 432.0
0 331.3 1.292 428.4
+5 334 3 1 269 424 3 +5 334.3 1.269 424.3
+10 337.3 1.247 420.6
+15 340 3 1 225 416 8 +15 340.3 1.225 416.8
+20 343.2 1.204 413.2
+25 346.1 1.184 409.8 25 346.1 1.184 409.8
+30 349.0 1.165 406.3
The density and the specific volume of air varies with the elevation
above sea level
The density of air will vary with the pressure (the
Ideal Gas Law) and the altitude above sea level. Ideal Gas Law) and the altitude above sea level.
Mean absolute pressure at sea level is approximately
760 mmHg (101.325 kPa, kN/m2) with a variation is 760 mmHg (101.325 kPa, kN/m2) with a variation is
about +/- 5%.
Altitude and Air Pressure Altitude and Air Pressure
The air pressure varies with altitude as shown in the
t bl table
Altitude (m) Barometer (mmHg)
0 760
75 753
150 746
250 739 250 739
300 733
450 719
600 706
750 693
900 681 900 681
1,000 668
1,200 656
1,350 644
1,500 632
1 800 609 1,800 609
2,100 586
2,400 564
Altitude and Air Density
Air density and specific volume as functions of altitude above sea level
are indicated in the diagrams below: are indicated in the diagrams below:
Altitude and Specific Volume Correction
The specific volume of standard air at a certain altitude can be calculated
b lti l i ith th l ti f t b l by multiplying with the volume correction factor below
Altitude
Volume Correction Factor Volume Correction Factor
(m) (ft)
0 0 1.00
480 1600 1.05
990 3300 1.11
1500 5000 1.17
1980 6600 1.24
2460 8200 1 31 2460 8200 1.31
2970 9900 1.39
RELATIVE HUMIDITY WITH RELATIVE HUMIDITY WITH
RESPECT TO
DENSITY,PRESSURE MAS
AND HEAT ABSORPTION AND HEAT ABSORPTION
FROM HOT WATER
TEMPERATURE
Relative humidity can be expressed by partial vapor and
air pressure density of the vapor and air or by the actual air pressure, density of the vapor and air, or by the actual
mass of the vapor and air
Humidity is the quantity of water vapor present in
air. It can be expressed as an absolute, specific or
a relative value.
Relative humidity can be expressed by partial
d i d i f h d vapor and air pressure, density of the vapor and
air, or by the actual mass of the vapor and air.
R l ti h idit i ll d i t Relative humidity is usually expressed in per cent
and abbreviated by or RH.
Relative Humidity and Vapor Partial Pressure
R l ti h idit b d th ti f Relative humidity can be expressed as the ratio of
the vapor partial pressure of the air - to the
t ti ti l f th i t th saturation vapor partial pressure of the air at the
actual dry bulb temperature.
Relative humidity by partial pressure
= pw / pws 100% (2) p p ( )
where
= relative humidity (%) = relative humidity (%)
pw = vapor partial pressure (mbar)
pws = saturation vapor partial pressure at the
actual dry bulb temperature (mbar)
If the water vapor pressure in the air is 10.3 mbar, the vapor will saturate
when a surface reaches 45oF.
Note! The atmospheric pressure of air is 1013 mbar (101 325 kPa 760 Note! The atmospheric pressure of air is 1013 mbar (101.325 kPa, 760
mmHg). The maximum water vapor pressure - the saturation pressure - is
relatively small.
Example - Relative Humidity and Vapor Pressure
From the table above the saturation pressure at 70oF From the table above the saturation pressure at 70oF
is 25.0 mbar. If the vapor pressure in the actual air is
10.3 mbar, the relative humidity can be calculated 0.3 ba , t e e at ve u d ty ca be ca cu ated
as:
= (10 2 mbar) / (25 0 mbar) 100% (10.2 mbar) / (25.0 mbar) 100%
= 41%
Relative Humidity and Vapor Density
Relative humidity can also be expressed as the ratio of the vapor Relative humidity can also be expressed as the ratio of the vapor
density of the air - to the saturation vapor density at the the actual dry
bulb temperature.
R l ti h idit b d it Relative humidity by density:
= w / ws 100% (2b)
where
= relative humidity (%)
w = vapor density (kg/m3)
ws = vapor density at saturation at actual dry bulb temperature
(kg/m3)
A common unit for vapor density is g/m3. If the actual vapor density p y g p y
at at 20&sup0;C is 10 g/m3 and the the saturation vapor density at this
temperature is 17.3 g/m3, the relative humidity is
= (10 g/m3) / (17 3 g/m3) 100% (10 g/m3) / (17.3 g/m3) 100%
= 57.8%
Relative Humidity and Vapor Mass
R l i h idi l b d h i Relative humidity can also be expressed as the ratio
at actual mass of water vapor in a given air volume -
to the mass of water vapor required to saturate at to the mass of water vapor required to saturate at
this volume.
Relative humidity can be expressed as: Relative humidity can be expressed as:
= mw / mws 100% (2c)
h where
= relative humidity (%)
mw = mass of water vapor in the given air volume
(kg)
mws = mass of water vapor required to saturate at
this volume (kg)
Weight of water vapor in air
Grains of moisture per pound of dry air at standard atmospheric pressure at
relative humidity ranging 10 to 90% The term"grain" is used as a measure of the relative humidity ranging 10 to 90%. The term grain is used as a measure of the
moisture that air will hold at a given temperature. one grain is 1/7000 of a pound.
Water Vapor in Air (grains water vapor/lb dry air)
R/H
Temperature (
o
C/
o
F)
R/H
(%)
-1 4 10 18 22 27 32 38
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
10 3 4 6 8 11 16 21 29
20 5 7 10 16 21 30 42 58
30 7 10 14 22 34 46 65 87 30 7 10 14 22 34 46 65 87
40 9 14 20 30 44 62 85 116
50 12 16 26 39 55 78 108 147
60 14 18 32 48 66 92 128 176
70 17 20 38 54 78 108 158 208
80 19 22 42 62 88 125 173
90 21 24 48 70 100 140 195
The temperature and density of air will influence
on volume flow, pressure head and power
consumption of fans compared with
manufacturing data
Since density of air vary with temperature
and air pressure (or altitude and elevation p (
above sea level), a fan will not deliver
according manufacturing specification if the g g p
operating conditions are outside NTP -
Normal Temperature and Pressure p
conditions.
A fan is a "constant volume" device where the transported
volume always is the same, no matter the air temperature or
density if all other things are equal Only the mass flow density, if all other things are equal. Only the mass flow
through the fan vary with air temperature and air density.
With hot air and lower air density - less mass will be With hot air and lower air density less mass will be
transported through the fan
With cold air and higher air density - more mass will be
transported through the fan
With equal speed and dimensions - the volume flow remains
equal equal
When selecting a fan it is important to know if the
specification of the system is based on operating conditions specification of the system is based on operating conditions
or NTP conditions. The formulas below can be used to
calculate the volume flow, pressure head and power
ti t NTP diti if th ti diti consumption at NTP conditions if the operating conditions
are known, or vice versa if the NTP conditions are known.
Volume Flow
The ratio between volume flow at different The ratio between volume flow at different
temperatures can be expressed as:
1 / 2 (273 2) / (273 1) (1) q1 / q2 = (273 + t2) / (273 + t1) (1)
where
q1 = reference volume flow (m3/s)
q2 = operating volume flow (m3/s) q2 operating volume flow (m3/s)
t1 = reference temperature (oC)
2 i ( C) t2 = operating temperature (oC)
Pressure Head
The ratio between developed pressure at different The ratio between developed pressure at different
temperatures can be expressed as:
dp2 / dp1 = (273 + t1) / (273 + t2) (2) dp2 / dp1 = (273 + t1) / (273 + t2) (2)
where
dp1 = reference pressure developed (Pa)
dp2 = operating pressure developed (Pa) p p g p p ( )
Power
Th ti b t ti t diff t The ratio between power consumption at different
temperatures can be expressed as:
P1 / P2 = (273 + t2) / (273 + t1) (3)
where
P1 = reference power consumption (W)
P2 = operating power consumption (W) P2 = operating power consumption (W)
Volume, Pressure and Power Ratio Chart
The volume, pressure and power ratios are expressed in the chart below.
The chart is based on a NTP reference of 20 oC.
WATER WATER
EVAPORATION OF LIQUIDS Q
EVAPORATION OF LIQUIDS EVAPORATION OF LIQUIDS
Sometimes a liquid can be sitting in one place
(maybe a puddle) and its molecules will become a
gas That's the process called evaporation It can gas. That's the process called evaporation. It can
happen when liquids are cold or when they are
warm. It happens more often with warmer liquids. pp q
Evaporation is all about the energy in individual
molecules, not about the average energy of a
system The average energy can be low and the system. The average energy can be low and the
evaporation still continues.
Why evaporation occurs
Heat (energy) is necessary for evaporation to occur. Energy Heat (energy) is necessary for evaporation to occur. Energy
is used to break the bonds that hold water molecules
together, which is why water easily evaporates at the boiling
point (212 F 100 C) but evaporates much more slowly at point (212 F, 100 C) but evaporates much more slowly at
the freezing point. Net evaporation occurs when the rate of
evaporation exceeds the rate of condensation. A state of
saturation exists when these two process rates are equal at saturation exists when these two process rates are equal, at
which point the relative humidity of the air is 100 percent.
Condensation, the opposite of evaporation, occurs when
saturated air is cooled below the dew point (the temperature saturated air is cooled below the dew point (the temperature
to which air must be cooled at a constant pressure for it to
become fully saturated with water), such as on the outside
f l f i t I f t th f ti of a glass of ice water. In fact, the process of evaporation
removes heat from the environment, which is why water
evaporating from your skin cools you.
Theory
For molecules of a liquid to evaporate they must be located near the For molecules of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located near the
surface, be moving in the proper direction, and have sufficient kinetic
energy to overcome liquid-phase intermolecular forces.[1] Only a
ll ti f th l l t th it i th t f small proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, so the rate of
evaporation is limited. Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is
proportional to its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at
higher temperature. As the faster-moving molecules escape, the
remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the
temperature of the liquid thus decreases This phenomenon is also temperature of the liquid thus decreases. This phenomenon is also
called evaporative cooling. This is why evaporating sweat cools the
human body. Evaporation also tends to proceed more quickly with
hi h fl t b t th d li id h d i li id higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids
with higher vapor pressure. For example, laundry on a clothes line
will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a windy day than on a still
day.Three key parts to evaporation are heat, humidity and air
movement.
The rate of evaporation can also increase with a decrease in the
gas pressure around a liquid. Molecules like to move from areas
of higher pressure to lower pressure The molecules are of higher pressure to lower pressure. The molecules are
basically sucked into the surrounding area to even out the
pressure. Once the vapor pressure of the area increases to a
specific level the rate of evaporation will slow down specific level, the rate of evaporation will slow down.
On average, the molecules do not have enough energy to
escape from the liquid, or else the liquid would turn into vapor
quickly. When the molecules collide, they transfer energy to
each other in varying degrees, based on how they collide.
Sometimes the transfer is so one-sided for a molecule near the
surface that it ends up with enough energy to escape.
Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle. Solar energy
drives evaporation of water from oceans lakes moisture in the drives evaporation of water from oceans, lakes, moisture in the
soil, and other sources of water. In hydrology, evaporation and
transpiration (which involves evaporation within plant stomata)
ll ti l t d t i ti are collectively termed evapotranspiration.
The energy you can measure with a thermometer is
really an average of all the molecules in the system.
There are always a few molecules with a lot of energy There are always a few molecules with a lot of energy
and some with barely any energy at all. The molecules
with a lot of energy are able to build up enough power to
become a gas. Once they reach that energy level, they become a gas. Once they reach that energy level, they
can leave the liquid. When the molecule leaves, it has
evaporated.
Four steps in the water cycle
Evaporation occurs when water transforms from liquid to gas, usually
as a result of the sun's warming rays. Evaporation often technically
includes transpiration from plants (the vapor the "breathe" out as they
grow) though together they are specifically referred to as grow), though together they are specifically referred to as
evapotranspiration.
Condensation occurs as the vapor rises into the atmosphere, creating
clouds and fog. Once clouds are formed, advection -- the movement of g ,
water in its various states -- through the atmosphere. Without
advection, the cycle would screech to a halt, as the water would
evaporate and precipitate (the next step) in the same place.
Precipitation occurs when the vapor that condensed comes back out of Precipitation occurs when the vapor that condensed comes back out of
the sky as rain, snow, sleet, hail. Most of it comes back to the ground or
body of water, but some of it is intercepted by plant foliage and
evaporates back to the atmosphere instead of making it to the ground, p p g g ,
in a process called "canopy interception."
Runoff is the process by which water moves across land and includes
both surface runoff -- when water travels over land -- and channel
runoff when it gets into streams and rivers As is bubbles and rambles runoff -- when it gets into streams and rivers. As is bubbles and rambles
along, it can drain into the ground, evaporate into the air, run into and
become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be gathered up for human uses.
Factors influencing the rate of evaporation
Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air: If the air already has a high
concentration of the substance evaporating then the given substance will evaporate concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given substance will evaporate
more slowly.
Concentration of other substances in the air: If the air is already saturated with other
substances, it can have a lower capacity for the substance evaporating.
Flow rate of air: This is in part related to the concentration points above. If fresh air
is moving over the substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in
the air is less likely to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. This is
result of the boundary layer at the evaporation surface decreasing with flow velocity, y y p g y,
decreasing the diffusion distance in the stagnant layer.
Concentration of other substances in the liquid (impurities): If the liquid contains
other substances, it will have a lower capacity for evaporation.
Temperature of the substance: If the substance is hotter then evaporation will be Temperature of the substance: If the substance is hotter, then evaporation will be
faster.
Inter-molecular forces: The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the
liquid state, the more energy one must get to escape.
Surface area: A substance which has a larger surface area will evaporate faster as
there are more surface molecules which are able to escape.
Evaporation from the oceans is the primary mechanism supporting the
surface-to-atmosphere portion of the water cycle. After all, the large
surface area of the oceans (over 70 percent of the Earth's surface is ( p
covered by the oceans) provides the opportunity for large-scale
evaporation to occur. On a global scale, the amount of water
evaporating is about the same as the amount of water delivered to the p g
Earth as precipitation. This does vary geographically, though.
Evaporation is more prevalent over the oceans than precipitation,
while over the land, precipitation routinely exceeds evaporation. Most w e ove t e a d, p ec p tat o out e y e ceeds evapo at o . ost
of the water that evaporates from the oceans falls back into the oceans
as precipitation.
Less evaporation takes place during periods of calm winds than during Less evaporation takes place during periods of calm winds than during
windy times. When the air is calm, evaporated water tends to stay
close to the water body, as the picture above shows; when winds are
present the more moist air close to the water body is moved away and present, the more moist air close to the water body is moved away and
replaced by drier air which favors additional evaporation.
The Dead Sea is located in the Middle East within a closed watershed
and without any means of outflow which is abnormal for most lakes and without any means of outflow, which is abnormal for most lakes.
The primary mechanism for water to leave the lake is by evaporation,
which can be quite high in a desertupwards of 1,300 - 1,600
millimeters per year. The result is that the waters of the Dead Sea p y
have the highest salinity and density (which is why you float "higher"
when you lay in the water) of any sea in the world, too high to support
life.
The rate of evaporation will depend upon a number of
factors. Rates increase when temperatures are higher. An
increase of 10C will approximately double the rate of
evaporation. The humidity of the surrounding air will also
influence evaporation Drier air has a greater "thirst" for influence evaporation. Drier air has a greater thirst for
water vapour than humid, moist air. It follows therefore,
that the presence of wind will also increase evaporation. On that the presence of wind will also increase evaporation. On
still days, water evaporating to the air remains close to its
source, increasing the local humidity. As the moisture
content of the air increases, evaporation will diminish. If,
however, a steady flow of air exists to remove the newly
f d th i di th t ill formed vapour, the air surrounding the water source will
remain dry, "thirsty" for future water.
Evaporation is an endothermic process: molecules can break
free of a liquid-phase system by taking in heat from the
surroundings This can cause a measurable temperature surroundings. This can cause a measurable temperature
decrease in the surroundings. Other factors being equal, the
higher the rate at which molecules leave the liquid surface, g q
the more extreme the temperature drop.
Ease of evaporation (like liquid viscosity and boiling point
t t ) i i i ht i t th f f temperature) gives us insight into the forces of
intermolecular attraction. As those forces get stronger,
evaporation becomes a slower process. p p
Experiments demonstrate how evaporation lowers
temperatures temperatures
Ether Freezes Water. Since some liquids vaporize at a
lower temperature than water, they produce a
correspondingly greater degree of cold. Ether is such
a liquid.
This may be shown by filling a test tube about a third This may be shown by filling a test tube about a third
full of ether. After equipping the tube with a two-hole
stopper, insert a length of bent glass tubing until one pp , g g g
leg almost reaches the bottom. Into the other hole
thrust a short delivery tube fitted with rubber tubing
long enough to carry the ether vapor out an open long enough to carry the ether vapor out an open
window.
Now moisten the outside of the test tube with water Now moisten the outside of the test tube with water
and blow steadily into the inlet tube. The ether will
quickly evaporate and ice will form on the test tube
How Evaporation Steals Heat
EVERY time a liquid evaporates into a gas, it
snatches a definite amount of heat from its
container and surrounding air, cooling both
b l th i i i l t t Thi l f below their original temperatures. This law of
physical chemistry has long been useful to
the human race as a means of cooling foods the human race as a means of cooling foods
or drinks. Primitive man found that water
placed in unglazed earthenware vessels placed in unglazed earthenware vessels
would seep through the pores, evaporate,
and cool the water remaining inside. g
Campers and country dwellers still cool water
in this way.
Evaporation Loss During Sprinkler
During sprinkler operation, water
evaporates from droplets sprayed through p p p y g
the air. The amount of evaporation depends
on three factors: (1) the climate demand; (2) ( ) ; ( )
the time available for evaporation to occur;
and (3) the surface area of the water ( )
droplets.
Climate Demand:
The climate demand is a measure of the energy available for evaporation and the The climate demand is a measure of the energy available for evaporation and the
capacity of the air to store and transmit water vapor. The evaporation process
requires 580 calories of energy to convert 1 gram of water from the liquid to the
vapor form. This energy must be available from the environment surrounding the
sprinkler Energy is readily available during summer months as indicated by high sprinkler. Energy is readily available during summer months, as indicated by high
air temperatures and high levels of solar radiation. Conversely, low temperatures
and low levels of solar radiation during winter months provide less energy for
evaporation.
Ai h idit i ft d l ti h idit hi h f 0 t Air humidity is often expressed as relative humidity, which ranges from near 0 to
100 percent, with low values indicating dry air and high values indicating moist air.
Since dry air has a greater capacity for moisture, evaporation will occur more
rapidly when the air is dry than when it is moist. When the relative humidity is 100
t th i i t t d t it t t t d t h ld t percent, the air is saturated at its current temperature and cannot hold more water;
thus, no further evaporation occurs. This condition exists after dewfall at night,
during foggy conditions, and during rainfall. Also, since humidity levels are
normally high during early morning and early evening hours in humid areas such as
Fl id ti t l d i th ti t d Florida, evaporation rates are low during these times on most days.
Wind increases evaporation rates by transporting water vapor away from the
evaporating surface. Wind also increases evaporation by transporting warmer or
drier air from surrounding areas to displace the moist, cool air above an irrigated g p g
surface.
Time Available for Evaporation to Occur
h i il bl f i i h l i l The time available for evaporation to occur is the relatively
short time beginning when a water droplet leaves the nozzle
and ending when it falls on the ground or vegetated surface. g g g
When water is sprayed at greater heights and over greater
distances, this opportunity time for evaporation is increased.
Thus, more evaporation would be expected to occur from a , p p
sprinkler installed on a tall riser than from the same
sprinkler (operated at the same pressure so that the drop size
distribution is the same) installed on a short riser. distribution is the same) installed on a short riser.
Wind speeds are faster at greater heights above the ground
surface, where there are few obstacles to air movement.
Th s e aporation loss from sprinklers mo nted on tall Thus, evaporation loss from sprinklers mounted on tall
risers is also increased because of these higher wind speeds.
Surface Area of Water Droplets
Because evaporation occurs from the surface of
the water droplets, the total surface area of the
water droplets greatly affects the amount of water droplets greatly affects the amount of
evaporation loss. For a unit volume of water, the
surface area doubles as the droplet diameter p
decreases by half. For this reason, evaporation rate
increases as droplet size decreases if other factors
remain constant and the factors that cause droplet remain constant, and the factors that cause droplet
size to decrease will cause evaporation loss to
increase.
ESTIMATING SPRINKLER EVAPORATION
LOSS
Despite typical high temperatures, there is relatively
little sprinkler evaporation loss in Florida because of
high humidity levels and low wind speeds.
Myers et al. (1970) conducted wind tunnel tests of y ( )
sprinkler evaporation loss for typical Florida climate
conditions. They stated it is unlikely that y y
evaporation from water droplets in transit from the
sprinkler to the ground or plant surface could p g p
represent more than 5 percent of the water applied
by typical sprinkler irrigation systems under Florida y yp p g y
climate conditions
The Frost and Schwalen (1960) nomograph can be used
to estimate evaporation loss for specific climate and
operating conditions. This nomograph allows the user to
estimate the amount of evaporation loss for different
times of day or for daytime and nighttime irrigation times of day or for daytime and nighttime irrigation.
The calculations are done in the following steps:
Draw a straight line from the point representing 10 percent relative Draw a straight line from the point representing 10 percent relative
humidity in column 1 through the mark for 90F temperature in
column 2. Extend this line to indicate a vapor-pressure deficit of 0.63
psi in column 3 psi in column 3.
Draw a straight line from the point representing 0.63 psi vapor-
pressure deficit in column 3 to the mark that indicates 3/16-inch
(12/64 inch) nozzle diameter in column 5 Locate point A where this (12/64-inch) nozzle diameter in column 5. Locate point A where this
line intersects the pivot line in column 4. Point A will be used in step
4 below.
i h li f h k f i l i Draw a straight line from the mark for 40 psi nozzle pressure in
column 7 to the point representing 5 mph wind speed in column 9.
Locate point B where this line intersects the pivot line in column 8.
Point B will be used in step 4 below.
Draw a straight line from point A on the pivot line in column 4 to
point B on the pivot line in column 8. Read the percentage of p p p g
evaporation loss where this line intersects column 6. For this example,
evaporation loss is 8.5 percent.
Estimate the percentage of Estimate the percentage of
evaporation loss
Thus, 8.5 percent of the water discharged from an
irrigation system using 3/16-inch nozzle diameters and
operating at 40 psi would evaporate under these operating at 40 psi would evaporate under these
extreme climate conditions. Under typical Florida
climate conditions, evaporation loss would not be
expected to exceed this value. For the 6.3 gpm sprinkler
discharge rate, 8.5 percent, or 0.54 gpm, would be
expected to evaporate, while the remaining 5.76 gpm p p , g gp
would be expected to reach the soil surface or plant
canopy.
Air can be humidified by adding water or steam
If water is added to air without any heat supply, the air condition y pp y,
will change adiabatic along a constant enthalpy line - h. The
dry temperature of the air will decrease as shown in the Mollier
diagram diagram
The added water can be expressed as:
m
w
= v ( x
C
x
A
) (1)
where
Mw = mass of added water (kg/s) Mw mass of added water (kg/s)
v = volume flow of air (m3/s)
= density of air - vary with temperature, 1.293 kg/m3 at 20oC (kg/m3)
ifi h idit f i (k /k ) x = specific humidity of air (kg/kg)
If the water added is at the same temperature as the air, the change in
enthalpy is zero
Example - Humidifying Air by adding Water
An airflow of 3000 m3/h at 25oC and 10% relative humidity (A) is
humidified to 60% relative humidity (C) by adding water through
l spray nozzles.
Using the Mollier diagram and following the constant enthalpy line 30
kJ/kg from A to 60% relative humidity, the state at C can be found at
14.7oC.
The specific humidity at (A) is 0.002 kg/kg and at (C) 0.0062 kg/kg.
The amount of water added can be calculated as:
mw = ((3000 m3/h) / (3600 s/h)) (1.184 kg/m3) ( (0.0062 kg/kg) -
(0.002 kg/kg) )
= 0.0041 kg/s
= 14.9 kg/h
Humidifying Air by adding Steam
If steam is added to the air, the air condition will change
along a constant dh/dx line for steam as shown above.
When adding saturated steam at atmospheric pressure the
constant line dh/dx = 2,502 kJ/kg (the evaporation heat of
water at atmospheric pressure) When adding saturated water at atmospheric pressure). When adding saturated
steam at atmospheric pressure the temperature rise is very
small - in general less than 1oC. For practical purposes the small in general less than 1oC. For practical purposes the
process of adding saturated steam at atmospheric pressure
approximates the horizontal temperature line.
The water vapor added can be calculated using (1).
The enthalpy added can be found using the Mollier diagram. py g g
Example - Humidifying Air by adding Steam
An airflow of 3000 m3/h at 25oC and 10% relative humidity (A) is humidified to
60% l ti h idit (B) b ddi t t d t t t h i 60% relative humidity (B) by adding saturated steam at atmospheric pressure.
Using the Mollier diagram the process from (A) to (B) can be approximated
by following the constant temperature line 25oC to 60% relative humidity y g p y
and approximately 25.5oC (a temperature increase less than 1oC).
The specific humidity at (A) is 0.002 kg/kg and at (B) 0.012 kg/kg.
The amount of water added can be calculated as:
mw = ((3000 m3/h) / (3600 s/h)) (1.184 kg/m3) ( (0.012 kg/kg) - (0.002
kg/kg) )
= 0.01 kg/s
= 35.5 kg/h
The enthalpy change can be found using the Mollier diagram. The enthaply
at (A) is 30 kJ/kg and at (B) 55 kJ/kg. The enthalpy difference is
dh 55 kJ/k 30 kJ/k dh = 55 kJ/kg - 30 kJ/kg
= 25 kJ/kg
The total heat added by the steam can be calculated as:
((3000 3/h) / (3600 /h)) (1 184 k / 3) (55 kJ/k 30 kJ/k ) q = ((3000 m3/h) / (3600 s/h)) (1.184 kg/m3) (55 kJ/kg - 30 kJ/kg)
= 24.7 (kJ/s, kW)
FEASIBLITY ON IMPROVEMENTS BASED ON ABOVE
TO ENHANCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NDWCT
1. SPRAYING AUXILLARY STEAM INSIDE THE COOLING
TOWER AT 10 METER HEIGHT TO INCREASE THE AIR
FLOWBY DENSITY DIFFERENCE FLOW BY DENSITY DIFFERENCE
2. SPRAY WATER IN ALL THE GAPS OF NOZZLES BY
PUMPING HOT WATER DUCT OVER THE COOLING FILL
MATERIALS TO:-
INCREASING THE CONTRACT AREA.
INCREASING EVAPORTION RATE MORE.
INCREASING THE DENSITY DIFFERENCE INCREASING THE DENSITY DIFFERENCE.
SCALING OF FILL CAN BE CONTROLLED
3 WATER SPRAY OUT SIDE THE COOLING TOWER AREA T0
A DISTANCE OF 2 DIAMETER OF THE COOLING TOWER A DISTANCE OF 2 DIAMETER OF THE COOLING TOWER
BASIN TO INCREASE THE :-
DENSITY DIFFERENCE DURING DRY R/H
TO CONTROL THE DUST INGRESSION TO CONTROL THE DUST INGRESSION
FEASIBLITY ON IMPROVEMENTS BASED ON ABOVE
TO ENHANCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NDWCT
4. MAINTAINING GRASS LAWN WITH SHORT GREENARY
BUSHES AROUND COOLING TOWER AREA UP TO 3
DIAMETER OF CT BASIN WITH WATER SPRINKLER
SYSTEM WILL HELP IN INCREASE IN HUMIDITY,
REDUCTION ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE BY REDUCTION ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE BY
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION, EVAPORATION ETC.
5. MAINTAINING TREES AFTER 3 DIAMETER WILL HELP IN
MAINTAINING DUST FREE ATMOSPHERE AROUND
COOLING TOWER AREA FOR QUALITY AIR AND FOR
REDUCTION OF COOLING FILL CHOKE. ALSO RELEASE REDUCTION OF COOLING FILL CHOKE. ALSO RELEASE
OF CARBON DI OXIDE HELPS IN REDUCTION
ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE.
Conclusion
Clarity in the basics of any equipment, spare, design y y q p , p , g
parameters behavior, and expected results with respect to
the present total system behavior/ existing situations will
fetch optimised cost on operation and maintanence fetch optimised cost on operation and maintanence.
Further it will enhance you to appropriate modifications
in the right spirit. g p
Because designers and manufacturers are only supplier
but we are living with it who can sense the feeling of
i t ith t t t i t equipments with respect ton system requirement.
Atlast sense of acheivement will fetch maximum
happiness happiness.
Thank you
C ll ti t t d f Collection to study for
understandings. g
Three heat and mass transfer regions Three heat and mass transfer regions
in cooling towers
In a NDWCT there are three heat and mass
transfer regions that need to be modeled, the g ,
spray region below the spray nozzles,the fill
(with compact film type fill) and the rain ( p yp )
region below the fill.
Droplet Modelling
In the spray and rain regions the water flows in droplet In the spray and rain regions the water flows in droplet
form. This has been represented with Lagrangian particle
tracking with coupled heat and mass transfer between the g p
droplets and the continuous phase.
Lagrangian particle trajectories are initiated from spray g g p j p y
nozzle locations. At the surface of the fill these droplet
trajectories are terminated and the droplet temperature and
fl d I h i i h d l mass flow rate are stored. In the rain region the droplets are
initiated from the center of each face on the bottom surface
of the fill The temperature and water mass flow rate of the of the fill. The temperature and water mass flow rate of the
droplets are determined by the subroutine that describes the
heat and mass transfer on the fill. The droplets are given a p g
uniform distribution of 2.5mm in the rain zone.
Fill Modelling
I th fill th t fl i l fil t In the fill, the water flows in complex film type
motion across the closely packed parallel wavy plates
in the counter direction to air flow It would be in the counter direction to air flow. It would be
computationally prohibitively expensive to model the
fill explicitly so the effect of the fill on the continuous
phase is represented using source terms. The change
in water temperature is calculated through the fill
i d fi d b i hi h k h using a user defined subroutine which tracks the
water properties through the fill to balance the heat
and mass transfer to the continuous phase and mass transfer to the continuous phase
Fill Modelling
The water flow through the fill is physically one-dimensional
as it is constrained to film flow descending along the vertical
plates. This requires that the heat and mass transfer in the fill
to also be a 1 dimensional process This simplification allows to also be a 1 dimensional process. This simplification allows
the water flow to be represented solely by two variables at each
point, its temperature and mass flow rate. The fill region in the
tower is considered as a number of discrete columns, each one
being equivalent to a 1D grid, overlaying the computational domain.
Across each layer in these columns, or between points
on the 1D grid, the change in water temperature and mass are
computed based on the traditional analytical methods This approach computed based on the traditional analytical methods. This approach
is depicted in figure (2). The water flow through the
tower fill is represented by 87 of these columns with each one
discretised into 10 layers or nodes.
Heat and Mass Transfer in the Fill
The heat and mass transfer characteristics are The heat and mass transfer characteristics are
governed by the volumetric mass transfer coefficient
and the wetted contact area between the phases The and the wetted contact area between the phases. The
product of these two values hdA can be found from
the Merkel number [1] for a particular fill type The the Merkel number [1] for a particular fill type. The
transfer coefficients used are in the Poppe form,
which means which means
that the Poppe equations [3] are used to interpret the
i t l d t d f th i i l ti experimental data and form the empirical equation
for the coefficient.
The water evaporated mevap[n] across fluid
layer n is determined using equation, where y g q ,
wsat;Tw is the specific humidity of
saturated air evaluated at the water
temperature (kg=kg) and wave; f luid is the
average specific humidity in the fluid zone. g p y
The volumetric transfer coefficients are specified
per meter depth of the fill and the heat and mass p p
transfer is being evaluated across a small increment
in the fill DLf i, so the transfer coefficients must be f ,
reduced to allow for the smaller area over which the
heat transfer is taking place using, g p g,
The new water mass flow rate is found
using equation g q
The latent and sensible heat transfer is evaluated
using equations1 and 2 respectively. g q p y
where Tave;air is the average temperature of the continuous
phase in the layer.
The water temperature at the inter-facial layer n is
determined using equation. g q
where Tw[n+1] is the water temperature corresponding
to the fluid boundary above the fluid layer n, mw is the
mass flow rate of water in the column in kg/s Cpw is mass flow rate of water in the column in kg/s, Cpw is
the specific heat of water J/kgK.
When the flow becomes super-saturated then
additional energy is released in the flow, as the gy ,
latent heat of vapourisation is released when the
water vapour condenses as mist. It has been p
assumed for this investigation, as in the Poppe
model [3], that vapour condenses as mist when the [ ], p
vapour pressure rises above the saturation vapour
pressure although in reality it may reach very high p g y y y g
levels of supersaturation before this occurs.
The mass source Msource (kg/m3s) and enthalpy source
Qsource (W/m3) per unit volume are given by equations :
Preliminary Results
The results indicate a significant deviation from the assumptions of 1D
analytical models. A radial cut through the tower exhibits significant
temperature, velocity, h2o species concentration, and pressure
gradients. Errors in the determination of the outlet condition will lead gradients. Errors in the determination of the outlet condition will lead
to erroneous computation of the tower draft and therefore heat transfer
through the fill.
The Merkel number varys between 0.85 to 0.75 from the center to the
outer edge of the tower as depicted in figure (3) Loss coefficients also outer edge of the tower as depicted in figure (3). Loss coefficients also
vary throughout much of the tower, from 22.6 in the center to 24 near
the outer edge where there is a low air to water flow rate ratio.
These results are of course numerically obtained and therefore do not
t bl k if iti i th fill S bli h d represent any blockages or non-uniformities in the fill. Some published
data [11] indicates that these non-uniformities can partially eliminate
any variation in the temperature and humidity profile across the fill.
Conclusions
A commercial package can be successfully
implemented with user defined subroutines to implemented with user defined subroutines to
model a natural draft wet cooling tower.
Preliminary results show room for improvement in
cooling tower design and highlight the non- cooling tower design and highlight the non
uniformities that exist in the fill inlet conditions.
The future goal of this work is to quantify the
effect of these non uniformities on the accuracy of effect of these non-uniformities on the accuracy of
traditional cooling tower design and specification
and to also determine where improvements can be
made in cooling tower design made in cooling tower design.
The Specific Heat Capacity is the amount of heat required to change a
unit mass of a substance by one degree in temperature. The heat
supplied to a unit mass can be expressed as
dQ = m c dt (1) dQ = m c dt (1)
where
dQ = heat supplied (kJ, Btu)
m = mass (kg, lb) m mass (kg, lb)
c = Specific Heat Capacity (kJ/kgoC, Btu/lboF)
dt = temperature change (oC, oF)
Expressing Specific Heat Capacity using (1)
c = dQ / m dt (1b)
RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
The heat capacity of a gas in a constant pressure process - to the heat capacity
of a gas in a constant volume process of a gas in a constant volume process
Internal Energy
For an ideal gas the internal energy - u - is a function of temperature and the change
in internal energy can be expressed as gy p
du = cv dT (1)
where
du = change in internal energy
cv = specific heat capacity for the gas in a constant volume process
dT = change in temperature
cv varies with temperature, but within a moderate temperature change the heat
capacity cv can be regarded as constant capacity - cv - can be regarded as constant.
Specific Heat Capacities for Gases
Enthalpy
For an ideal gas the enthalpy - h - is function of temperature and the change in For an ideal gas the enthalpy h is function of temperature and the change in
enthalpy can be expressed as
dh = cp dT (2)
where
dh = change in enthalpy
cp= specific heat capacity for the gas in a constant pressure process
cp can within a moderate temperature change be regarded as constant.
The Ratio of Specific Heats can be
expressed as: p
k = cp / cv
Where k = the ratio of specific heats Where k = the ratio of specific heats