Copyright20122014,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.

AllRightsReserved

MathHandbook
ofFormulas,ProcessesandTricks
Trigonometry

Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA
Version1.05
September12,2014

TrigonometryHandbook

Thisisanearlyworkproductthatwilleventuallyresultinanextensivehandbookonthesubject
ofTrigonometry.Initscurrentform,thehandbookcoversmanyofthesubjectscontainedina
Trigonometrycourse,butisnotexhaustive.Inthemeantime,wearehopefulthatthismaterial
willbehelpfultothestudent.Revisionstothishandbookwillbeprovidedonwww.mathguy.us
astheybecomeavailable.

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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Page Description
Chapter1:FunctionsandSpecialAngles
6 Definitions(xandyaxes)
6 Radians
6 SineCosineRelationship
7 Definitions(RightTriangle)
7 SOHCAHTOA
7 TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles
8 TrigFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
9 TheUnitCircle
Chapter2:GraphsofTrigFunctions
10 BasicTrigFunctions
11 TableofTrigFunctionCharacteristics
12 SineFunction
14 CosineFunction
16 TangentFunction
18 CotangentFunction
20 SecantFunction
22 CosecantFunction
Chapter3:InverseTrigonometricFunctions
24 Definitions
24 PrincipalValues
25 GraphsofInverseTrigFunctions
Chapter4:KeyAngleFormulas
26 AngleAdditionFormulas
26 DoubleAngleFormulas
26 HalfAngleFormulas
27 PowerReducingFormulas
27 ProducttoSumFormulas
27 SumtoProductFormulas
28 Cofunctions
28 LawofSines
28 LawofCosines
28 PythagoreanIdentities
Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents
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Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter5:SolvinganObliqueTriangle
29 SummaryofMethods
30 TheAmbiguousCase
32 FlowchartfortheAmbiguousCase
Chapter6:AreaofaTriangle
33 GeometryFormula
33 Heron'sFormula
34 TrigonometricFormulas
34 CoordinateGeometryFormula
Chapter7:PolarCoordinates
35 Introduction
35 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarCoordinates
36 ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
36 OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
37 DeMoivre'sTheorem
38 DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
Chapter8:GraphingPolarFunctions
39 Cardioid
40 Rose
Chapter9:Vectors
41 Introduction
41 SpecialUnitVectors
41 VectorComponents
42 VectorProperties
43 DotProduct
44 VectorProjection
44 OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
44 Work
45 Index
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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents
UsefulWebsites
http://www.mathguy.us/
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
www.khanacademy.org
http://www.analyzemath.com/Trigonometry.html
SchaumsOutline
Note: This study guide was prepared to be a companion to most books on the subject of High
School Trigonometry. Precalculus (4th edition) by Robert Blitzer was used to determine some of the
subjects to include in this guide.
Animportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolorcollegemathstudentis
aSchaumsOutline.Eachbookinthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthe
varioustopicsinthecourseandasubstantialnumberofproblemsforthe
studenttotry.Manyoftheproblemsareworkedoutinthebook,sothe
studentcanseeexamplesofhowtheyshouldbesolved.
SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Nobleandother
booksellers.
Mathguy.usDevelopedspecificallyformathstudentsfromMiddleSchooltoCollege,basedonthe
author'sextensiveexperienceinprofessionalmathematicsinabusinesssettingandinmathtutoring.
Containsfreedownloadablehandbooks,PCApps,sampletests,andmore.
WolframMathWorldPerhapsthepremiersiteformathematicsontheWeb.Thissitecontains
definitions,explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
KhanAcademySuppliesafreeonlinecollectionofthousandsofmicrolecturesviaYouTubeon
numeroustopics.It'smathandsciencelibrariesareextensive.
AnalyzeMathTrigonometryContainsfreeTrigonometrytutorialsandproblems.UsesJavaappletsto
exploreimportanttopicsinteractively.
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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
Trigonometric Functions


Trigonometric Functions
(- and - axes)














Radians ( = )
0 = 0 radians
30 =

6
radians
45 =

4
radians
60 =

3
radians
90 =

2
radians


sin =

sin =
1
csc

cos =

cos =
1
sec

tan =

tan =
1
cot
tan =
sin
cos

cot =

cot =
1
tan
cot =
cos
sin

sec =

sec =
1
cos

csc =

csc =
1
sin

sin +

2
= cos
sin = cos

2

sin
2
+cos
2
= 1
Sine-Cosine Relationship

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Trigonometry
Trigonometric Functions and Special Angles


Trigonometric Functions (Right Triangle)




Special Angles









Trig Functions of Special Angles ()
Radians Degrees
0 0

30

45

60

90

=
undefined
SOH-CAH-TOA
sin =

sin =

sin =

cos =

cos =

cos =

tan =

tan =

tan =

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Trigonometry
Trigonometric Function Values in Quadrants II, III, and IV
In quadrants other than Quadrant I, trigonometric values for angles are calculated in the following
manner:
Draw the angle on the Cartesian Plane.
Calculate the measure of the angle from the x-
axis to .
Find the value of the trigonometric function of
the angle in the previous step.
Assign a + or sign to the trigonometric
value based on the function used and the
quadrant is in.
Examples:












in Quadrant II Calculate: (180 )
For = 120, base your work on 180 120 = 60
sin60 =
3
2
, so: =

in Quadrant III Calculate: ( 180)
For = 210, base your work on 210 180 = 30
cos 30 =
3
2
, so: =

in Quadrant IV Calculate: (360 )
For = 315, base your work on 360 315 = 45
tan45 =1, so: =
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Trigonometry
The Unit Circle

The Unit Circle diagram below provides - and -values on a circle of radius 1 at key angles. At any
point on the unit circle, the -coordinate is equal to the cosine of the angle and the -coordinate is
equal to the sine of the angle. Using this diagram, it is easy to identify the sines and cosines of angles
that recur frequently in the study of Trigonometry.




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The sine and cosecant functions are reciprocals. So:
sin =
1
csc
and csc =
1
sin

The cosine and secant functions are reciprocals. So:
cos =
1
sec
and sec =
1
cos

The tangent and cotangent functions are reciprocals. So:
tan =
1
cot
and cot =
1
tan

Trigonometry
Graphs of Basic (Parent) Trigonometric Functions










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Trigonometry
SummaryofCharacteristicsandKeyPointsTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
Function: Sine Cosine Tangent Cotangent Secant Cosecant

ParentFunction y = sin(x) y = cos(x) y = tan(x) y = cot(x) y = sec(x) y = csc(x)
Domain (-, ) (-, )
(-, )except
nn
2
,
wherenisodd
(-, )exceptnn,
wherenisanInteger
(-, )except
nn
2
,
wherenisodd
(-, )exceptnn,
wherenisanInteger
VerticalAsymptotes none none
x =
nn
2
,wherenisodd
x = nn,wherenisan
Integer
x =
nn
2
,wherenisodd
x = nn,wherenisan
Integer
Range |-1, 1] |-1, 1] (-, ) (-, ) (-, -1] |1, ) (-, -1] |1, )
Period 2n 2n n n 2n 2n
xintercepts nn,wherenisanInteger
nn
2
,wherenisodd
midwaybetween
asymptotes
midwaybetween
asymptotes
none none
OddorEvenFunction
(1)
OddFunction EvenFunction OddFunction OddFunction EvenFunction OddFunction

GeneralForm y = Asin(Bx - C) + y = Acos(Bx -C) + y = Atan(Bx -C) + y = Acot(Bx - C) + y = Asec(Bx -C) + y = Acsc(Bx -C) +
Amplitude,Period,
PhaseShift,VerticalShift
|A|,
2n
B
,
C
B
, |A|,
2n
B
,
C
B
, |A|,
n
B
,
C
B
, |A|,
n
B
,
C
B
, |A|,
2n
B
,
C
B
, |A|,
2n
B
,
C
B
,
(x)whenx = PS
(2)
D A +D D verticalasymptote A +D verticalasymptote
(x)whenx = PS +
1
4
P A +D D A +D A +D verticalasymptote A +D
(x)whenx = PS +
1
2
P D -A +D verticalasymptote D -A +D verticalasymptote
(x)whenx = PS +
3
4
P -A +D D -A +D -A +D verticalasymptote -A +D
(x)whenx = PS + P D A +D D verticalasymptote A +D verticalasymptote
Notes:
(1) Anoddfunctionissymmetricabouttheorigin,i.e.(-x) = -(x).Anevenfunctionissymmetricabouttheyaxis,i.e.,(-x) = (x).
(2) AllPhaseShiftsaredefinedtooccurrelativetoastartingpointofthe yaxis(i.e.,theverticallinex = u).
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Trigonometry
Graph of a General Sine Function
General Form
The general form of a sine function is: = ( ) +.
In this equation, we find several parameters of the function which will help us graph it. In particular:
Amplitude: = ||. The amplitude is the magnitude of the stretch or compression of the
function from its parent function: = sin.
Period: =

. The period of a trigonometric function is the horizontal distance over which

the curve travels before it begins to repeat itself (i.e., begins a new cycle). For a sine or cosine
function, this is the length of one complete wave; it can be measured from peak to peak or
from trough to trough. Note that 2 is the period of = sin.
Phase Shift: =

. The phase shift is the distance of the horizontal translation of the

function. Note that the value of in the general form has a minus sign in front of it, just like
does in the vertex form of a quadratic equation: = ( )

+. So,
o A minus sign in front of the implies a translation to the right, and
o A plus sign in front of the implies a implies a translation to the left.
Vertical Shift: = . This is the distance of the vertical translation of the function. This is
equivalent to in the vertex form of a quadratic equation: = ( )

+.
Example: =

+
has the equation The midline y = D In this example, the midline .
is: y = 3. One wave, shifted to the right, is shown in orange below.

= ; = ; =

; =
For this example:
Amplitude: = || = || =
Period: =

=
Phase Shift: =

Vertical Shift: = =
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Trigonometry
Graphing a Sine Function with No Vertical Shift: = ( )



Step 1: Phase Shift: =

.
The first wave begins at the
point units to the right of
the Origin.

=

.
The point is:

,

Step 2: Period: =

.
The first wave ends at the
point units to the right of
where the wave begins.

+ , =

,
=

= . The first
wave ends at the point:

Step 3: The third zero point
is located halfway between
the first two.
The point is:

, =

,
Step 4: The -value of the
point halfway between the
left and center zero points is
"".

The point is:

, = (, )

Step 5: The -value of the
point halfway between the
center and right zero points
is .

The point is:

, =

,

Step 7: Duplicate the wave
to the left and right as
desired.
Step 6: Draw a smooth
curve through the five key
points.
This will produce the graph
of one wave of the function.

Example:
=

.
A wave (cycle) of the sine function has three zero points (points on the x-axis)
at the beginning of the period, at the end of the period, and halfway in-between.
Note: If 0, all points
on the curve are shifted
vertically by units.

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Trigonometry
Graph of a General Cosine Function
General Form
The general form of a cosine function is: = ( ) +.
In this equation, we find several parameters of the function which will help us graph it. In particular:
Amplitude: = ||. The amplitude is the magnitude of the stretch or compression of the
function from its parent function: = cos .
Period: =

. The period of a trigonometric function is the horizontal distance over which

the curve travels before it begins to repeat itself (i.e., begins a new cycle). For a sine or cosine
function, this is the length of one complete wave; it can be measured from peak to peak or
from trough to trough. Note that 2 is the period of = cos .
Phase Shift: =

. The phase shift is the distance of the horizontal translation of the

function. Note that the value of in the general form has a minus sign in front of it, just like
does in the vertex form of a quadratic equation: = ( )

+. So,
o A minus sign in front of the implies a translation to the right, and
o A plus sign in front of the implies a implies a translation to the left.
Vertical Shift: = . This is the distance of the vertical translation of the function. This is
equivalent to in the vertex form of a quadratic equation: = ( )

+.
Example: =

+
has the equation The midline y = D In this example, the midline .
is: y = 3. One wave, shifted to the right, is shown in orange below.

= ; = ; =

; =
For this example:
Amplitude: = || = || =
Period: =

=
Phase Shift: =

Vertical Shift: = =
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Trigonometry
Graphing a Cosine Function with No Vertical Shift: = ( )



Step 1: Phase Shift: =

.
The first wave begins at the
point units to the right of
the point (, ).

=

, =
The point is:

,

Step 2: Period: =

.
The first wave ends at the
point units to the right of
where the wave begins.

+ , =

,
=

= . The first
wave ends at the point:

Step 3: The -value of the
point halfway between those
in the two steps above is
" ".
The point is:

, =

,
Step 4: The -value of the
point halfway between the
left and center extrema is
"".

The point is:

, = (, )

Step 5: The -value of the
point halfway between the
center and right extrema is
"".

The point is:

, =

,

Step 7: Duplicate the wave
to the left and right as
desired.
Step 6: Draw a smooth
curve through the five key
points.
This will produce the graph
of one wave of the function.

Example:
=

.
A wave (cycle) of the cosine function has two maxima (or minima if < 0)
one at the beginning of the period and one at the end of the period and a
minimum (or maximum if < 0) halfway in-between.
Note: If 0, all points
on the curve are shifted
vertically by units.

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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
For this example:
Amplitude: = || = || =
Period: =

Phase Shift: =

Vertical Shift: = =
= ; = ; =

; =
Trigonometry
Graph of a General Tangent Function
General Form
The general form of a tangent function is: = ( ) +.
In this equation, we find several parameters of the function which will help us graph it. In particular:
Amplitude: = ||. The amplitude is the magnitude of the stretch or compression of the
function from its parent function: = tan.
Period: =

. The period of a trigonometric function is the horizontal distance over which

the curve travels before it begins to repeat itself (i.e., begins a new cycle). For a tangent or
cotangent function, this is the horizontal distance between consecutive asymptotes (it is also
the distance between -intercepts). Note that is the period of = tan .
Phase Shift: =

. The phase shift is the distance of the horizontal translation of the

function. Note that the value of in the general form has a minus sign in front of it, just like
does in the vertex form of a quadratic equation: = ( )

+. So,
o A minus sign in front of the implies a translation to the right, and
o A plus sign in front of the implies a implies a translation to the left.
Vertical Shift: = . This is the distance of the vertical translation of the function. This is
equivalent to in the vertex form of a quadratic equation: = ( )

+.
Example: =

+
has the equation The midline y = D In this example, the midline .
is: y = 3. One cycle, shifted to the right, is shown in orange below.
Note that, for the
tangent curve, we
typically graph half
of the principal
cycle at the point
of the phase shift,
and then fill in the
other half of the
cycle to the left
(see next page).

-16-
Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
Graphing a Tangent Function with No Vertical Shift: = ( )

































Step 1: Phase Shift: =

.
The first cycle begins at the
zero point units to the
right of the Origin.

=

.
The point is:

,

Step 2: Period: =

.
Place a vertical asymptote
1
2
units to the right of the
beginning of the cycle.
=

.
1
2
=

.
The right asymptote is at:
=
3
4
+

=

Step 3: Place a vertical
asymptote
1
2
units to the
left of the beginning of the
cycle.

The left asymptote is at:
=
3
4

=
1
2


Step 4: The -value of the
point halfway between the
zero point and the right
asymptote is "".

The point is:

, =

,

Step 5: The -value of the
point halfway between the
left asymptote and the zero
point is " ".

The point is:

, =

,

Step 7: Duplicate the wave
to the left and right as
desired.
Step 6: Draw a smooth
curve through the three key
points, approaching the
asymptotes on each side.
This will produce the graph
of one wave of the function.

Example:
=

.
A cycle of the tangent function has two asymptotes and a zero point halfway in-
between. It flows upward to the right if > 0 and downward to the right if < 0.
Note: If 0, all points
on the curve are shifted
vertically by units.

-17-
Version 1.05 9/12/2014
For this example:
Amplitude: = || = || =
Period: =

Phase Shift: =

Vertical Shift: = =
= ; = ; =

; =
Trigonometry
Graph of a General Cotangent Function
General Form
The general form of a cotangent function is: = ( ) +.
In this equation, we find several parameters of the function which will help us graph it. In particular:
Amplitude: = ||. The amplitude is the magnitude of the stretch or compression of the
function from its parent function: = cot .
Period: =

. The period of a trigonometric function is the horizontal distance over which

the curve travels before it begins to repeat itself (i.e., begins a new cycle). For a tangent or
cotangent function, this is the horizontal distance between consecutive asymptotes (it is also
the distance between -intercepts). Note that is the period of = cot .
Phase Shift: =

. The phase shift is the distance of the horizontal translation of the

function. Note that the value of in the general form has a minus sign in front of it, just like
does in the vertex form of a quadratic equation: = ( )

+. So,
o A minus sign in front of the implies a translation to the right, and
o A plus sign in front of the implies a implies a translation to the left.
Vertical Shift: = . This is the distance of the vertical translation of the function. This is
equivalent to in the vertex form of a quadratic equation: = ( )

+.
Example: =

+
has the equation The midline y = D In this example, the midline .
is: y = 3. One cycle, shifted to the right, is shown in orange below.
Note that, for the
cotangent curve,
we typically graph
the asymptotes
first, and then
graph the curve
between them (see
next page).

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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
Graphing a Cotangent Function with No Vertical Shift: = ( )


































=

.
The right asymptote is at:
=
3
4
+

=
5
4







Step 1: Phase Shift: =

.
Place a vertical asymptote
units to the right of the
-axis.







=

. The left
asymptote is at: =
3
4




Step 2: Period: =

.
Place another vertical
asymptote units to the
right of the first one.
Step 3: A zero point exists
halfway between the two
asymptotes.


The point is:

,
= (, )


Step 4: The -value of the
point halfway between the
left asymptote and the zero
point is "".







The point is:

, =

,

Step 5: The -value of the
point halfway between the
zero point and the right
asymptote is " ".







The point is:

, =

,

Step 7: Duplicate the wave
to the left and right as
desired.




Step 6: Draw a smooth
curve through the three key
points, approaching the
asymptotes on each side.
This will produce the graph
of one wave of the function.

Example:
=

.
A cycle of the cotangent function has two asymptotes and a zero point halfway in-
between. It flows downward to the right if > 0 and upward to the right if < 0.
Note: If 0, all points
on the curve are shifted
vertically by units.

-19-
Version 1.05 9/12/2014
For this example:
Amplitude: = || = || =
Period: =

=
Phase Shift: =

Vertical Shift: = =
= ; = ; =

; =
Trigonometry
Graph of a General Secant Function
General Form
The general form of a secant function is: = ( ) +.
In this equation, we find several parameters of the function which will help us graph it. In particular:
Amplitude: = ||. The amplitude is the magnitude of the stretch or compression of the
function from its parent function: = sec .
Period: =

. The period of a trigonometric function is the horizontal distance over which

the curve travels before it begins to repeat itself (i.e., begins a new cycle). For a secant or
cosecant function, this is the horizontal distance between consecutive maxima or minima (it is
also the distance between every second asymptote). Note that 2 is the period of = sec .
Phase Shift: =

. The phase shift is the distance of the horizontal translation of the

function. Note that the value of in the general form has a minus sign in front of it, just like
does in the vertex form of a quadratic equation: = ( )

+. So,
o A minus sign in front of the implies a translation to the right, and
o A plus sign in front of the implies a implies a translation to the left.
Vertical Shift: = . This is the distance of the vertical translation of the function. This is
equivalent to in the vertex form of a quadratic equation: = ( )

+.
Example: =

+
has the equation The midline y = D In this example, the midline .
is: y = 3. One cycle, shifted to the right, is shown in orange below.
One cycle of the secant curve contains two U-shaped curves, one
opening up and one opening down.
-20-
Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
Graphing a Secant Function with No Vertical Shift: = ( )
































Step 1: Graph one wave of
the corresponding cosine
function.
= ( )


The equation of the
corresponding cosine
function for the example is:
=

Step 2: Asymptotes for the
secant function occur at the
zero points of the cosine
function.
The zero points occur at:
(, 0) and
3
2
, 0
Secant asymptotes are:
= and =
3
2

Step 3: Each maximum of
the cosine function
represents a minimum for
the secant function.

Cosine maxima and,
therefore, secant minima are
at:
3
4
, 4 and
7
4
, 4
Step 4: Each minimum of
the cosine function
represents a maximum for
the secant function.

The cosine minimum and,
therefore, the secant
maximum is at:
5
4
, 4
Step 5: Draw smooth U-
shaped curves through each
key point, approaching the
asymptotes on each side.

Step 6: Duplicate the wave
to the left and right as
desired. Erase the cosine
function if necessary.
This will produce the graph
of one wave of the function.

Example:
=

.
A cycle of the secant function can be developed by first plotting a cycle of the
corresponding cosine function because sec =
1
cos
.
The cosine functions zero points produce asymptotes for the secant function.
Maxima for the cosine function produce minima for the secant function.
Minima for the cosine function produce maxima for the secant function.
Secant curves are U-shaped, alternately opening up and opening down.
Note: If 0, all points
on the curve are shifted
vertically by units.

-21-
Version 1.05 9/12/2014
For this example:
Amplitude: = || = || =
Period: =

=
Phase Shift: =

Vertical Shift: = =
= ; = ; =

; =
Trigonometry
Graph of a General Cosecant Function
General Form
The general form of a cosecant function is: = ( ) +.
In this equation, we find several parameters of the function which will help us graph it. In particular:
Amplitude: = ||. The amplitude is the magnitude of the stretch or compression of the
function from its parent function: = csc .
Period: =

. The period of a trigonometric function is the horizontal distance over which

the curve travels before it begins to repeat itself (i.e., begins a new cycle). For a secant or
cosecant function, this is the horizontal distance between consecutive maxima or minima (it is
also the distance between every second asymptote). Note that 2 is the period of = csc .
Phase Shift: =

. The phase shift is the distance of the horizontal translation of the

function. Note that the value of in the general form has a minus sign in front of it, just like
does in the vertex form of a quadratic equation: = ( )

+. So,
o A minus sign in front of the implies a translation to the right, and
o A plus sign in front of the implies a implies a translation to the left.
Vertical Shift: = . This is the distance of the vertical translation of the function. This is
equivalent to in the vertex form of a quadratic equation: = ( )

+.
Example: =

+
has the equation The midline y = D In this example, the midline .
is: y = 3. One cycle, shifted to the right, is shown in orange below.
One cycle of the cosecant curve contains two U-shaped curves, one
opening up and one opening down.
-22-
Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
Graphing a Cosecant Function with No Vertical Shift: = ( )
































Step 1: Graph one wave of
the corresponding sine
function.
= ( )


The equation of the
corresponding sine function
for the example is:
=

Step 2: Asymptotes for the
cosecant function occur at
the zero points of the sine
function.
The zero points occur at:

3
4
, 0 ,
5
4
, 0 ,
7
4
, 0
Cosecant asymptotes are:
=
3
4
, =
5
4
, =
7
4

Step 3: Each maximum of
the sine function represents
a minimum for the cosecant
function.

The sine maximum and,
therefore, the cosecant
minimum is at: (, 4)
Step 4: Each minimum of
the sine function represents
a maximum for the cosecant
function.

The sine minimum and,
therefore, the cosecant
maximum is at:
3
2
, 4
Step 5: Draw smooth U-
shaped curves through each
key point, approaching the
asymptotes on each side.

Step 6: Duplicate the wave
to the left and right as
desired. Erase the sine
function if necessary.
This will produce the graph
of one wave of the function.

Example:
=

.
A cycle of the cosecant function can be developed by first plotting a cycle of the
corresponding sine function because csc =
1
sin
.
The sine functions zero points produce asymptotes for the cosecant function.
Maxima for the sine function produce minima for the cosecant function.
Minima for the sine function produce maxima for the cosecant function.
Cosecant curves are U-shaped, alternately opening up and opening down.
Note: If 0, all points
on the curve are shifted
vertically by units.

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Trigonometry
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Inverse trigonometric functions ask the question: which angle has a function value of ? For example:
= sin
1
(0.5) asks which angle has a sine value of 0.5. It is equivalent to: sin = 0.5.
= tan
1
1 asks which angle has a tangent value of 1. It is equivalent to: tan = 1.
Principal Values of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
There are an infinite number of angles that answer these questions.
So, mathematicians have defined a principal solution for problems
involving inverse trigonometric functions. The angle which is the
principal solution (or principal value) is defined to be the solution that
lies in the quadrants identified in the figure at right. For example:
The solutions to = sin
1
0.5 are (

6
+2) (
5
6
+
2). That is, the set of all solutions to this equation contains the
two solutions in the interval [0, 2), as well as all angles that are
integer multiples of 2 less or greater than those two angles.
Given the confusion this can create, mathematicians defined a
principal value for the solution to these kinds of equations.
The principal value of for which = sin
1
0.5 lies in Q1 because 0.5 is positive, and is =

6
.
Ranges of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The ranges of the inverse trigonometric
functions are the ranges of the principal values
of those functions. A table summarizing these
is provided in the table at right.
Angles in Q4 are generally expressed as
negative angles.


Ranges of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Function Range
sin
1

2


2

cos
1
0
tan
1

2


2

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Trigonometry
Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric Functions















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Trigonometry
Key Angle Formulas

Angle Addition Formulas

sin ( +) = sin cos + cos sin cos ( +) = cos cos sin sin
sin ( ) = sin cos cos sin cos ( ) = cos cos + sin sin

tan ( +) =
tan + tan
1 tan tan
tan ( ) =
tan tan
1 + tan tan



Double Angle Formulas

sin 2 = 2 sin cos cos 2 = cos
2
sin
2

= 1 2 sin
2

= 2 cos
2
1
tan 2 =
2 tan
1 tan
2

Half Angle Formulas

sin

2
=
1 cos
2


cos

2
=
1 + cos
2


tan

2
=
1 cos
1 + cos

=
1 cos
sin

=
sin
1+ cos

The use of a + or - sign in the half angle
formulas depends on the quadrant in which
the angle

2
resides. See chart below.

Signs of Trig Functions
By Quadrant

sin + sin +
cos - cos +
tan - tan +


sin - sin -
cos - cos +
tan + tan
y
x
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Trigonometry
Key Angle Formulas (contd)

Power Reducing Formulas

sin
2
=
1 cos 2
2
cos
2
=
1 + cos 2
2

tan
2
=
1 cos 2
1 + cos 2



Product-to-Sum Formulas
=

[ ( ) ( +) ]
=

[ ( ) + ( +) ]
=

[ ( +) + ( ) ]
=

[ ( +) ( ) ]

Sum-to-Product Formulas
+ =
+

+ =
+

=
+

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Trigonometry
Key Angle Formulas (contd)


Cofunctions
Each trigonometric function has a cofunction with symmetric properties in Quadrant I. The following
identities express the relationships between cofunctions.
sin = cos(90 ) cos = sin(90 )
tan = cot(90 ) cot = tan(90 )
sec = csc(90 ) csc = sec(90 )











Law of Sines (see above illustration)

sin
=

sin
=

sin




Pythagorean Identities (for any angle )
sin
2
+ cos
2
= 1
sec
2
= 1 + tan
2

csc
2
= 1 + cot
2


C
c b
a
A
B
Law of Cosines (see above illustration)

2
=
2
+
2
2 cos

2
=
2
+
2
2 cos

2
=
2
+
2
2 cos

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Trigonometry
Solving an Oblique Triangle
Several methods exist to solve an oblique triangle, i.e., a triangle with no right angle. The appropriate
method depends on the information available for the triangle. All methods require that the length of
at least one side be provided. In addition, one or two angle measures may be provided. Note that if
two angle measures are provided, the measure of the third is determined (because the sum of all
three angle measures must be 180). The methods used for each situation are summarized below.

Given Three Sides and no Angles (SSS)
Given three segment lengths and no angle measures, do the following:
Use the Law of Cosines to determine the measure of one angle.
Use the Law of Sines to determine the measure of one of the two remaining angles.
Subtract the sum of the measures of the two known angles from 180 to obtain the measure
of the remaining angle.

Given Two Sides and the Angle between Them (SAS)
Given two segment lengths and the measure of the angle that is between them, do the following:
Use the Law of Cosines to determine the length of the remaining leg.
Use the Law of Sines to determine the measure of one of the two remaining angles.
Subtract the sum of the measures of the two known angles from 180 to obtain the measure
of the remaining angle.

Given One Side and Two Angles (ASA or AAS)
Given one segment length and the measures of two angles, do the following:
Subtract the sum of the measures of the two known angles from 180 to obtain the measure
of the remaining angle.
Use the Law of Sines to determine the lengths of the two remaining legs.

Given Two Sides and an Angle not between Them (SSA)
This is the Ambiguous Case. Several possibilities exist, depending on the lengths of the sides and the
measure of the angle. The possibilities are discussed on the next several pages.

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Trigonometry
Solving an Oblique Triangle (contd)
The Ambiguous Case (SSA)
Given two segment lengths and an angle that is not between them, it is not clear whether a triangle is
defined. It is possible that the given information will define a single triangle, two triangles, or even no
triangle. Because there are multiple possibilities in this situation, it is called the ambiguous case.
Here are the possibilities:

There are three cases in which < .
Case 1: < Produces no triangle because is not long enough to reach the base.
Case 2: = Produces one (right) triangle because is exactly long enough to reach the
base. forms a right angle with the base, and is the height of the triangle.
Case 3: > Produces two triangles because is the right size to reach the base in two
places. The angle from which swings from its apex can take two values.
There is only one case in which .
Case 4: Produces one triangle because is not long enough to reach the base.

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Trigonometry
Solving a Triangle (contd)
Solving the Ambiguous Case (SSA)
How do you solve the triangle in each of the cases discussed above. Assume the information given is
the lengths of sides and , and the measure of Angle . Use the following steps:
Step 1: Calculate the sine of the missing angle (in this development, angle ).
Step 2: Consider the value of sin:
If sin > 1, then we have Case 1 there is no triangle. Stop here.





If sin = 1, then = 90, and we have Case 2 a right triangle. Proceed to Step 4.




If sin < 1, then we have Case 3 or Case 4. Proceed to the next step to determine which.
Step 3: Consider whether > .
If < , then we have Case 3 two triangles. Calculate the values of each angle , using the
Law of Sines. Then, proceed to Step 4 and calculate the remaining values for each triangle.



If , then we have case 4 one triangle. Proceed to Step 4.

sin
=

sin

Step 1: Use
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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
Solving an Oblique Triangle (contd)
Solving the Ambiguous Case (SSA) contd
Step 4: Calculate . At this point, we have the lengths of sides and , and the measures of Angles
and . If we are dealing with Case 3 two triangles, we must perform Steps 4 and 5 for each angle.
Step 4 is to calculate the measure of Angle as follows: = 180
Step 5: Calculate . Finally, we calculate the value of using the Law of Sines. Note that in the case
where there are two triangles, there is an Angle in each. So, the Law of Sines should be used
relating Angles and .

sin
=

sin


=
sin
sin


Ambiguous Case Flowchart








no
yes
Two triangles
Calculate , and then .
Steps 4 and 5, above
Start Here
> 1
= 1
< 1
Is > ?
sin
Value of
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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
Area of a Triangle
Area of a Triangle
There are two formulas for the area of a triangle, depending on what information about the triangle
is available.

Formula 1: The formula most familiar to the student can be used when the base and height of the
triangle are either known or can be determined.
=

where, is the length of the base of the triangle.
is the height of the triangle.
Note: The base can be any side of the triangle. The height is the measure of the altitude of
whichever side is selected as the base. So, you can use:

or or


Formula 2: Herons formula for the area of a triangle can be used when
the lengths of all of the sides are known. Sometimes this formula, though
less appealing, can be very useful.
= ( )( )( )
where, =

( + +). Note: is sometimes called the semi-perimeter of the triangle.

, , are the lengths of the sides of the triangle.

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Trigonometry
Area of a Triangle (contd)
Trigonometric Formulas
The following formulas for the area of a triangle come from trigonometry. Which one is used
depends on the information available:
Two angles and a side:
=

Two sides and an angle:
=

Coordinate Geometry
If the three vertices of a triangle are displayed in a coordinate plane, the formula below, using a
determinant, will give the area of a triangle.
Let the three points in the coordinate plane be: (

), (

), (

). Then, the area of the

triangle is one half of the absolute value of the determinant below:
=

Example: For the triangle in the figure at right, the area is:
=

+


=

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Trigonometry
Polar Coordinates
Polar coordinates are an alternative method of describing a point in a Cartesian plane based on the
distance of the point from the origin and the angle whose terminal side contains the point. First, lets
investigate the relationship between a points rectangular coordinates (, ) and its polar
coordinates (, ).
The magnitude, , is the distance of the point from the
origin: =
2
+
2

The angle, , is the angle the line from the point to the
origin makes with the positive portion of the x-axis.
Generally, this angle is expressed in radians, not degrees.
tan =

or = tan
1

Conversion from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates is straightforward:
= cos and = sin

Example 1: Express the rectangular form (-4, 4) in polar coordinates:
Given: = 4 = 4
=
2
+
2
= (4)
2
+4
2
= 42
= tan
1

= tan
1

4
4
= tan
1
(1) in Quadrant II, so =
3
4

So, the coordinates of the point are as follows:
Rectangular coordinates: (4, 4) Polar Coordinates: (42,
3
4
)
Example 2: Express the polar form (42,
3
4
) in rectangular coordinates:
Given: = 42 =
3
4

= cos = 42 cos
3
4
= 42
2
2
= 4
= sin = 42 sin
3
4
= 42
2
2
= 4
So, the coordinates of the point are as follows:
Polar Coordinates: (42,
3
4
) Rectangular coordinates: (4, 4)

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Trigonometry
Polar Coordinates (contd)
Expressing Complex Numbers in Polar Form
A complex number can be represented as point in the Cartesian Plane, using the horizontal axis for
the real component of the number and the vertical axis for the imaginary component of the number.
If we express a complex number in rectangular coordinates as = +, we can also express it in
polar coordinates as = (cos + sin), with [0, 2). Then, the equivalences between the
two forms for are:
Convert Rectangular to Polar Convert Polar to Rectangular
Magnitude: || = =
2
+
2
x-coordinate: = cos
Angle: = tan
1

y-coordinate: = sin
Since will generally have two values on [0, 2), you need to be careful to select the angle in the
quadrant in which = + resides.
Operations on Complex Numbers in Polar Form
Another expression that may be useful is:

= cos + sin, a complex number can be expressed

as an exponential form of . That is:
= + = (cos + sin ) =

It is this expression that is responsible for the following rules regarding operations on complex
numbers. Let:
1
=
1
+
1
=
1
(cos + sin),
2
=
2
+
2
=
2
(cos + sin). Then,
Multiplication:
1

2
=
1

2
[cos ( +) + sin( +)]
So, to multiply complex numbers, you multiply their magnitudes and add their angles.
Division:
1

2
=

1

2
[cos ( ) + sin( )]
So, to divide complex numbers, you divide their magnitudes and subtract their angles.
Powers:
1

=
1

(cos + sin)
This results directly from the multiplication rule.
Roots:

cos

+ sin

also, see DeMoivres Theorem below

This results directly from the power rule if the exponent is a fraction.
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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
DeMoivres Theorem
Abraham de Moivre (1667-1754) was a French mathematician who provided us with a very useful
Theorem for dealing with operations on complex numbers.
If we let = (cos + sin), DeMoivres Theorem gives us the power rule expressed on the prior
page:

(cos + sin )
Example 1: Find 3 +7
6

First, since = +, we have = 3 and = 7.
Then, =

(3)
2
+(7)
2
= 4;
6
= 4
6
= 4,096
And, = tan
1

7
3
= 138.590 in Q II
6 = 831.542 ~ 111.542
So,
3 +7
6
= 4,096 [cos(111.542) + sin(111.542)]
= 1,504.0 + 3,809.9

Example 2: Find 5 2
5

First, since = +, we have = 2 and = 7.
Then, =

(5)
2
+(2)
2
= 3;
5
= 3
5
= 243
And, = tan
1

2
5
= 221.810 in Q III
5 = 1,109.052 ~ 29.052
So,
5 2
5
= 243 [cos(29.052) + sin(29.052)]
= 212.4 + 118.0

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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
DeMoivres Theorem for Roots
Let = (cos + sin). Then, has distinct complex -th roots that occupy positions
equidistant from each other on a circle of radius

. Lets call the roots:

1
,
2
, ,

Then, these
roots can be calculated as follows:

cos
+(2)

+ sin
+(2)

The formula could also be restated with 2 replaced by 360 if this helps in the calculation.
Example: Find the fifth roots of .
First, since = +, we have = 2 and = 3.
Then, = 2
2
+(3)
2
= 13;
5
= 13
10
~ 1.2924
And, = tan
1

3
2
= 56.310;

5
= 11.262
The incremental angle for successive roots is: 360 5 roots = 72.
Then create a chart like this:
Fifth roots of ( )

~ .

= .
Angle (

0 11.262
0
= 1.2675 0.2524
1 11.262 +72 = 60.738
1
= 0.6317 + 1.1275
2 60.738 +72 = 132.738
2
= 0.8771 + 0.9492
3 132.738 +72 = 204.738
3
= 1.1738 0.5408
4 204.738 +72 = 276.738
4
= 0.1516 1.2835
Notice that if we add another 72, we get 348.738, which is equivalent to our first angle,
11.262 because 348.738 360 = 11.262. This is a good thing to check. The next
angle will always be equivalent to the first angle! If it isnt, go back and check your work.
Roots fit on a circle: Notice that, since all of the roots of
have the same magnitude, and their angles that are 72 apart from
each other, that they occupy equidistant positions on a circle with
center (0, 0) and radius
5
= 13
10
~ 1.2924.
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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
Graphing Polar Equations The Cardioid
Example: = +
This cardioid is also a limaon of form = + sin with = . The use of the sine function
indicates that the large loop will be symmetric about the -axis. The + sign indicates that the large
loop will be above the -axis. Lets create a table of values and graph the equation:


















The four Cardioid forms:


= +

0 2
/6 3 7/6 1
/3 3.732 4/3 0.268
/2 4 3/2 0
2/3 3.732 5/3 0.268
5/6 3 11/6 1
2 2
2
Once symmetry is
established, these values
are easily determined.
Generally, you want to look at
values of in [0, 2]. However,
some functions require larger
intervals. The size of the interval
depends largely on the nature of the
function and the coefficient of .
Orange points on the
graph correspond to
orange values in the table.
Blue points on the graph
correspond to blue values
in the table.
The portion of the graph
above the x-axis results
from in Q1 and Q1,
where the sine function is
positive.
Similarly, the portion of
the graph below the x-axis
results from in Q3 and
Q4, where the sine
function is negative.

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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
Graphing Polar Equations The Rose
Example: =
This function is a rose. Consider the forms = sin and = cos .
The number of petals on the rose depends on the value of .
If is an even integer, the rose will have 2 petals.
If is an odd integer, it will have petals.
Lets create a table of values and graph the equation:
















The four Rose forms:
=

0 0
/12 2 7/12 2
/6 3.464 2/3 3.464
/4 4 3/4 -4
/3 3.464 5/6 3.464
5/12 2 11/12 2
/2 0 0
Once symmetry is
established, these values
are easily determined.
Because this function involves an
argument of 2, we want to start by
looking at values of in [0, 2]
2 = [0, ]. You could plot more
points, but this interval is sufficient
to establish the nature of the curve;
so you can graph the rest easily.

Orange points on the
graph correspond to
orange values in the table.
Blue points on the graph
correspond to blue values
in the table.
The values in the table
generate the points in the
two petals right of the -axis.
Knowing that the curve is a
rose allows us to graph the
other two petals without
calculating more points.

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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
Vectors
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. An example would be wind blowing
toward the east at 30 miles per hour. Another example would be the force of 10 kg weight being
pulled toward the earth (a force you can feel if you are holding the weight).
Special Unit Vectors
We define unit vectors to be vectors of length 1. Unit vectors having the direction of the positive
axes will be quite useful to us. They are described in the chart and graphic below.
Unit Vector Direction
positive -axis
positive -axis
positive -axis
Vector Components
The length of a vector, , is called its magnitude and is represented by the symbol . If a vectors
initial point (starting position) is (
1
,
1
), and its terminal point (ending position) is (
2
,
2
), then the
vector displaces =
2

1
in the -direction and displaces =
2

1
in the -direction. We
can, then, represent the vector as follows:
= +
The magnitude of the vector, , is calculated as:
=

2
+
2

If this looks familiar, it should. The magnitude of a vector is determined as the length of the
hypotenuse of a triangle with sides and using the Pythagorean Theorem.
In three dimensions, tese concepts expand to the following:
= + +
=

2
+
2
+
2

Similarly, vectors can be expanded to any number of dimensions.

Graphical
representation of
unit vectors and j
in two dimensions.
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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
Vector Properties
Vectors have a number of nice properties that make working with them both useful and relatively
simple. Let and be scalars, and let u, v and w be vectors. Then,
If = +, then = cos and = sin
Then, = cos + sin (note: this formula is used in Force calculations)
If =
1
+
1
and =
2
+
2
, then + = (
1
+
2
) +(
1
+
2
)
If = +, then = () +()
Define to be the zero vector (i.e., it has zero length, so that = = 0). Note: the zero
vector is also called the null vector.
Note: = + can also be shown with the following notation: = , . This notation will be
useful in calculating dot products and performing operations with vectors.
Properties of Vectors
+ = + = Additive Identity
+() = () + = Additive Inverse
+ = + Commutative Property
+( +) = ( +) + Associative Property
() = () Associative Property
( +) = + Distributive Property
(+) = + Distributive Property
1() = Multiplicative Identity

Also, note that:
= || Magnitude Property

Unit vector in the direction of

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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
General Example

1
,
1
4, 3

2
,
2
2, 2

1

2
+
1

2
8 +6 = 14

alternative
vector
notation

Trigonometry
Vector Dot Product
The Dot Product of two vectors, =
1
+
1
and =
2
+
2
, is defined as follows:
= (
1

2
) +(
1

2
)
It is important to note that the dot product is a scalar, not a vector. It describes something about the
relationship between two vectors, but is not a vector itself. A useful approach to calculating the dot
product of two vectors is illustrated here:
=
1
+
1
=
1
,
1

=
2
+
2
=
2
,
2

Take a look at the example at right. Notice that the
two vectors are lined up vertically. The numbers in
the each column are multiplied and the results are
added to get the dot product. So in this example, 4, 3 2, 2 = 14.
Properties of the Dot Product
Let be a scalar, and let u, v and w be vectors. Then,
= = 0 Zero Property
= = 0 The same property holds in 3D for any pair of , , and
= Commutative Property
=

Magnitude Square Property

( +) = ( ) +( ) Distributive Property
( ) = () = () Multiplication by a Scalar Property
More properties:
If = 0 and and , then and are orthogonal (perpendicular).
If there is a scalar such that = , then and are parallel.
If is the angle between and , then cos =



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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Trigonometry
Vector Dot Product (contd)
Vector Projection
The projection of a vector, , onto another vector , is obtained using the dot product. The formula
used to determine the projection vector is:
proj

=


2

Notice that


2
is a scalar, and that proj

is a vector.
In the diagram at right, v1 = proj

.

Orthogonal Components of a Vector
A vector, , can be expressed as the sum of two orthogonal vectors

and

, as shown in the above

diagram. The resulting vectors are:

= proj

=


2
and

Work
Work is a scalar quantity in physics that measures the force exerted on an object over a particular
distance. It is defined using vectors, as shown below. Let:
F be the force vector acting on an object, moving it from point to point .

be the vector from to .

be the angle between F and

.
Then, we define work as:
=

cos


v
v1 w

v2
Both of these formulas are useful.
Which one you use in a particular
situation depends on what
information is available.
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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Page Subject
30 AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTriangles
32 AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTrianglesFlowchart
26 AngleAdditionFormulas
AreaofaTriangle
33 GeometryFormula
33 Heron'sFormula
34 TrigonometricFormulas
34 CoordinateGeometryFormula
39 Cardioid
28 Cofunctions
36 ComplexNumbersOperationsinPolarForm
36 ComplexNumbersinPolarForm
41 ComponentsofVectors
41 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarCoordinates
7 CosecantFunction
7 CosineFunction
7 CotangentFunction
7 DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(RightTriangle)
6 DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(xandyaxes)
37 DeMoivre'sTheorem
38 DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
43 DotProduct
26 DoubleAngleFormulas
Graphs
10 BasicTrigFunctions
39 Cardioid
22 CosecantFunction
14 CosineFunction
18 CotangentFunction
25 InverseTrigonometricFunctions
40 Rose
20 SecantFunction
12 SineFunction
16 TangentFunction
11 TableofTrigFunctionCharacteristics
26 HalfAngleFormulas
33 Heron'sFormula
Trigonometry Handbook
Index
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Version 1.05 9/12/2014
Page Subject
Trigonometry Handbook
Index
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
24 Definitions
25 Graphs
24 PrincipalValues
24 Ranges
28 LawofCosines
28 LawofSines
29 ObliqueTriangleMethodstoSolve
36 OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
44 OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
35 PolarCoordinates
36 PolarformofComplexNumbersinPolarForm
35 PolartoRectangularCoordinateConversion
27 PowerReducingFormulas
24 PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
27 ProducttoSumFormulas
44 ProjectionofOneVectorontoAnother
42 PropertiesofVectors
28 PythagoreanIdentities
6 Radians
42 RectangulartoPolarCoordinateConversion
40 Rose
7 SecantFunction
7 SineFunction
6 SineCosineRelationship
7 SOHCAHTOA
27 SumtoProductFormulas
7 TangentFunction
8 TrigFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
7 TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles
9 UnitCircle
41 UnitVectorsiandj
41 Vectors
44 SpecialUnitVectorsi andj
41 VectorComponents
42 VectorProperties
43 DotProduct
44 VectorProjection
44 OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
44 Work
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Version 1.05 9/12/2014