Lecture 5

Sinusoidal Steady-State
Power Calculation Power Calculation
(chapter 10)
Understand AC power concepts
Instantaneous power
Average (real) power
Reactive power
Complex power
Learning goals
Complex power
Power factor
Understand condition for maximum real power delivered
to the load in an AC circuit
Be able to calculate all forms of AC power in AC circuits
with linear transformer
Practical Perspective
Heating Appliances:
Many electrical heaters have different power settings for
different amounts of heat the device supplies.
How to design the device to carry out this plan ?
Instantaneous Power
Electric power flow is only defined through a port: which is
a pair of terminals supporting a circulating current
Power flow is (watt)
in the direction shown
p iv =
i
i
v
+

In sinusoidal steady-state, the

voltage and current will
generally be:
( ) cos( ); ( ) cos( )
m v m i
v t V t i t I t = + = + = + = + = + = + = + = +
N1 N2
i
i
V
+

Instantaneous Power
Thus:
( ) ( ) ( ) cos( )cos( )
m m v i
p t v t i t I V t t = = + + = = + + = = + + = = + +
2 2
cos( ) cos cos sin sin
1 1 1 1 1
cos cos 2 ;sin cos 2 ;cos sin sin2
2 2 2 2 2
sin( ) sin cos cos sin



+ = + = + = + =
= + = = = + = = = + = = = + = =
+ = + + = + + = + + = +
( ) cos( ); ( ) cos( )
m v m i
v t V t i t I t = + = + = + = + = + = + = + = +
Some useful trig identities
2
cos( )cos( )
(cos cos sin sin )(cos cos sin sin )
cos cos cos sin cos cos sin
cos sin cos sin
v i
v v i i
v i v i
v i
t t
t t t t
t t t
t t




+ + + + + + + +
= = = =
= = = =

Instantaneous Power

2
sin sin sin
1 1 1
( cos 2 )cos cos sin cos sin2
2 2 2
1
cos sin sin2
2
(



v i
v i v i
v i
t
t t
t



+ ++ +
= + = + = + = +

+ ++ +
1 1
cos 2 )sin sin
2 2
v i
t
Instantaneous Power

1 1
(cos cos sin sin ) cos 2 (cos cos sin sin )
2 2
1
sin2 (sin cos cos sin )
2
1 1 1
cos( ) cos( )cos 2 sin( )sin2
2 2 2
v i v i v i v i
v i v i
v i v i v i
t
t
t t



= + + = + + = + + = + +
+ + + +
= + + + = + + + = + + + = + + + cos( ) cos( )cos 2 sin( )sin2
2 2 2
1
cos(
2
v i v i v i
v
t t

= + + + = + + + = + + + = + + +
= = = =
DC(constant part) Double frequency part
1442443 144424443
1
) cos(2 )
2
i v i
t + + + + + + + + + + + +
2 2
cos( ) cos cos sin sin
1 1 1 1 1
cos cos 2 ;sin cos 2 ;cos sin sin2
2 2 2 2 2
sin( ) sin cos cos sin



+ = + = + = + =
= + = = = + = = = + = = = + = =
+ = + + = + + = + + = +
Average and Reactive Power
Therefore
1 1
( ) cos( ) cos(2 )
2 2
m m v i m m v i
p t V I V I t = + + + = + + + = + + + = + + +
Then

1 1
( ) cos( ) cos( )cos 2
2 2
1
sin( )sin2
m m v i m m v i
p t V I V I t
V I t


= + = + = + = +

1
sin( )sin2
2
m m v i
V I t
Then

1 1
( ) cos( ) cos( )cos 2
2 2
1
sin( )sin2
2
m m v i m m v i
m m v i
p t V I V I t
V I t


= + = + = + = +

Frequency of the IP is twice the
frequency of the voltage or current frequency of the voltage or current
The IP may be negative for a
portion of each cycle. Negative
power implies the stored energy is
now being delivered
The IP varies with time in the
sinusoidal steady-state operation
vibration in some devices
Therefore
1 1
( ) cos( ) cos(2 )
2 2
m m v i m m v i
p t V I V I t = + + + = + + + = + + + = + + +
Then

1 1
( ) cos( ) cos( )cos 2
2 2
1
sin( )sin2
2
m m v i m m v i
m m v i
p t V I V I t
V I t


= + = + = + = +

Average and Reactive Power
sin( )sin2
2
m m v i
V I t
( ) cos 2 sin2 p t t Q t = + = + = + = +
Let
average power[Watt]
reactive power[!"]
1
cos( )
2
1
sin( )
2
m m v i
m m v i
V I
Q V I


= = = =
= = = =
This yields
T#period
average power
T #anyti$e
0 1
( )
T T
p t dt
T
+ ++ +
= = = = = = = =

Average power is sometimes called Real power because it
describes the power in a circuit that is transformed from
electric to non-electric energy
Why is P called average power ?
Average and Reactive Power
%
average power
T #anyti$e


0
0
0
0 0 0
0 0 0
( )
1
( cos 2 sin2 )
1 1 1
cos 2 sin2
T
T T
T
T T T T T T
T T T
p t dt
T
t Q t dt
T
dt tdt Q tdt
T T T


+ ++ +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
= = = = = = = =
= + = + = + = +
= + = + = + = +



Integral sine, cosine over one period or periods=0
!verage(real) power
0
0
1 1
( ) cos( )
2
T T
ave m m v i
T
p t dt V I
T

+ ++ +
= = = = = = = = = = = =

Power for purely resistive circuit: voltage and current are
in phase
&where
1
( ) cos 2
2
v i m m
p t t V I = + = = = + = = = + = = = + = =
Average and Reactive Power
The IP is referred to as the instantaneous real power
because it consists only average power P.
Electric energy is dissipated in the form of thermal
energy. Why ?

2
0 Q = == =
The instantaneous real power can never be negative.
In other words, power cannot be extracted from a purely
resistive network.
P = 1 watt in this example
Average and Reactive Power
Power for purely inductive circuit: the current lags the
voltage by 90
0
where

( ) sin 2 90
1
cos( ) 0
v i
p t Q t
V I


= = + = = + = = + = = +
= = = = = = = =
o
Average and Reactive Power
- The IP is just the reactive power Q: inductors impedance
is purely reactive.
- P=0: no transformation of energy from electric to non-
electric form takes place


cos( ) 0
2
1
2
m m v i
m m
V I
Q V I
= = = = = = = =
= == =
The IP in a purely inductive circuit is continually exchanged
between the circuit and the source driving the circuit, at a
frequency of 2:
p(t) < 0:
Average and Reactive Power
p(t) < 0:
energy extracted from inductor
p(t) > 0:
energy stored in inductor
(unit: volt-ampe reactive-var)
Q = 1VAR in this example
Power for purely capacitive circuit: the current leads the
voltage by 90
0
where

( ) sin2 90
0
v i
p t Q t = = = = = = = =
= = = =
o
Average and Reactive Power
- The IP is just the reactive power Q: inductors impedance is
purely reactive.
- P=0: no transformation of energy from electric to non-
electric form takes place

1
2
m m
Q V I = = = =
p(t)<0, energy extracted from capacitor
p(t)>0, energy stored in capacitor (unit: var)
Q = -1VAR in this example
Average and Reactive Power
The angle
V
-
i
is called
power factor angle
cos( )
sin( )
v i
v i


= = = =


= = = =

power factor:pf
reactive factor: rf
v i
>
v i
<
Average and Reactive Power
Lagging:
Current lagging voltage
inductive load
Leading:
Current leading voltage
capacitive load
i v
> >> >
i v
< << <
Inductive
Capacitive
The pf does not tell the value
of the power factor angle
Find average power
consumed by R ?
Example:
Circuit representation in
frequency domain
1 1
1 1 1
1
(4000 5000) 1000(0.03 0 )
4000 5000 1000( 0.03 0 ) 0
(4000 4000) 30
o
o
j I j I
i j i j i
j i j
= = = =
+ = + = + = + =
= = = =
Answer:
1
0.0053 135 ; 21.12 135
cos( )
2
21.12 0.0053
cos(135 135)
2
0.0562
o o
R
m m
v i
i v
V I

= = = = = = = =
= = = =

= = = =
= == =

watts
Review: Passive Sign Convention
It is useful to establish an agreement about the voltage
drop, the direction of current, the sign of voltage and
current
The sign of voltage/current is indicated by plus/minus sign
The direction for the current is shown by the arrow placed The direction for the current is shown by the arrow placed
alongside the current
The voltage drops from 1 to 2
Passive sign convention:
If current flows in direction of voltage drop, then use plus sign
in any expression relating voltage to current. Otherwise, use a
minus sign
v
i
1
2
If current flows in direction of voltage drop, then use
positive sign in any expression relating voltage to current.
If p > 0, power is being delivered to the circuit inside the
box. If p < 0, power is being extracted from the circuit
inside the box
Review: Passive Sign Convention
- Plus sign: the current reference is in the direction of the reference
voltage drop across the terminals. Minus sign: vice verse
a)
b) Apply PSC and from the result above, we conclude
Answer:
b) Apply PSC and from the result above, we conclude
that the network inside the box is delivering average
power to the terminals
c) The PSC means that, because Q is positive, the
network inside the box is absorbing magnetizing vars at
its terminals
Appliance Ratings
Answer:
The RMS Value Power Calculation
rms value: root mean square
value of the waveform is the amplitude of DC source that
would have the same average power output as the
sinusoid
The rms of a periodic func. is defined as square root of
the mean value of the squared func. the mean value of the squared func.
) ( ) (
2
t v t v
* 1
st
operation: square
The RMS Value Power Calculation
2 2
0
1
( )
T
rms
V v t dt
T
= == =

* 2
nd
operation: mean
Integrate v
2
over a period and dividing by T to obtain mean
(can be from t
0
to t
0
+ T with arbitrary t
0
)
( (( ( ) )) )
2
2
2 2 2
0 0
2
2 2
2
0
1
cos ( ) cos
1 1
cos cos 2
2 2
2
4 2
T
m
m
m m
V d
V t dt
T T
t
d dt
V V
d T










+ = + = + = + =
= + = + = + = +
| | | | | | | |
= + = + = + = +
| | | |
= == =
\ \ \ \
= = = = = = = = = = = =


where And

which yields:
The RMS Value Power Calculation
2
m
rms
V
V =
* 3rd operation: root ?
- Sinusoidal source rms value is not a function of
either the frequency or the phase angle either the frequency or the phase angle
- It is used to calculate power:
2 2
m m
rms rms
V I
V I = = = = = = = = and
1
2
m m rms rms
V I V I = == =
Problem 9.6
Give a resistive load, the average power delivered to the
resistor R is:
2 2
( )
2
2
( )
cos ( ) 1
cos ( )
2
m
T
m
T
V t
P dt
T R
V T
t dt
RT


+ ++ +
= == =
= + = + = + = +



2
2
T
RT
V
m
= (Problem 9.6)
The RMS Value Power Calculation
DC and sinusoidal sources have the same power dissipation
in a resistor:
The rms value is referred to as the effective value
or
2
2
rms
rms
V
I R
R
2 2
2
1
2
2
m m rms
RT
V V V
R R R
| | | | | | | |
= = = = = = = = = = = =
| | | |
\ \ \ \

2 RT
Problem 10.11
Answer:
Rewrite the average power and the reactive power in terms
of effective values
The RMS Value Power Calculation
The phasor transform of a sinusoidal function may also be
expressed in terms of rms value. The magnitude of the rms
phasor is equal to the rms value of the sinusoidal function
Answer:
The periodic triangular current shown in figure has a peak
value of 180 mA. Find the average power that this current
delivers to a 5 k resistor
1) Find the rms value
Answer:
2) Calculate average power
{ {{ { } }} }
{ {{ { } }} }
co$ple' power
real power
reactive power
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
e
m
S P jQ VA
P Watt P R S
Q Var Q I S
= + = + = + = +
= == =
= == =
Complex Power
Complex power is the complex sum of Real power
and Reactive power
apparent power#
2 2
S P Q = + = + = + = +
( (( ( ) )) )
( (( ( ) )) )
power factor angle#
sin
;tan
cos
v i
v i
v i
Q
P




= = = = = = = = = = = =

Q>0 inductive lagging current
Q<0 capacitive leading current
{ {{ { } }} }
reactive power [ ]
m
Q Var Q I S = == =
Apparent Power
- Def: magnitude of complex power, [volt-amps (VA)]
- Apparent power requirement is more important than average
power requirement. It represents the volt-amp capacity required
to supply the average power.
Average power = Apparent power x Power factor
- Average power or Real power is the actual power delivered to
a system (watts)
- Apparent power capacity required by a device is larger than
Average power used by the device
Answer:
Answer:
Power Calculation
( )
( )
cos( ) sin( )
( )
v i
v i
rms rms v i rms rms v i
j
rms rms rms rms v i
eff eff v i
j
S V I jV I
P jQ
V I e V I
V I
V I e







= + = + = + = +
= + = + = + = +
= = = =
= = = =
= == =

or


( )
*
r r
v i
v i
j
eff eff
j j
eff eff
eff eff
V I e
V e I e
V I




= == =
= == =
= == =



The complex power is
- the product of the voltage & the conjugate of the current
OR
- the product of the rms phasor voltage & the conjugate of
the rms phasor current
Then complex power is:
If the load has impedance Z, by ohms law:

rms rms
V Z I

= == =
Power Calculation
Then complex power is:
{ {{ { } }} }
{ {{ { } }} }
2
2
2
rms rms rms rms
rms
e rms
m rms
S V I ZI I
S Z I
P R Z I
Q I Z I

= = = = = = = =
= == =
= == =
= == =
r r r r
r
r
r
Case1: Case1:
Case 2: Case 2:
(purely resistive load)
2
; 0
rms
Z R
P R I Q
= == =
= = = = = = = =
r
Power Calculation
Case 2: Case 2:
Case 3: Case 3:
(purely inductive load)
2
0;
rms
Z j L
P Q L I


= == =
= = = = = = = =
r
(purely capacitive load)
2
1
1
0;
rms
Z
j C
P Q I
C


= == =

= = = = = = = =
r
Case 4: Case 4:
(series "(C)
2 2
1
1
;
rms rms
Z R j L
j C
P R I Q L I
C




= + + = + + = + + = + +
| | | | | | | |
= = = = = = = =
| | | |
\ \ \ \
r r
Power Calculation
The reactance depends on frequency, and so does
the reactive power absorbed
This case,
C
\ \ \ \
while
1 1
0 ; Q L
C LC


= = = = = = = = = = = =
0 1 PF = = = = = = = =
Answer:
Answer:
Answer:
OR another way:
The angle
V
-
i
is called
power factor angle
cos( )
sin( )
v i
v i


= = = =


= = = =

power factor:pf
reactive factor: rf
v i
>
v i
<
Average and Reactive Power
Lagging:
Current lagging voltage
inductive load
Leading:
Current leading voltage
capacitive load
i v
> >> >
i v
< << <
Inductive
Capacitive
The pf does not tell the value
of the power factor angle
Answer:
Answer:
Maximum Power Transfer
- MPT was mentioned in Chapter 4
- Re-examine MPT in the sinusoidal steady-state network
Maximum Power Transfer
For Purely Resistive Circuit
Maximum Power Transfer
L
Z
Th
Z
V
r
Interested in the conditions to
maximize P
L
(average power
delivered to load)
V V
r r
r
For General Circuit with Sinusoidal Source
Th
V
Th Th Th
L L L
Z R jX
Z R jX
= + = + = + = +
= + = + = + = +
( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) )
Th Th
Th L Th L Th L
V V
I
Z Z R R j X X
= = = = = = = =
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
r
Use rms voltage and current:
( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) )
2
2
2 2
( )
Th
L
Th L Th L
P I R rms
V
R
R R X X
= == =
= == =
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
r
r

First derivative ; then we have maximum or
minimum
( (( ( ) )) )
0
L
P
R

= == =

( (( ( ) )) )
( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) )
( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) )
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2
0
Th L Th L Th Th L Th L
L
Th L Th L
R R X X V V R R R
P
R
R R X X
( ( ( (
( ( ( ( + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +


= = = = = = = =

( ( ( (
+ + + + + + + + + + + +

r r
Conditions for MPT
( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) )
( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) )
( (( ( ) )) )
2 2
2
2 2
2
Th L Th L
Th L Th L L Th L
Th L L Th
R R X X
R R X X R R R
X X R R
+ + + + + + + + + + + +

+ + + = + + + + = + + + + = + + + + = +
+ = + = + = + =
( (( ( ) )) )
( (( ( ) )) )
2
2 2
2
2
L Th L Th
L Th L Th
R X X R
R X X R
= + + = + + = + + = + +
= + + = + + = + + = + +
This yields,
Similarly:
( (( ( ) )) )
( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) )
2
2 2
0
0 2 0
L
Th L Th L Th L Th L
Th L
P
X
R R X X V R X X
X X

= == =

( ( ( (
+ + + + = + + + + = + + + + = + + + + =

= = = =
r
Conditions for MPT
Substitute to
This yields:
Th L
X X = = = =
( (( ( ) )) )
2
2
L Th L Th Th
R X X R R = + + = = + + = = + + = = + + =
(con)ugate)
L Th Th Th
Z Z R jX

= = = = = = = =
max
?
2
Th Th Th
eq Th
L Th Th
P
Z R jX
Z R
Z R jX
= == =
= + = + = + = +

= == =

= = = =

Z Z

=
Th
Z
V
r
Maximum Average Power Absorbed
( (( ( ) )) )
2
2 2
2
4
2
r
r r

Th
Th Th
Th
Th
Th
P I R
V V
R
R
R
= == =
= = = = = = = =
non*r$s#
2
2
max
2
4 8
Th
Th
Th Th
V
V
P
R R
= = = = = = = =
r
r
L Th
Z Z =
Th
V
r
m
m
max
18
6 j
24 j
8
15 j
L
Z
Example:
a) Find value of Z
L
will give max power transfer
b) Find maximum power
630 0 rms
o
L
Z
Find Thevenin equivalent circuit:
24 7 Z Z j

= = = = = = = =
Answer:
2
max
24 7
420 420
3675
4 24
L Th
Z Z j
j
P W

= = = = = = = =

= = = = = = = =

$a'i$u$ power transfer while is restricted
There are situations in which is not
possible+ ,irst& and $ay be restricted to
a li$ited range of values
*
L
L Th
L L
Z
Z Z
R X
= == =
Maximum Power Transfer
(1) Both R
L
and X
L
limited values
Adjust X
L
as near to X
Th
as possible then adjust
R
L
as close to as possible
( (( ( ) )) )
2
2
Th Th L
R X X + + + + + + + +
a li$ited range of values
Same circuit, but restriction:
10 100
25 50
L
L
F C F
R


24 7
Th
Z j = +
Example:
First: adjust X
L
as close to X
Th

pic-
'
7
1
7 1000
143 ; 100
10
Th
L
L
L
X
X
C
C F C F
X



= = = =

= = = = = = = = = = = =
= = = = = = = =
= = = =
420 420( ) j rms
Th
Now pick RL as close to as possible ( (( ( ) )) )
2
2
Th Th L
R X X + + + + + + + +
Pic-
' 2 2
24 (7 10) 24.19
25
L
L
R
R
= + = = + = = + = = + =
= == =
Answer:
Recalculate
420 420
( )
25 10 24 7
420 420
49 3
9.06 8.02 12.10 41.50
o
L
j
I rms
j j
j
j
j

= == =
+ + + + + + + +

= == =

= = = = = = = =
( )
L
I rms
420 420( ) j rms
24 7
Th
Z j = +
( (( ( ) )) )
2
max
2
12.10 25 3660.25
rms L
P I R
Watt
= == =
= = = = = = = =
420 420( ) j rms
24 7
Th
Z j = +
Answer:
( (( ( ) )) )
420 420( ) j rms
Compare 3675W of previous case
(2) Z
L
can be varied, but phase angle cannot
.et with fi'ed phase
L Th
Z Z = == =
/se the sa$e e'a$ple& with fi'ed phase of load *01+23
24 7 25 Z j

= + = = + = = + = = + =
Answer:
and
24 7 25
25 20 15
Th
L L
Z j
Z Z j
= + = = + = = + = = + =
= = = = = = = =
,
420 420
13.28 34.6
20 15 24 7
L rms
j
I
j j

= = = = = = = =
+ + + + + + + +
o
r
2
max
2
13.28 20 3527.17
rms L
P I R
Watt
= == =
= = = = = = = =
r

Answer:
Answer: