1

Chapter 2
Energy, Energy Transfer, and
General Energy Analysis
,
Sep. 18 - 20, 2012
1
2.1 Introduction 2.1 Introduction
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only
processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only
change forms (the first law)
Energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual
processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality
of energy. (the second law)
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3
4
If we take the entire roomincluding the air and the refrigerator (or fan)as
the system, which is an adiabatic closed system since the room is well-sealed
and well-insulated, the only energy interaction involved is the electrical
energy crossing the system boundary and entering the room.
As a result of the conversion of electric energy consumed by the device to
heat, the room temperature will rise.
Arefrigerator
operating with its
door open in a well-
sealed and well-
insulated room
Afan running in a
well-sealed and well-
insulated room will
raise the temperature
of air in the room.
2.1 Introduction 2.1 Introduction
2.2 Forms of Energy () 2.2 Forms of Energy ()
The total Energy: E , kJ (associated with the mass) The total Energy: E , kJ (associated with the mass)
- Kinetic Energy, KE = mV
2

- Potential Energy, PE = mgh
- Internal energy, U
E = U + KE + PE
Heat : thermal energy transfer caused by temperature
difference
Work :
- Capacity to move a force through a distance
- others
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2.2 Forms of Energy 2.2 Forms of Energy
The macroscopic energy () ; The macroscopic energy () ;
A system possesses as a whole with respect to some
outside reference frame, i.e. kinetic energy (KE),
potential energy (PE).
The microscopic energy () ;
Related to the molecular structure of a system and the
degree of the molecular activity, and independent of
outside reference frames (U).
6
2
2-3
2.2 2.2
The macroscopic energy of an object
changes with velocity and elevation.
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2.2 Forms of Energy 2.2 Forms of Energy
Internal:

Internal:
- Characteristic of matter
- Value does not depend on any external reference
condition
- Internal properties T, P, V, m, U, S
External:
- Characteristic of position or velocity
- Value is relative to an external reference condition

8
Physical Insight to Internal Energy Physical Insight to Internal Energy
Sensible energy: Associated with the kinetic energy of
Associated with the atomic bonds in a
Sensible energy: Associated with the kinetic energy of
the molecules
Latent energy: Associated with the phase of a system
Chemical energy: Associated with the atomic bonds in a
molecule
Nuclear energy: Associated with the strong bonds
within the nucleus of the atom itself
Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
Thermal = Sensible + Latent
9

2-5
Sensible energy: The portion of
the internal energy of a system
associated with the kinetic energies
of the molecules.
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2-6

2.2 2.2
Latent energy: The internal
energy associated with the phase of
a system.
Chemical energy: The internal
energy associated with the atomic
bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The tremendous
amount of energy associated with
the strong bonds within the nucleus
of the atom itself.
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2-7

2.2 2.2
12
3
More on Nuclear energy More on Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy: Associated with the strong bonds Nuclear energy: Associated with the strong bonds
within the nucleus of the atom itself
- Fission of uranium ()
The split of the uranium atom into other elements
- Fusion of hydrogen ()
Two small nuclei combine into a large one
13 14
More on Nuclear Energy
The best known fission reaction involves
the split of the uranium atom (the U-235
isotope) into other elements and is
commonly used to generate electricity in
nuclear power plants (440 of them in 2004,
generating 363,000 MW worldwide), to
power nuclear submarines and aircraft
carriers, and even to power spacecraft as
well as building nuclear bombs.
Nuclear energy by fusion is released when
two small nuclei combine into a larger one.
The uncontrolled fusion reaction was
achieved in the early 1950s, but all the
efforts since then to achieve controlled
fusion by massive lasers, powerful
magnetic fields, and electric currents to
generate power have failed.
(b)
2-8

2-9 2-1
40790 days = 112 years
2.2 2.2
15
Mechanical Energy Mechanical Energy
The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of
by an ideal mechanical device
The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of
energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device
such as an ideal turbine.
includes: ke, V
2
/2; pe, gh, and Pv (flow work)

The total mechanical energy of a unity flowing fluid
e = pv + V
2
/2 + gh
16 17 18
4
Total energy
of a system
Energy of a system
per unit mass
Potential energy
per unit mass
Kinetic energy
per unit mass
Potential energy
Total energy
per unit mass
Kinetic energy
Mass flow rate
Energy flow rate
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2-3 Energy transfer by Heat () 2-3 Energy transfer by Heat ()
Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system

Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system
in the form of heat and work.
Heat : The form of energy that is transferred
between two systems(or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
- Heat is transferred from hot bodies to colder ones,
by virtue of a temperature difference.
- Energy is recognized as heat transfer only as it
crosses the system boundary.
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2.3
2-13

2-17
2-19
21
2.3
2-14

25

2-18
2-15
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2-3 Energy transfer by Heat 2-3 Energy transfer by Heat
Adiabatic Process: A process during which there is
diabatic process, a system exchanges no
Adiabatic Process: A process during which there is
no heat transfer.
- During an adiabatic process, a system exchanges no
heat with its surroundings.
2-16 (adiabatic process)

23
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Conduction () : the transfer of energy from Conduction () : the transfer of energy from
the more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interactions between the particles.
Fouriers Law
Qcond = - Kt A (dT/dx) (W)
Kt is thermal conductivity
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5
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Convection () : is the mode of energy transfer
between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas
Convection () : is the mode of energy transfer
between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas
that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects
of conduction and fluid motion.
Newtons Law of cooling
Qconv = h A ( Ts Tf ) (W)
h is the convection heat transfer coefficient
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Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Radiation () : is the energy emitted by matter
in the form of electromagnetic waves ( or photons) as
Radiation () : is the energy emitted by matter
in the form of electromagnetic waves ( or photons) as
a result of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Q emit,max = ATs
4

is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
The absorption of radiation incident on an
opaque surface of absorptivity o.
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Thermal transfer processes
Conduction, Convection, Radiation

27
2-4 Energy Transfer by Work 2-4 Energy Transfer by Work
Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system in
is the energy transfer associated with a force acting
Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system in
the form of heat and work.
- If the energy cross the boundaries of a closed system is
not heat, it must be work.
- Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting
through a distance.
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2-20 :


29
2-21
()
(point function)

(path function) ()
, dV

V V V dV
1 2
2
1
A = = }
W or W W
W or W or W PdV W
PdV W W
1 2
12 2 1
2
1
2
1
A =
= } = }
=

o
o o , ,
30
6
2-22 2-3
2-23 2-4
31
2-24 2-5

2-25 2-6
2-26 R
I V
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2-5 Mechanical forms of Work

2-5 Mechanical forms of Work
()
Moving boundary work Moving boundary work
Shaft work
Spring work
Other mechanical forms of work
- work done on elastic solid bar
- work associated with the stretching of a liquid film
- work done to raise or to accelerate a body
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( F ) ( s )

2-5 Mechanical Forms of Work

2-5 Mechanical Forms of Work
()
ds F W = o
Fs W = , for constant F
34
4-1,2
PdV PAds s d F W
b
= = =

o
or PdV work, compression and expansion work
Moving Boundary work () Moving Boundary work ()
35
4-3 P-V

4-4

} } = =
2
1
2
1
dV V P PdV W ) (
36
7
2-30
u u o Td Frd Fds W
shaft
= = =
T n 2 Td W
shaft
) ( t u = } =
T n 2 Td W
shaft
) ( t u = } =
Shaft work () Shaft work ()
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2-7
) . ( .
min
) (
min
) (
hp 3 112 kW 8 83
m N 1000
kJ 1
s 60
m N 200
1
4000 2 T n 2 W
shaft
=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
= = t t

38
2-32
F = kx
} = } = =
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
x x k
2
1
kxdx Fdx W ) (
| |
2 2 x
x o spring o 1 o 2
2
1
x x x x k
2
1
dx x x k W ) ( ) ( ) ( = } =
) (
o
x x k F =
Spring work () Spring work ()
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2-34
) (
2
1
2
2
o
B
2
EV
W c c =
c o E
n
=
c c c o o o d EV d V dx A Fdx W
o o n o n B
= = = =
A F
n
/ = o : stress
o
L dx d / = c : strain
Work done on Elastic Solid bars
(
Work done on Elastic Solid bars
()
40
2-35
s
o : surface tension
(N/m)
dA W
s s
o o =
Surface tension work () Surface tension work ()
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2-8
197 hp
1 hp = 0.746 kW
Work done to change
Potential Energy
2-9
14.9 hp, 0 80 km/s(20s)
or
93.1 hp, 0- 100 ( in 5s)
Work done to change
Kinetic Energy
Work done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body Work done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
42
8
Nonmechanical forms of works
(
Nonmechanical forms of works
()
Electric work Electric work
Magnetic work
Electical polarization work
43

2-39, 40
KE PE A A E Q A
2.6 The First Law of Thermodynamics


2.6 The First Law of Thermodynamics
- Conservation of Energy
()
44
2-41

2-42-44
45
2-45

46

Note:

47
initial final system
E E E = A
PE KE U E + + =
Energy change of a system,
where
out
E
in
E Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, and

where in mass in in in
E W Q E
,
+ + =
out mass out out out
E W Q E
,
+ + =
In rate form, W Q E E E
out in system
= =
) ( ) ( ) (
, , out mass in mass out in out in system
E E W W Q Q E + + = A
out in system
E E E = A Energy balance,
Energy balance for a closed system, 0 E E
out mass in mass
=
, ,
,
W Q ) W W ( ) Q Q ( E
out in out in system
= + = A
Energy Balance closed system Energy Balance closed system
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9
2-48
49
2-47

50
,
| |
out out in in system
pe ke h m pe ke h m W Q E ) ( ) ( + + + + + = A
| |
out out in in out in system
pe ke h m pe ke h m W Q E E E ) ( ) ( + + + + + = =
Energy balance for a open system,
initial final system
E E E = A
PE KE U E + + =
Energy change of a system,
where
out
E
in
E Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, and

where in mass in in in
E W Q E
,
+ + =
out mass out out out
E W Q E
,
+ + =
) ( ) ( ) (
, , out mass in mass out in out in system
E E W W Q Q E + + = A
out in system
E E E = A Energy balance,
) ( pe ke pv u m E
mass
+ + + =
Energy Balance open system Energy Balance open system
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2-7 Energy Conservation Efficiencies

2-7 Energy Conservation Efficiencies
()
Efficiency indicates how well an energy


Efficiency indicates how well an energy
conversion or transfer process.
Performance or Efficiency
= Desired (output, input)/Required (output, input)

52
Combustion Efficiency
burned fuel the of value heating
combution during released heat of amount
HV
Q
combustion
= = q
Overall Efficiency
net
electric net
generator thermal combustion overall
m HHV
W

= =
,
q q q q
Efficiency of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
generator turbine generator turbine
motor pump motor pump
generator motor turbine pump
,
, , , ,
q q = q
q q = q
q q q q

input energy Mechanical

output energy Mechanical
mech
= q
53
FIGURE 2-58 The efficiency of a cooking appliance represents the fraction of the
energy supplied to the appliance that is transferred to the food.
54
10
Example: A steam power cycle. Example: A steam power cycle.
in pump
W
,

Steam Steam
Turbine Turbine
Mechanical Energy Mechanical Energy
to Generator to Generator
Heat Heat
Exchanger Exchanger
Cooling Water Cooling Water
Pump Pump
Fuel Fuel
Air Air
Combustion Combustion
Products Products
System Boundary System Boundary
for Thermodynamic for Thermodynamic
Analysis Analysis
System Boundary System Boundary
for Thermodynamic for Thermodynamic
Analysis Analysis
out turbine
W
,

out
Q

out stack
Q
,

in
Q

55
Performance of power cycles
First Law efficiency for work producing cycles
H
c
H
C H
H
cycle
Q
Q
1
Q
Q Q
Q
W
=

= = q
56
2-8 Energy and Environment

2-8 Energy and Environment
()
Ozone and Smog: NOx, HC, O Ozone and Smog: NOx, HC, O3
Air pollutants: NOx, CO, particulate
Acid Rain: SOx
The Greenhouse Effect:
- The heating effect
- Global warming and climate change
Green house gases: CO2, CH4, PFCs, CFCs, SF6
57
The conversion of energy from one form to another often affects the environment and
the air we breathe in many ways, and thus the study of energy is not complete without
considering its impact on the environment.
Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels are responsible for smog, acid
rain, and global warming.
The environmental pollution has reached such high levels that it became a serious threat
to vegetation, wild life, and human health.
2.8 () 2.8 ()
2-65
2-64 58
Ozone and Smog
Hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides react in the presence of sunlight on hot calm days to form
ground-level ozone.
Ozone irritates eyes and damages the air sacs in the lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide are
exchanged, causing eventual hardening of this soft and spongy tissue. It also causes shortness of
breath, wheezing, fatigue, headaches, and nausea, and aggravates respiratory problems such as
asthma.
Smog: Made up mostly of ground-level ozone (O3), but it also contains numerous other chemicals,
including carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter such as soot and dust, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, butane, and other hydrocarbons.

The other serious pollutant in smog is carbon monoxide,
which is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas.
It is mostly emitted by motor vehicles.
It deprives the bodys organs from getting enough oxygen by
binding with the red blood cells that would otherwise carry
oxygen. It is fatal at high levels.
Suspended particulate matter such as dust and soot are
emitted by vehicles and industrial facilities. Such particles
irritate the eyes and the lungs.
2-66 HC NOx

59
Acid Rain
The sulfur in the fuel reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide (SO2), which is an air
pollutant.
The main source of SO2 is the electric power plants that burn high-sulfur coal.
Motor vehicles also contribute to SO2 emissions since gasoline and diesel fuel also
contain small amounts of sulfur.
The sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react with
water vapor and other chemicals high in the
atmosphere in the presence of sunlight to form
sulfuric and nitric acids.
The acids formed usually dissolve in the
suspended water droplets in clouds or fog.
These acid-laden droplets, which can be as
acidic as lemon juice, are washed from the air
on to the soil by rain or snow. This is known
as acid rain.
2-67



60
11
The Greenhouse
Effect: Global
Warming
Greenhouse effect: Glass allows the solar
radiation to enter freely but blocks the infrared
radiation emitted by the interior surfaces. This
causes a rise in the interior temperature as a
result of the thermal energy buildup in a space
(i.e., car).
The surface of the earth, which warms up
during the day as a result of the absorption of
solar energy, cools down at night by radiating
part of its energy into deep space as infrared
radiation.
Carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, and trace
amounts of some other gases such as methane
and nitrogen oxides act like a blanket and keep
the earth warmat night by blocking the heat
radiated from the earth. The result is global
warming.
These gases are called greenhouse gases,
with CO2 being the primary component.
CO2 is produced by the burning of fossil fuels
such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
2-68
61
A1995 report: The earth has already warmed about 0.5C during the last century, and
they estimate that the earths temperature will rise another 2C by the year 2100.
Arise of this magnitude can cause severe changes in weather patterns with storms and
heavy rains and flooding at some parts and drought in others, major floods due to the
melting of ice at the poles, loss of wetlands and coastal areas due to rising sea levels, and
other negative results.
Improved energy efficiency, energy conservation, and using renewable energy
sources help minimize global warming.
2-69
CO2 (If it is driven 20,000 km/yr,
consumes 2300 liters of gasoline, and
produces 2.5 kg of CO2/liter).
2-70

62

8, 14, 28, 34, 49, 57, 65, 71, 81, 98, 107, 119

8, 14, 28, 34, 49, 57, 65, 71, 81, 98, 107, 119
63