Living Mulch Literature Review

By Mark Zumwinkle

Conventional clean cultivation agriculture is highly
productive when viewed within the time frame of a single
growing season. But the high yields obtained with clean
cultivation often come at the expense of the deterioration of
the soil resource base. Erosion, loss of organic matter and
deterioration of soil structure are all accelerated by
extensive periods clean cultivation. Attempts to develop
reduced tillage methods in the 1950's coincided with the
development of herbicides to make possible planting of row
crops into a killed sod. The water and soil conservative
benefits of the dead sod were dramatic (Beale et al. 1955) but
lasted only until the sod decomposed. In an attempt to
extend the mulch benefit over time, crops were grown in living
sods. But live sods proved to be excessively competitive for
water and nutrients (Kurtz et al., 1952). Refinement of
herbicide technology in the 1960's resulted in a renewed
interest in live mulches suppressed with non-lethal rates of
herbicide.
Living mulch technology has been shown to benefit both
short and long term productivity by improving soil physical
properties, reducing runoff and erosion, suppressing weeds
and, if the mulch is a legume, transferring symbiotically
fixed nitrogen to the cash crop. These benefits can be offset
by the potential for the living mulch to compete with the cash
crop for limiting resources, particularly water and nitrogen.


Improvement of Soil Physical Properties
Long-term productivity of agricultural soils is
generally associated with maintenance of adequate levels of
organic matter in order to provide a loose, well drained
physical condition. Living mulches have the potential to
positively alter soil organic matter content by increasing the
total biomass produced by a cropping system. Several studies
have shown that extensive living mulch biomass can be produced
without a significant cash crop yield reduction when the mulch
is temporarily suppressed by mowing, selective cultivation,
herbicides or a combination of these techniques (Vrabel et
al., ____; Harper et al., 1980; Mayer and Hartwig, 1986;
Grubinger and Minotti, 1990; Mangan et al., ____; Beste and
Teasdale, ____). The residue is usually not harvested but
left to decompose in place. When managed in this manner, the
living mulch is a green manure.
Extensive research in the first half of this century on
the long-term effects of regular green manuring showed that,
although soil organic matter losses were lessened by the
addition of plant residues, rarely was there an absolute
increase. Joffee (1955) postulated that there are two
equilibrium levels of organic matter for a given soil: a
relatively high equilibrium under native vegetation and a
lower equilibrium under continuous cultivation. The
dramatically increased microbial activity due to cultivation
overrrides the ability of green manures to increase organic
matter except when the system approaches the lower
equilibrium.
Living mulch technology is a form of reduced tillage.
Organic matter conservation under living mulch may result from
a combination of increased residue inputs and reduced
stimulation of decomposition from tillage. Microbial
decomposition decreases as the soil temperature decreases
within the range normally found under field conditions.
Living mulches, like sods in general, lower mean growing
season soil temperatures (Bennet et al., 1976; Newhouse and
Dana, 1989).
Living mulch studies that have measured soil organic
matter changes generally confirm earlier green manure
research. Organic matter losses may be minimized and, in
rare cases where initial levels are very low, there may be an
increase. Welker and Glenn (1988) found that organic
matter levels were maintained but not increased after three
years under a mowed tall fescue living mulch in peach orchards
in West Virginia. Bare soil treatments, whether achieved by
cultivation or herbicides, dropped from 2.4% to 2.1%.
Akobundu (1984) found that a living legume mulch of
Psophocarpus palustris Desv. dramatically reduced organic
matter losses after two years of corn production in Nigeria.
Initial levels were reduced 32% and 8% under conventional
tillage and living mulch, respectively. Lanini et al. (1989)
measured organic matter changes under subterranean clover
living mulch in sweet corn and lettuce at Riverside,
California. Initial levels of 0.78% rose marginally to 0.86%
under subclover and dropped significantly to 0.66% under clean
cultivation.
The soil physical properties most likely to be improved
by additions of organic residues are: bulk density, aggregate
size and stability and water movement. The benefits of
organic matter in mineral soils can be attributed either to
its long-term presence as a stable component (i.e. humus
fraction) of the soil matrix or to the rapid process of
decomposition of relatively accessible microbial substrate
(i.e. proteins, carbohydrates, fats and waxes).
The bulk density of a mineral soil is lowered immediately
by the addition of organic residues due to
simple dilution of a dense material with a less dense
material. But, because the volume of material added by green
manures is small compared to the soil volume, dilution can
explain only small changes in bulk density. A number of
studies have shown strong negative correlations between
organic matter content and bulk density (De Kimpe et al.,
1982, Millette et al., 1980, Coote and Ramsey, 1983). Too
large to be attributed to dilution, such dramatic reductions
in bulk density are more likely a result of the contribution
of organic matter to larger, more stable soil aggregates.
Increased aggregate stability results primarily from
the cementing action of microbial gums and other intermediate
products of the decomposition of recently added residues.
Secondarily, aggregate stability is enhanced by
increasing total soil organic matter. Chester et al.
(1957) found only a marginally significant correlation
between aggregate stability and total organic matter. The
correlation with soil gums was highly significant. Because
these cementing agents are subject to rapid further
decomposition, continual additions of residue are required
to maintain aggregate stability. Welker and Glenn (1988)
found a large increase in aggregate stability and lower bulk
density under a grass living mulch compared to clean
cultivation in orchard production. Water infiltration was
also increased under the mulch.

Soil Conservation in Living Mulches
Living mulches may prove to be an even more effective
tool for reducing runoff and erosion than presently popular
reduced-tillage systems. Hall et al. (1984) measured water
runoff volume in corn planted on a 14% slope and grown
conventionally, no-till or in a crownvetch living mulch. The
extensive runoff in conventional corn was reduced by 90% and
98% in no-till and living mulch, respectively. Due to the
ability of living mulches to compete with the cash crop for
water, their adoption for the purpose of erosion control will
be limited to humid climates and acreage under irrigation.
Hartwig (____) sugested that because living mulches can be
more soil conservative than no-till, they may substitute for
expensive terraces, contour strips and sod rotations.
Living mulches can reduce wind erosion by increasing
residue coverage of the soil, by anchoring both soil and plant
material with the living mulch roots, by increasing soil
aggregate size and stability, and by providing a windbreak.
Newhouse and Dana (1989) measured the combined damage from
wind and windblown soil particles in strawberries. A mulch of
perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) significantly increased
strawberry yield and quality after a spring windstorm. The
mulch also protected strawberry crowns from winter winds and
cold temperatures.

Nitrogen Transfer Between the Mulch and the Cash Crop.
Living mulches may contribute to or compete for the
nitrogen pool available to the cash crop. Generally,
unsuppressed mulches, whether they be legumes or grasses, will
compete for nitrogen. Kurtz et al. (1946, 1952) found that
corn yields in legume and grass sods were reduced 50% compared
to conventional tillage. Adequate nitrogen raised
intercropped corn yields to 15% less than conventional.
Stivers (1956) obtained similar results for corn in
unsuppressed ladino clover.
Suppressed legume mulches have the potential to release
symbiotically fixed nitrogen and reduce fertilizer nitrogen
requirements. Grasses are a net nitrogen sink, even when
suppressed. Scott et al. (1987) compared legume and grass
living mulches plowed under and replanted annually with
conventional tillage. Over 4 years, grain yields and ear leaf
nitrogen were higher with legumes and lower with grasses when
compared to an unfertilized conventionally cultivated control.
The highest corn yields in the legume mulch were similar to
conventional plots fertilized with 17 kg N/ha. Because the
mulches were plowed under annually and not replanted until
after corn establishment, turnover of legume N was maximized
and competition with the cash crop was minimized. This study,
then, was a highly favorable scenario for nitrogen transfer to
the cash crop.
Suppressed legume mulches will enhance the nitrogen
status of the cash crop in proportion to the extent of the
suppression. This is evidence that a significant portion of
the legume nitrogen comes from dessication and decomposition
of legume plant parts. The extent of mulch suppression caused
by different suppressive techniques can be ranked generally as
follows: none<mechanical mowing<partial cultivation<non-lethal
herbicide<killed. Studies that compare these methods of
suppression for their ability to effect nitrogen transfer rank
them in the same order. Vrabel et al.(____) found sweet corn
primary ear leaf %N in white clover mulch to be 1.70, 1.91,
1.95 and 3.01 for conventional (unmulched), unsuppressed white
clover, mowed white clover and chemically suppressed white
clover, respectively. All treatments, including conventional,
were grown under nitrogen limiting conditions. Peters (1986)
also compared mulch suppression techniques on white clover in
sweet corn. The fresh weight of marketable ears and total
nitrogen uptake by sweet corn were higher for plowed down
mulch, chemically suppressed mulch and mechanically mowed
mulch than for unsuppressed mulch and conventionally grown
corn . This was the case across four fertilizer nitrogen
rates from 0 to 150 kg/ha. Grubinger and Minotti (1990) found
partial rototilling (see mulch suppression by partial
rototilling) of a sweet clover mulch to be highly effective at
increasing sweet corn nitrogen status. One month after
rototilling, ear leaf %N was 2.5, 2.1, 1.9 and 1.9 for mulch
rototilled, mowed 5 times, mowed 2 times and unsuppressed,
respectively. The Grubinger study favored nitrogen transfer
by rototilling over mowing because the nitrogen rich mowed
clover residue was bagged and removed. In contrast, Peters
allowed the residue to fall and decompose in place. The
success of mowing as a nitrogen transfer technique may depend
on proper handling of the residue.
Although the ammount of nitrogen supplied by long-
standing legume mulches may be a significant portion of the
total needs of the cash crop, nitrogen does not usually build
up in sufficient quantity to maximize cash crop yields. Scott
et al. (1987) found corn in several legume mulch species to
yield as if the mulch were contributing nitrogen in the range
of 17 kg/ha two years into the study. But the aparent
nitrogen contribution did not rise over the following three
years. There is commonly a positive cash crop response to
additions of fertilizer nitrogen even after several years in
legume mulch. Cash crop fertilizer nitrogen response curves
in long-standing legume mulches show a "rotation effect" or
absolute yield increase when compared to conventional
cultivation. Mayer and Hartwig (1986) measured the corn grain
yield response to fertilizer nitrogen in an eight year old
crownvetch living mulch. The mulched corn showed a positive
yield response up to 140 kgN/ha. The mulched corn yielded
similar to conventional corn fertilized with 30-55 kg more
N/ha. There may be two components to this response. First,
the mulch has simply not provided enough nitrogen. Second,
there has been an increase in the yield potential of the cash
crop due to the presence of the mulch (improved soil physical
properties, increased available water, slow release of legume-
derived fertility). The value of the nitrogen savings may be
overshadowed by the increase in yield potential, particularly
if the value of the cash crop is high relative to the cost of
nitrogen fertilizer. The magnitude of yield potential
increases reported is highly variable. Bennet et al. (1976)
found that a two year old bromegrass living mulch increased
corn silage yields 137% over conventional corn when all
treatments received 225 kgN/ha. Akobundu (1982) measured an
86% corn grain yield increase in a Psophocarpus palustris
Desv. legume mulch compared to conventional corn when all
treatments recieved 120 kgN/ha. This was in the fourth year
of the study. First year yields were highest in conventional
corn. But the productive potential in subsequent years dropped
in conventional tillage and remained constant in the living
mulch. The Akobundu study shows that what appears to be an
increase in yield potential in a given year may be the same as
the stemming of the loss of productive potential over a longer
period of time. The study was conducted in the humid tropics
where the detrimental effects of continuous cultivation are
accelerated. Similar trends may occur in temperate climates
over a longer time span. Mayer and Hartwig (1986) found a 15%
increase in corn grain yield in an eight year old crownvetch
mulch compared to conventional practices when 170 kgN/ha was
applied to all treatments. Peters (1986) obtained similar
results for sweet corn in white clover. None of the above
four studies systematically applied water as a treatment
variable. All of the studies extensively suppressed the mulch
during cash crop establishment and growth. It is likely that
the suppressed mulch acted similar to a dead mulch to improve
water infiltration, reduce evaporation, and hence increase
available water.

Competition Between the Mulch and Cash Crop for Water
Living mulches generally compete with the cash crop for
water. Numerous studies have found that both grass and legume
mulches reduce corn yields in a dry year (Kurtz, 1952; Lewis
and Martin, 1967; Carreker et al., 1972). Although
unsuppressed mulches increase soil water recharge by slowing
runoff, increasing infiltration and reducing evaporation from
the soil surface (Bennet et al., 1976; Hall et al., 1984),
this increase is not as great as the loss dure to mulch
transpitation. Chemically suppressed mulches may either
increase or decrease the water available to the cash crop.
Total seasonal water use will usually be high in suppressed
mulches because they are allowed to grow and transpire
extensively in the spring and fall. But during the period of
extensive suppression, the mulch may temporarily improve
water retention. Humid climates receive ample annual rainfall
but crops often suffer from short duration droughts between
periods of heavy rain. Water may be conserved by a suppressed
mulch under such conditions. Bennet et al. (1976) measured an
increase in corn grain yields and an increase in available
soil moisture in suppressed grass mulches compared to
conventionally cultivated corn in West Virginia. Rainfall was
ample but poorly distributed. Semi-arid climates depend on
fall and spring rains to recharge subsoil moisture. Living
mulches have a detrimental effect on this resource. In
Nebraska, Echtencamp and Moomaw (1989) found living mulches to
be competitive with corn for water except in a wet year.
Mechanical mowing is less effective than chemical suppression
at reducing mulch transpiration. Grahm and Crabtree (____)
applied increasing ammounts of irrigation water to cabbage in
a perennial ryegrass mulch suppressed chemically, mechanically
or not at all. Mowed grass was as competitive for water as
unsuppressed grass. Chemically suppressed grass competed for
water but competition was eliminated at the highest level of
irrigation. For all mulch treatments, the cabbage was showing
a positive yield response to increasing levels of irrigation,
even at the highest level applied.
Although living mulches have been shown to compete
extensively for both nitrogen and water, suppressed mulch
studies were not found that systematically altered both
resources simultaneously. The ability of a plant species to
compete for water or nitrogen is dependent on the soil volume
explored by the root system. No studies were found that
describe the spacial distribution of the root systems of
either the cash crop or the living mulch over time.

Mulch Suppression
Early attempts to produce corn in living sods were
abandoned in the 1950's because of the ability of the living
mulch to compete excessively with the cash crop for nitrogen
and water. The driving force behind the renewed interest in
living mulches since the 1970's is the search for a wide
variety of mulch supression techniques. The three primary
methods of suppression are: non-lethal rates of herbicide,
mechanical mowing, and maintainance of a clean soil strip,
whether by cultivation or banded herbicide. Less common
methods that show promise include: manipulation of plant
populations (both in the cash crop and the living mulch),
delayed planting of the mulch, and partial cultivation.

Herbicide Suppression of the Mulch
The use of low levels of herbicide for mulch suppression
has had mixed results. A number of studies have shown that
some mulch species can be suppressed enough to dramatically
reduce competition and still allow the mulch to recover
(Bennet et al., 1976; Elkins et al. 1983; Hartwig, 1985;
Lindgren and Ashley, 1986; Grahm and Crabtree, ____). A
majority of these studies have used grasses. Success with
suppressing legumes chemically has been associated with mulch
species that recover by stoloniferous regrowth. If the
herbicide proves lethal to portions of the mulch stand, the
remaining plants can fill in. Examples of this are Dutch
white clover (Trifolium repens L.) and crownvetch (Coronilla
varia L.). Crownvetch has been successfully maintained as a
chemically suppressed living mulch in corn for over ten years
by Hartwig at Pennsylvania State University.
A major problem with chemical suppression of the living
mulch is that it often allows weeds to become established
inside the mulch (Hughes and Sweet, ____, Graham and Crabtree,
____, Katz and Ilnicki, ____). The same competitive abilities
exhibited by the living mulch are likely causing both the
suppression of the cash crop and the weeds. Most often, the
weed entry window opened by the herbicide is exploited by
annual broadleaf species because they establish quickly.
Perennial weeds must compete through periods of uninterrupted
mulch growth after removal of the cash crop. Hartwig (1977
and 1989) found that crownvetch reduced invasion of the
perennials, dandelion (Taraxacum officinale ___) and yellow
nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus L.) in corn by 74% and 80%,
respectively. Fall regrowth of the crownvetch after corn
harvest smothered the newly established weeds. In contrast,
the annual weeds, redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.)
and fall panicum (_____) were not controlled at all by the
mulch.
Mechanical Mowing as a Method of Mulch Suppression
Mechanical mowing has been shown to be a viable means by
which competition can be reduced (Vrabel et al., ____; Enache
et al., 1988). There are several advantages to this
technique. Unlike the use of herbicides, mowing has the
potential to maintain mulch vigor, maintain or increase mulch
biomass production, and reduce weed invasion. Also, the
largely as yet undeveloped technology of non-lethal rates of
herbicide is unnecessary with mowing. The primary
disadvantage to mowing is that, because the mulch recovers
rapidly, there may be too small of a window for cash crop
establishment and development.
Mowing the mulch in a late stage of vegetative growth
immediately reduces both the plant canopy and live root mass.
But, unlike herbicide suppression, mulch vigor may be
maintained or increased as a new period of vegetative growth
is initiated. Rather than opening an opportunity for weed
invasion, timely mowing can cut existing weeds and reestablish
the mulch as the dominant species.
Wiles et al. (1989), found that mowing a perennial
ryegrass living mulch reduced competition with chinese cabbage
(Brassica rapa L., Chinensis Group) equivalent to herbicide
suppression. But mowing increased living mulch shoot biomass
compared to an unsuppressed control. Herbicide suppression
dramatically reduced mulch biomass production.
Lindgren and Ashley (1986) found mowing twice to be as
effective as herbicide suppression at reducing competition by
a white clover mulch in snap beans. But the mulch remained
more vigorous when mowed than when chemically suppressed.
Only total kill of the mulch with herbicides increased bean
yields over mowing. Because the suppression from mowing is
short-lived, more than one mowing may be necessary. Vrabel et
al. (_____) found a single mowing of legume mulches at the
time of sweet corn establishment to be less effective than
herbicide suppression. Costello and Altieri (1994) obtained
broccoli yields equivalent to clean cultivation by
mechanically mowing clover twice. Unless the mulch was mowed
early, competition for light ensued. They suggested that
improved machinery needs to be developed for large-scale
adoption.

Strip Tillage to Reduce Mulch Competition
Mulch suppression by mowing or herbicides alone does not
generally reduce competition enough to produce cash crop
yields equal to conventional clean cultivation. These
practices are usually combined with the creation of a clean
soil strip in which the cash crop is seeded. Living mulches
are usually perennials. The cost of the establishment of the
mulch is significant. The use of perennial mulches allows the
cost of establishment to be ammortized over more than one
growing season. In the second season of production in a mulch
stand, the newly seeded cash crop must compete with an
established perennial. Creation of a clean soil strip at
planting dramatically reduces competition during the critical
early stage of cash crop establishment by physically
separating the two species a known distance. Vrabel et al.
(____), found that 0.45 m clean soil strips reduced
competition from four legume mulches in sweet corn when the
mulches were established five weeks prior to corn planting.
The soil strips were created by banding the legume seed. The
effect of strips was much less pronounced when legumes were
seeded simultaneously with or five weeks after the corn.
Elkins et al. (1979) found a similar benefit to using banded
herbicide strips in grass mulches for corn production. A 20
cm banded herbicide strip increased corn yields dramatically
compared to corn planted into an undisturbed mulch. Waters
and Ilnicki (1990) compared subclover mulch full stands with
0.55 m planting strips for production of summer squash.
Strips, whether killed with herbicide or cultivation,
significantly outyielded full mulch stands.
The cost of reducing competition with strips may be a
relatively small reduction in mulch biomass productivity
depending on the mulch species. Vrabel et al. (____) found
that strips occupying 50% of the total soil surface did not
significantly reduce white or red clover mulch dry matter.
Alfalfa and ladino clover were reduced by 50%.
The width of the strip needed will vary with the cash
crop. Loy et al. (1987) found strip widths of 0.5 m to be
insufficient and 1.5 m to be sufficient at eliminating
competition from grass and legume sods in peppers and bush
winter squash.

Manipulation of Plant Populations to Reduce Competition
The relative competitive abilities of the cash crop and
the living mulch determine to what extent plant populations
can be altered to reduce interference by the mulch. Wiles et
al. (1989) found pak choi to be weakly competitive with a
ryegrass mulch. The ryegrass was unaffected by a doubling of
pak choi density. Lowering ryegrass density reduced its
resource use but the effect was variable across growing
seasons. The authors concluded that lowering mulch density
was an undependable control of mulch interference. These
findings are obviously species specific. There may be cash
crops that are highly competitive with mulches. In this case,
increasing cash crop populations may prove to be an important
tool. The use of lower mulch density, however, runs the risk
of allowing weed invasion. Rather than lowering mulch seeding
rates, the grower can control the overall mulch population by
widening the cultivated clean soil strip while maintaining a
local mulch density competitive with weeds.
The use of double cash crop rows with double wide mulch
strips may maintain or increase yields (Loy et al., 1987;
Grubinger and Minotti, 1990). This reduces the complexity of
the field and simplifies field operations in general.
Specifically, it provides access to the mulch for maintenance.

Delayed Planting of Mulch to Reduce Competition
Competition from the mulch can easily be reduced by
delaying the mulch planting date (Vrabel et al., ____; Regnier
and Stoller, ____). But the cost of waiting will likely be
reduced weed control, lower mulch biomass productivity and
exposure to erosion. The strategy is limited to annual
mulches and perennials in the establishment year. If annual
mulches are shown to improve watershed quality significantly,
the cost of establishment may be partially borne by the
surrounding community. Jurchak (1984) reported strong
commercial grower participation in a government seed cost
share program for planting annual ryegrass into established
tomatoes. Coolman and Hoyt (1993) conceptualalized a system
of relay intercropping summer annual legumes into a nearly
mature crop of broccoli. While this approach reduces
competition with the cash crop, it minimizes the potential
benefits of weed suppression and nitrogen fixation by the
mulch. In addition, use of an annual living mulch increases
the cost of establishment when compared to a perennial mulch.
Another way to get around the cost of establishing an
annual is to allow it to seed itself. The use of subterranean
clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) or "subclover" is a
dramatic example of this. Subclover is a mediteranean winter
annual that germinates and grows in late summer, goes dormant
through winter, and resumes growth to set seed in spring. The
seeds lay dormant through mid-summer, leaving a window of
minimal interference for cash crop production. The seeds are
deposited in the surface soil by a downward extending peduncle
(Ilnicki and Vitolo, 1986). Because of this efficient
deposition of seed, subclover has the potential to persist
beyond the establishment year. Extensive weed free stands do
persist in southern and western Australia under grazing
pressure (Lanini et al., 1989).
Several studies have shown subclover to be a weed
suppressive living mulch (Enache et al., 1988; Beste and
Teasdale, 1991; Lanini et al., 1989; Waters and Ilnicki,
____). But, because the cash crop is planted into a vigorous
mulch stand in the spring, a combination of planting strips
and mowing or herbicides is needed to suppress the mulch.

Partial Cultivation as a Mulch Suppressant
Partial or "trashy" cultivation for supression of a white
clover living mulch in sweet corn was investigated by
Grubinger and Minotti (1990). The entire mulch strip was
rototilled, allowing a narrow strip of undisturbed clover
roots to pass between the tiller tines. Mulch stoloniferous
regrowth was extensive but recovery two months after
rototilling was still significantly less vigorous than mowed
or unsuppressed clover. Rototilled clover recovered
completely by the following spring.
A major advantage to partial cultivation appears to be an
appreciable transfer of nitrigen from the clover to the cash
crop. Grubinger measured 56 kg N/ha incorporated into the
soil in clover residue from the combination of creation of a
planting strip and later partial cultivation. Because most of
the clover was dessicated by cultivation, roots and nodules
probably provided a significant release of nitrogen. Partial
cultivation not only released a large portion of the clover
nitrogen, but the extensive suppression of the living mulch
reduced its ability to compete for nitrogen.


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