Unit I

DATA NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS

Network hierarchy
The diagram above organizes the content of the web pages according to the OSI reference model. Each box in the
diagram may be clicked to go to a page which introduces the appropriate section of the course.
The OSI Reference Model
The OSI reference model specifies standards for describing Open Systems Interconnection with the term !open! chosen
to emphasize the fact that by using these international standards" a system may be defined which is open to all other
systems obeying the same standards throughout the world. The definition of a common technical language has been a
ma#or catalyst to the standardization of communications protocols and the functions of a protocol layer.
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The seven layers of the OSI reference model showing a connection between two end systems communicating using one
intermediate system.
The structure of the OSI architecture is given in the figure above" which indicates the protocols used to exchange data
between two users $ and %. The figure shows bidirectional &duplex' information flow( information in either direction
passes through all seven layers at the end points. )hen the communication is via a network of intermediate systems" only
the lower three layers of the OSI protocols are used in the intermediate systems.
Serice! "roided #y each $rotocol Layer
The OSI layers may be summarized by*
+. $hy!ical layer% ,rovides electrical" functional" and procedural characteristics to activate" maintain" and
deactivate physical links that transparently send the bit stream( only recognizes individual bits" not characters or
multi character frames.
-. Data link layer* ,rovides functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and
&possibly' correct transmission errors( provides for activation" maintenance" and deactivation of data link
connections" grouping of bits into characters and message frames" character and frame synchronization" error
control" media access control" and flow control &examples include ./01 and Ethernet'
2. Network layer * ,rovides independence from data transfer technology and relaying and routing considerations(
masks peculiarities of data transfer medium from higher layers and provides switching and routing functions to
establish" maintain" and terminate network layer connections and transfer data between users.
3. Tran!"ort layer* ,rovides transparent transfer of data between systems" relieving upper layers from concern
with providing reliable and cost effective data transfer( provides end4to4end control and information interchange
with 5uality of service needed by the application program( first true end4to4end layer.
6. Se!!ion layer* ,rovides mechanisms for organizing and structuring dialogues between application processes(
mechanisms allow for two4way simultaneous or two4way alternate operation" establishment of ma#or and minor
synchronization points" and techni5ues for structuring data exchanges.
7. $re!entation layer* ,rovides independence to application processes from differences in data representation"
which is" in syntax( syntax selection and conversion provided by allowing the user to select a presentation
context with conversion between alternative contexts.
8. A""lication layer* 1oncerned with the re5uirements of application. $ll application processes use the service
elements provided by the application layer. The elements include library routines which perform inter process
communication" provide common procedures for constructing application protocols and for accessing the
services provided by servers which reside on the network.
The communications engineer is concerned mainly with the protocols operating at the bottom four layers &physical" data
link" network" and transport' in the OSI reference model. These layers provide the basic communications service. The
layers above are primarily the concern of computer scientists who wish to build distributed applications programs using
the services provided by the network.
&'o"(#y('o"& &Network(wide& and &End(to(End& )o**+nication
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The two lowest layers operate between ad#acent systems connected via the physical link and are said to work ho" #y
ho". The protocol control information is removed after each hop across a link &i.e. by each System' and a suitable new
header added each time the information is sent on a subse5uent hop.
The network layer &layer 2' operates &network(wide& and is present in all systems and responsible for overall co4
ordination of all systems along the communications path.
The layers above layer 2 operate end to end& and are only used in the End Systems &ES' which are communicating. The
0ayer 3 4 8 protocol control information is therefore unchanged by the IS in the network and is delivered to the
corresponding ES in its original form. 0ayers 348 &if present' in Intermediate Systems &IS' play no part in the end4to4end
communication.
Medi+* Acce!! )ontrol ,MA)-
The 9edium $ccess 1ontrol &9$1' protocol is used to provide the data link layer of the Ethernet 0$: system. The
9$1 protocol encapsulates a S/; &payload data' by adding a +3 byte header &,rotocol 1ontrol Information &,1I''
before the data and appending an integrity checksum" The checksum is a 34byte &2-4bit' 1yclic <edundancy 1heck
&1<1' after the data. The entire frame is preceded by a small idle period &the minimum inter4frame gap" =.7 microsecond
&>S'' and a ? byte preamble &including the start of frame delimiter'.
$rea*#le
The purpose of the idle time before transmission starts is to allow a small time interval for the receiver electronics in
each of the nodes to settle after completion of the previous frame. $ node starts transmission by sending an ? byte &73
bit' preamble se5uence. This consists of 7- alternating +!s and @!s followed by the pattern ++. Strictly speaking the last
byte which finished with the !++! is known as the Start of Arame /elimiter. )hen encoded using 9anchester encoding"
at +@ 9bps" the 7- alternating bits produce a +@ 9.z s5uare wave &one complete cycle each bit period'.
The purpose of the preamble is to allow time for the receiver in each node to achieve lock of the receiver /igital ,hase
0ock 0oop which is used to synchronise the receive data clock to the transmit data clock. $t the point when the first bit
of the preamble is received" each receiver may be in an arbitrary state &i.e. have an arbitrary phase for its local clock'.
/uring the course of the preamble it learns the correct phase" but in so doing it may miss &or gain' a number of bits. $
special pattern &++'" is therefore used to mark the last two bits of the preamble. )hen this is received" the Ethernet
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receive interface starts collecting the bits into bytes for processing by the 9$1 layer. It also confirms the polarity of the
transition representing a !+! bit to the receiver &as a check in case this has been inverted'.
'eader
9$1 encapsulation of a packet of data
The header consists of three parts*
$ 74byte destination address" which specifies either a single recipient node &unicast mode'" a group of recipient
nodes &multicast mode'" or the set of all recipient nodes &broadcast mode'.
$ 74byte source address" which is set to the sender!s globally uni5ue node address. This may be used by the
network layer protocol to identify the sender" but usually other mechanisms are used &e.g. arp'. Its main function
is to allow address learning which may be used to configure the filter tables in a bridge.
$ -4byte type field" which provides a Service $ccess ,oint &S$,' to identify the type of protocol being carried
&e.g. the values @x@?@@ is used to identify the I, network protocol" other values are used to indicate other
network layer protocols'. In the case of IEEE ?@-.2 001" this may also be used to indicate the length of the data
part. Th type field is also be used to indicate when a Tag field is added to a frame.
)R)
The final field in an Ethernet 9$1 frame is called a 1yclic <edundancy 1heck &sometimes also known as a Arame
1heck Se5uence'. $ 2-4bit 1<1 provides error detection in the case where line errors &or transmission collisions in
Ethernet' result in corruption of the 9$1 frame. $ny frame with an invalid 1<1 is discarded by the 9$1 receiver
without further processing. The 9$1 protocol does not provide any indication that a frame has been discarded due to an
invalid 1<1.
The link layer 1<1 therefore protects the frame from corruption while being transmitted over the physical mediuym
&cable'. $ new 1<1 is added if the packet is forwarded by the router on another Ethernet link. )hile the packet is being
processed by the router the packet data is not protected by the 1<1. <outer processing errors must be detected by
network or transport4layer checksums.
Inter Fra*e .a"
$fter transmission of each frame" a transmitter must wait for a period of =.7 microseconds &at +@ 9bps' to allow the
signal to propagate through the receiver electronics at the destination. This period of time is known as the Inter4Arame
Bap &IAB'. )hile every transmitter must wait for this time between sending frames" receivers do not necessarily see a
silent period of =.7 microseconds. The way in which repeaters operate is such that they may reduce the IAB between
the frames which they regenerate.
/yte Order
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It is important to realise that nearly all serial communications systems transmit the least significant bit of each byte first
at the physical layer. Ethernet supports broadcast" unicast" and multicast addresses. The appearance of a multicast address
on the cable &in this case an I, multicast address" with group set to the bit pattern @xxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx' is
therefore as shown below &bits transmitted from left to right'*
@ -2 I, 9ulticast $ddress Broup 38
C C D444444444444444444444444444EC
+@@@ @@@@ @@@@ @@@@ @+++ +@+@ xxxx xxx@ xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
C C
9ulticast %it @ F Internet 9ulticast
+ F $ssigned for other uses
.owever" when the same frame is stored in the memory of a computer" the bits are ordered such that the least significant
bit of each byte is stored in the right most position &the bits are transmitted right4to4left within bytes" bytes transmitted
left4to4right'*
@ -2 38
C C C
@@@@ @@@+ @@@@ @@@@ @+@+ +++@ @xxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
C D444444444444444444444444444E
9ulticast %it I, 9ulticast $ddress Broup
)SMA 0)D
The 1arrier Sense 9ultiple $ccess &1S9$' with 1ollision /etection &1/' protocol is used to control access to the
shared Ethernet medium. $ switched network &e.g. Aast Ethernet' may use a full duplex mode giving access to the full
link speed when used between directly connected :I1s" Switch to :I1 cables" or Switch to Switch cables.
Receier $roce!!in1 Al1orith*
R+nt Fra*e
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$ny frame which is received and which is less than 73 bytes is illegal" and is called a runt. In most cases" such frames
arise from a collision" and while they indicate an illegal reception" they may be observed on correctly functioning
networks. $ receiver must discard all runt frames.
.iant Fra*e
$ny frame which is received and which is greater than the maximum frame size" is called a giant. In theory" the #abber
control circuit in the transceiver should prevent any node from generating such a frame" but certain failures in the
physical layer may also give rise to over4sized Ethernet frames. 0ike runts" giants are discarded by an Ethernet receiver.
2+*#o Fra*e
Some modern Bigabit Ethernet :I1s support frames that are larger than the traditional +6@@ bytes specified by the IEEE.
This new mode re5uires support by both ends of the link to support Gumbo Arames. ,ath 9T; /iscovery is re5uired for
a router to utilise this feature" since there is no other way for a router to determine that all systems on the end4to4end path
will support these larger sized frames.
A Mi!ali1ned Fra*e
$ny frame which does not contain an integral number of received bytes &bytes' is also illegal. $ receiver has no way of
knowing which bits are legal" and how to compute the 1<142- of the frame. Such frames are therefore also discarded by
the Ethernet receiver.
Other I!!+e!
The Ethernet standard dictates a minimum size of frame" which re5uires at least 37 bytes of data to be present in every
9$1 frame. If the network layer wishes to send less than 37 bytes of data the 9$1 protocol adds sufficient number of
zero bytes &@x@@" is also known as null padding characters' to satisfy this re5uirement. The maximum size of data which
may be carried in a 9$1 frame using Ethernet is +6@@ bytes &this is known as the 9T; in I,'.
$ protocol known as the $ddress <esolution ,rotocol &arp' is used to identify the 9$1 source address of remote
computers when I, is used over an Ethernet 0$:.
E3ce"tion to the R+le
$n extension to Ethernet" known as IEEE ?@-.+p allows for frames to carry a tag. The tag value adds an extra level of
,1I to the Ethernet frame header. This increases the size of the total 9$1 frame when the tag is used. $ side effect of
this is that :I1s and network devices designed to support this extension re5uire a modification to the #abber detection
circuit.
Token $a!!in1
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In the access method known as token passing" a special type of packet" called a token" circulates around a cable ring from
computer to computer. )hen any computer on the ring needs to send data across the network" it must wait for a free
token. )hen a free token is detected" the computer will take control of it if the computer has data to send.
The computer can now transmit data. /ata is transmitted in frames" and additional information" such as addressing" is
attached to the frame in the form of headers and trailers. 0et!s talk more about these later. Aor now" only the computer
that has the token can transmit on the network.
)hile the token is in use by this one computer other computers cannot send data. %ecause only one computer at a time
can use the token" no contention and no collision take place" and no time is spent waiting for computers to resend tokens
due to network traffic on the cable
The token passing access method is a non4contention method that works very differently from the contention methods
previously discussed. Token passing is a more orderly way for a network to conduct its business. $ signal called a token
goes from one computer to the next. In a Token <ing network" the token goes around the ring( in a token bus network" it
goes down the line of the bus. If a computer has data to transmit" it must wait until the token reaches it( then that
computer can capture the token and transmit data.
'i1h Leel Link )ontrol ,'DL)- $rotocol
The ./01 protocol is a general purpose protocol which operates at the data link layer of the OSI reference model. The
protocol uses the services of a physical layer" and provides either a best effort or reliable communications path between
the transmitter and receiver &i.e. with acknowledged data transfer'. The type of service provided depends upon the ./01
mode which is used.
Each piece of data is encapsulated in an ./01 frame by adding a trailer and a header. The header contains an ./01
address and an ./01 control field. The trailer is found at the end of the frame" and contains a 1yclic <edundancy 1heck
&1<1' which detects any errors which may occur during transmission. The frames are separated by ./01 flag
se5uences which are transmitted between each frame and whenever there is no data to be transmitted.
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./01 Arame Structure showing flags" header &address and control'" data and trailer &1<14+7'.
'DL) ,'i1h Leel Data Link $rotocol- has been defined by the International Standards Organization for use on both
multipoint and point4to4point links. ./01 is a bit4oriented protocol. It is a predecessor to the local area network datalink
protocols. The two most common modes of operation for ./01 are*
H Un#alanced nor*al re!"on!e *ode ,NRM-. This is used with only one primary &or master' station initiating all
transactions.
H A!ynchrono+! #alanced *ode ,A/M-. In this mode each node has e5ual status and can act as either a primary or
secondary node.
Fra*eFor*at
The standard format is indicated Aigure. The three different classes of frames used are as follows*
Unn+*#ered fra*e!% ;sed for setting up the link or connection and to define whether :<9 or $%9 is to be used.
They are called unnumbered frames because no se5uence numbers are included.
Infor*ation fra*e!% ;sed to convey the actual data from one node to another.
S+"eri!ory fra*e!% ;sed for flow control and error control purposes. They indicate whether the secondary station is
available to receive the information frames( they are also used to acknowledge the frames. There are two forms of error
control used* a selective re4transmission procedure because of an error" or a re5uest to
transmit a number of previous frames.
Fra*e )ontent%
The frame contents are as follows*
H The flag character is a byte with the value @++++++@. To ensure that the receiver always knows that the character it
receives is uni5ue &rather than merely some other character in the se5uence'( a procedure called zero
insertion is adopted. This re5uires the transmitter to insert a @ after a se5uence of five +s in the text" so that the flag
character can never appear in the message text. The receiver removes the inserted zeros.
H The frame check se5uence &A1S' uses the 1<1411ITT methodology" with sixteen +s to the tail of the message before
the 1<1 calculation proceeds" and the remainder is inverted.
H The address field can contain one of three types of address for the re5uest or response messages to or from the
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secondary node*
I Standard secondary address
I Broup addresses for groups of nodes on the network
I %roadcast addresses for all nodes on the network &here the address contains all +s'
H )here there are a large number of secondaries on the network" the address field can be extended beyond eight bits by
encoding the least significant bit as a +. This then indicates that there is another byte to follow in the address field.
H The control field is indicated in Aigure
$rotocol O"eration%
$ typical se5uence of operations for a multidrop link is given below*
+ The primary node sends a :ormal <esponse 9ode frame" with the ,JA bit set to +" together with the address of the
secondary node.
- The secondary node responds with an unnumbered acknowledgment with the ,JA bit set to +. If the receiving node is
unable to accept the setup command" a disconnected mode frame is returned instead.
2 /ata is transferred with the information frames.
3 The primary node sends an unnumbered frame containing a disconnect in the control field.
6 The secondary node responds with an unnumbered acknowledgment. $ similar approach is followed for a point4to4
point link using asynchronous balanced mode" except that both nodes can initiate the setting up of the link and the
transfer of information frames" and the clearing of the point4to4point link. The following differences also apply*
H )hen the secondary node transfers the data" it transmits the data as a se5uence of information frames with the ,JA bit
set to + in the final frame of the se5uence.
H In :<9 mode" if the secondary node has no further data to transfer" it responds with a <eceiver :ot <eady frame with
the ,JA bit set to +.
Error 4 Flow )ontrol% Aor a half duplex exchange of information frames" error control is by means of se5uence
numbers. Each end maintains a transmit se5uence number and a receive se5uence number. )hen a node successfully
receives a frame" it responds with a supervisory frame containing a receiver ready &<<' indication and a receive
se5uence number. The number is that of the next frame expected" thus acknowledging all previous frames.
If the receiving node responds with a negative acknowledgment &<EG' frame" the transmitter must transmit all frames
from the receive se5uence number in the <EG frame. This happens when the receiver detects an out4of4se5uence frame. It
is also possible for selective retransmission to be used. In this case the receiver would return a selection re#ection frame
containing only the se5uence number of the missing frame.
$ slightly more complex approach is re5uired for a point4to4point link using asynchronous balanced mode with full
duplex operation" where information frames are transmitted in two directions at the same time. The same philosophy is
followed as for half duplex operation except that checks for correct se5uences of frame numbers must be maintained at
both ends of the link.
Alow control operates on the principle that the maximum number of information frames awaiting acknowledgment at any
time is seven. If seven acknowledgments are outstanding" the transmitting node will suspend transmission until an
acknowledgment is received. This can be either in the form of a receiver ready supervisory frame" or piggybacked in an
information frame being returned from the receiver.
If the se5uence numbers at both ends of the link become so out of se5uence that the number of frames awaiting
acknowledgment exceeds seven" the secondary node transmits a frame re#ect or a command re#ect frame to the primary
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node. The primary node then sets up the link again" and on an acknowledgment from the secondary node" both sides
reset all the se5uence numbers and commence the transfer of information frames.
It is possible for the receiver to run out of buffer space to store messages. )hen this happens it will transmit a receiver
not ready &<:<' supervisory frame to the primary node to instruct it to stop sending any more information frames.
)arrier Sen!e M+lti"le Acce!! with )olli!ion Detection ,)SMA0)D-
The Ethernet network may be used to provide shared access by a group of attached nodes to the physical medium which
connects the nodes. These nodes are said to form a 1ollision /omain. $ll frames sent on the medium are physically
received by all receivers" however the 9edium $ccess 1ontrol &9$1' header contains a 9$1 destination address which
ensure only the specified destination actually forwards the received frame &the other computers all discard the frames
which are not addressed to them'.
1onsider a 0$: with four computers each with a :etwork Interface 1ard &:I1' connected by a common Ethernet cable*
One computer &%lue' uses a :I1 to send a frame to the shared medium" which has a destination address corresponding to
the source address of the :I1 in the red computer.
The cable propagates the signal in both directions" so that the signal &eventually' reaches the :I1s in all four of the
computers. Termination resistors at the ends of the cable absorb the frame energy" preventing reflection of the signal back
along the cable.
$ll the :I1s receive the frame and each examines it to check its length and checksum. The header destination 9$1
address is next examined" to see if the frame should be accepted" and forwarded to the network4layer software in the
computer.
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Only the :I1 in the red computer recognises the frame destination address as valid" and therefore this :I1 alone
forwards the contents of the frame to the network layer. The :I1s in the other computers discard the unwanted frame.
The shared cable allows any :I1 to send whenever it wishes" but if two :I1s happen to transmit at the same time" a
collision will occur" resulting in the data being corrupted.
ALO'A 4 )olli!ion!
To control which :I1s are allowed to transmit at any given time" a protocol is re5uired. The simplest protocol is known
as $0O.$ &this is actually an .awaiian word" meaning hello'. $0O.$ allows any :I1 to transmit at any time" but
states that each :I1 must add a checksumJ1<1 at the end of its transmission to allow the receiver&s' to identify whether
the frame was correctly received.
$0O.$ is therefore a best effort service" and does not guarantee that the frame of data will actually reach the remote
recipient without corruption. It therefore relies on $<K protocols to retransmit any data which is corrupted. $n $0O.$
network only works well when the medium has a low utilisation" since this leads to a low probability of the transmission
colliding with that of another computer" and hence a reasonable chance that the data is not corrupted.
)arrier Sen!e M+lti"le Acce!! ,)SMA-
Ethernet uses a refinement of $0O.$" known as 1arrier Sense 9ultiple $ccess &1S9$'" which improves performance
when there is a higher medium utilisation. )hen a :I1 has data to transmit" the :I1 fir!t listens to the cable &using a
transceiver' to see if a carrier &signal' is being transmitted by another node. This may be achieved by monitoring whether
a current is flowing in the cable &each bit corresponds to +?4-@ milli$mps &m$''. The individual bits are sent by
encoding them with a +@ &or +@@ 9.z for Aast Ethernet' clock using 9anchester encoding. /ata is only sent when no
carrier is observed &i.e. no current present' and the physical medium is therefore idle. $ny :I1 which does not need to
transmit" listens to see if other :I1s have started to transmit information to it.
.owever" this alone is unable to prevent two :I1s transmitting at the same time. If two :I1s simultaneously try
transmit" then both could see an idle physical medium &i.e. neither will see the other!s carrier signal'" and both will
conclude that no other :I1 is currently using the medium. In this case" both will then decide to transmit and a collision
will occur. The collision will result in the corruption of the frame being sent" which will subse5uently be discarded by the
receiver since a corrupted Ethernet frame will &with a very high probability' not have a valid 2-4bit 9$1 1<1 at the
end.
)olli!ion Detection ,)D-
$ second element to the Ethernet access protocol is used to detect when a collision occurs. )hen there is data waiting to
be sent" each transmitting :I1 also monitors its own transmission. If it observes a collision &excess current above what it
is generating" i.e. E -3 m$ for coaxial Ethernet'" it stops transmission immediately and instead transmits a 2-4bit #am
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se5uence. The purpose of this se5uence is to ensure that any other node which may currently be receiving this frame will
receive the #am signal in place of the correct 2-4bit 9$1 1<1" this causes the other receivers to discard the frame due to
a 1<1 error.
To ensure that all :I1s start to receive a frame before the transmitting :I1 has finished sending it" Ethernet defines a
minimum frame size &i.e. no frame may have less than 37 bytes of payload'. The minimum frame size is related to the
distance which the network spans" the type of media being used and the number of repeaters which the signal may have
to pass through to reach the furthest part of the 0$:. Together these define a value known as the Ethernet Slot Time"
corresponding to 6+- bit times at +@ 9bps.
)hen two or more transmitting :I1s each detect a corruption of their own data &i.e. a collision'" each responds in the
same way by transmitting the #am se5uence. The following se5uence depicts a collision*
$t time tF@" a frame is sent on the idle medium by :I1 $.
$ short time later" :I1 % also transmits. &In this case" the medium" as observed by the :I1 at % happens to be idle too'.
$fter a period" e5ual to the propagation delay of the network" the :I1 at % detects the other transmission from $" and is
aware of a collision" but :I1 $ has not yet observed that :I1 % was also transmitting. % continues to transmit" sending
the Ethernet Gam se5uence &2- bits'.
$fter one complete round trip propagation time &twice the one way propagation delay'" both :I1s are aware of the
collision. % will shortly cease transmission of the Gam Se5uence" however $ will continue to transmit a complete Gam
Se5uence. Ainally the cable becomes idle.
Retran!*i!!ion /ack(Off
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$n overview of the transmit procedure is shown below. The transmitter initialises the number of transmissions of the
current frame &n' to zero" and starts listening to the cable &using the carrier sense logic &1S' 4 e.g." by observing the <x
signal at transceiver to see if any bits are being sent'. If the cable is not idle" it waits &defers' until the cable is idle. It then
waits for a small Inter4Arame Bap &IAB' &e.g." =.7 microseconds' to allow to time for all receiving nodes to return to
prepare themselves for the next transmission.
Transmission then starts with the preamble" followed by the frame data and finally the 1<142-. $fter this time" the
transceiver Tx logic is turned off and the transceiver returns to passively monitoring the cable for other transmissions.
/uring this process" a transmitter must also continuoulsy monitor the collision detection logic &1/' in the transceiver to
detect if a collision ocurs. If it does" the transmitter aborts the transmission &stops sending bits' within a few bit periods"
and starts the collision procedure" by sending a Gam Signal to the transceiver Tx logic. It then calculates a retransmission
time.
If all :I1s attempted to retransmit immediately following a collision" then this would certainly result in another
collision. Therefore a procedure is re5uired to ensure that there is only a low probability of simultaneous retransmission.
The scheme adopted by Ethernet uses a random back4off period" where each node selects a random number" multiplies
this by the slot time &minimum frame period" 6+.- >S' and waits for this random period before attempting retransmission.
The small Inter4Arame Bap &IAB' &e.g." =.7 microseconds' is also added.
On a busy network" a retransmission may still collide with another retransmission &or possibly new frames being sent for
the first time by another :I1'. The protocol therefore counts the number of retransmission attempts &using a variable :
in the above figure' and attempts to retransmit the same frame up to +6 times.
Aor each retransmission" the transmitter constructs a set of numbers*
L@" +" -" 2" 3" 6" ... 0M where 0 is &N- to the power &O'P4+' and where OF:( ODF +@(
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$ random value < is picked from this set" and the transmitter waits &defers' for a period
< x &slot time' i.e. < x 6+.- 9icro Seconds
Aor example" after two collisions" :F-" therefore OF-" and the set is L@" +" -" 2M giving a one in four chance of collision.
This corresponds to a wait selected from L@" 6+.-" +@-.3" +62.7M micro seconds.
$fter 2 collisions" : F 2" and the set is L@" +" -" 2" 3" 6" 7" 8M" that is a one in eight chance of collision.
%ut after 3 collisions" :F3" the set becomes L@" +" -" 2" 3" 6" 7" 8" ?" =" +@" ++" +-" +2" +3" +6M" that is a one in +7 chance
of collision.
The scaling is performed by multiplication and is known as exponential back4off. This is what lets 1S9$J1/ scale to
large numbers of :I1s 4 even when collisions may occur. The first ten times" the back4off waiting time for the transmitter
suffering collision is scaled to a larger value. The algorithm includes a threshold of +@-3. The reasoning is that the more
attempts that are re5uired" the more greater the number of :I1s which are trying to send at the same time" and therefore
the longer the period which needs to be deferred. Since a set of numbers L@"+"..."+@-2M is a large set of numbers" there is
very little advantage from further increasing the set size.
Each transmitter also limits the maximum number of retransmissions of a single frame to +7 attempts &:F+6'. $fter this
number of attempts" the transmitter gives up transmission and discards the frame" logging an error. In practice" a network
that is not overloaded should never discard frames in this way.
Late )olli!ion!
In a proper functioning Ethernet network" a :I1 may experience collision within the first slot time after it starts
transmission. This is the reason why an Ethernet :I1 monitors the 1/ signal during this time and use 1S9$J1/. $
faulty 1/ circuit" or misbehaving :I1 or transceiver may lead to a late collision &i.e. after one slot time'. 9ost Ethernet
:I1s therefore continue to monitor the 1/ signal during the entire transmission. If they observe a late collision" they will
normally inform the sender of the error condition.
$erfor*ance of )SMA 0 )D
14
It is simple to calculate the performance of a 1S9$J1/ network where only one node attempts to transmit at any time.
In this case" the :I1 may saturate the medium and near +@@Q utilisation of the link may be achieved" providing almost
+@ 9bps of throughput on a +@ 9bps 0$:.
.owever" when two or more :I1s attempt to transmit at the same time" the performance of Ethernet is less predictable.
The fall in utilisation and throughput occurs because some bandwidth is wasted by collisions and back4off delays. In
practice" a busy shared +@ 9bps Ethernet network will typically supply -43 9bps of throughput to the :I1s connected to
it.
$s the level of utilisation of the network increases" particularly if there are many :I1s competing to share the
bandwidth" an overload condition may occur. In this case" the throughput of Ethernet 0$:s reduces very considerably"
and much of the capacity is wasted by the 1S9$J1/ algorithm" and very little is available for sending useful data. This
is the reason why a shared Ethernet 0$: should not connect more than +@-3 computers. 9any engineers use a threshold
of 3@Q ;tilisation to determine if a 0$: is overloaded. $ 0$: with a higher utilisation will observe a high collision
rate" and likely a very variable transmission time &due to back off'. Separating the 0$: in to two or more collision
domains using bridges or switches would likely provide a significant benefit &assuming appropriate positioning of the
bridges or switches'.
Shared networks may also be constructed using Aast Ethernet" operating at +@@ 9bps. Since Aast Ethernet always uses
fibre or twisted pair" a hub or switch is always re5uired.
Ethernet )a"t+re
$ drawback of sharing a medium using 1S9$J1/" is that the sharing is not necessarily fair. )hen each computer
connected to the 0$: has little data to send" the network exhibits almost e5ual access time for each :I1. .owever" if
one :I1 starts sending an excessive number of frames" it may dominate the 0$:. Such conditions may occur" for
instance" when one :I1 in a 0$: acts as a source of high 5uality packetised video. The effect is known as Ethernet
1apture.
Ethernet 1apture by :ode $.
The figure above illustrates Ethernet 1apture. 1omputer $ dominates computer %. Originally both computers have data
to transmit. $ transmits first. $ and % then both simultaneously try to transmit. % picks a larger retransmission interval
than $ &shown in red' and defers. $ sends" then sends again. There is a short pause" and then both $ and % attempt to
resume transmission. $ and % both back4off" however" since % was already in back4off &it failed to retransmit'" it chooses
15
from a larger range of back4off times &using the exponential back4off algorithm'. $ is therefore more likely to succeed"
which it does in the example. The next pause in transmission" $ and % both attempt to send" however" since this fails in
this case" % further increases its back4off and is now unable to fairly compete with $.
Ethernet 1apture may also arise when many sources compete with one source which has much more data to send. ;nder
these situations some nodes may be locked out of using the medium for a period of time. The use of higher speed
transmission &e.g. +@@ 9bps' significantly reduces the probability of 1apture" and the use full duplex cabling eliminates
the effect.
The Internetwork $rotocol ,I$-
The I, &Internet ,rotocol' is a protocol that uses datagrams to communicate over a packet4switched network. The I,
protocol operates at the network layer protocol of the OSI reference model and is a part of a suite of protocols known as
T1,JI,. Today" with over +.6 billion users worldwide" the current Internet is a great success in terms of connecting
people and communities. Even though the current Internet continues to work and is capable of fulfilling its current
missions" it also suffers from a relative RSTossificationRS " a condition where technological innovation meets natural
resistance" as exemplified by the current lack of wide deployment of technologies such as multicast or Internet ,rotocol
version 7 &I,v7'.
The Internetwork ,rotocol &I,' N<A18=+P provides a best effort network layer service for connecting computers to form a
computer network. Each computer is identified by one or more gloablly uni5ue I, addresses. The network layer ,/;s
are known as either packets or datagrams. Each packet carries the I, address of the sending computer and also the
address of the intended recipient or recipients of the packet. Other management information is also carried.
The I, network service transmits datagrams between intermediate nodes using I, routers. The routers themselves are
simple" since no information is stored concerning the datagrams which are forwarded on a link. The most complex part of
an I, router is concerned with determining the optimum link to use to reach each destination in a network. This process is
known as routing. $lthough this process is computationally intensive" it is only performed at periodic intervals.
$n I, network normally uses a dynamic routing protocol to find alternate routes whenever a link becomes unavailable.
This provides considerable robustness from the failure of either links or routers" but does not guarentee reliable delivery.
Some applications are happy with this basic service and use a simple transport protocol known as the ;ser /atagram
,rotocol &;/,' to access this best effort service.
9ost Internet users need additional functions such as end4to4end error and se5uence control to give a reliable service
&e5uivalent to that provided by virtual circuits'. This reliability is provided by the Transmission 1ontrol ,rotocol &T1,'
which is used end4to4end across the Internet.
In a 0$: environment" the protocol is normally carried by Ethernet" but for long distance links" other link protocols
using fibre optic links are usually used. Other protocols associated with the I, network layer are the Internet 1ontrol
9essage ,rotocol &I19,' and the $ddress <esolution ,rotocol &arp'.
I$ the Ne3t .eneration5 I$6
The I,v3 protocol although widely used" is slowly being superceded by I,v7 N<A1-37@P" a next4generation network4
layer protocol. I,v7 is now widely implemented" and deployed in many networks.
16
The gradual transition from I,v3 towards ma#ority I,v7 deployment will take many years and I,v3 may never itself be
phased out completely. In the meantime the two protocols can co4exist and be used together in various ways. I,v7 will
ultimately succeed the current version" I,v3" to become the dominant version of I, used in the Internet. I,v7 changes
many things" one of the most obvious from the Ethernet perspective is that it uses a different Ether4Types and uses the
:eighbor4/iscovery &:/' protocol in place of $<,.
Unit II
INTER NETWORKIN.
Network )la!!ification
Ty"e! of Network!
17
Network 'ardware )o*"onenet!
Ethernet /rid1e! 4 Switche!
$ bridge is a 0$: interconnection device which operates at the data link layer &layer -' of the OSI reference model. It
may be used to #oin two 0$: segments &$"%'" constructing a larger 0$:. $ bridge is able to filter traffic passing
between the two 0$:s and may enforce a security policy separating different work groups located on each of the 0$:s.
%ridges were first specified in IEEE ?@-.+/ &+==@' and later by ISO &in +==2'.
18
The format of ,/;s at this layer in an Ethernet 0$: is defined by the Ethernet frame format &also known as 9$1 4
9edium $ccess 1ontrol'. It consists of two 7 byte addresses and a one byte protocol I/ J length field. The address field
allows a frame to be sent to single and groups of stations. The 9$1 protocol is responsible for access to the medium and
for the diagnosis of failure in either the medium or the transceiver which attaches to the medium.
O"eration of a /rid1e
The simplest type of bridge" and that most fre5uently used is the Transparent %ridge &meaning that the nodes using a
bridge are unaware of its presence'. The bridge therefore has to forward &receive and subse5uently transmit' frames from
one 0$: &e.g. 0$: $ below' to another &e.g. 0$: %'. Obviously" the bridge could forward all frames" but then it would
behave rather like a repeater( it would be much smarter if the bridge only forwarded frames which need to travel from
one 0$: to another. To do this" the bridge need to learn which computers are connected to which 0$:s. 9ore formally"
it need to learn whether to forward to each address.
$ bridge connecting two 0$: segments &$ and %'.
To learn which addresses are in use" and which ports &interfaces on the bridge' theory are closest to" the bridge observes
the headers of received Ethernet frames. %y examining the 9$1 source address of each received frame" and recording
the port on which it was received" the bridge may learn which addresses belong to the computers connected via each port.
This is called learning. In the figure above" consider three computers U"V"W. $ssume each sends frames to the other
computers. The source addresses U"V are observed to be on network $" while the address of computer W will be observed
to be on network %.
$ bridge stores the hardware addresses observed from frames received by each interface and uses this information to
learn which frames need to be forwarded by the bridge.
The learned addresses are stored in the an interface address table associated with each port &interface'. Once this table
has been setup" the bridge examines the destination address of all received frames" it then scans the interface tables to see
if a frame has been received from the same address &i.e. a packet with a source address matching the current destination
address'. Three possibilities exist*
19
+. If the address is not found" no frames have been received from the source. The source may not exist" or it may
not have sent any frames using this address. &The address may also have been deleted by the bridge because the
bridge software was recently restarted" ran short of address entries in the interface table" or deleted the address
because it was too old'. Since the bridge does not know which port to use to forward the frame" it will send it to
all output ports" except that on which it was received. &It is clearly unnecessary to send it back to the same cable
segment from which it was received" since any other computerJbridges on this cable must already have received
the packet.' This is called flooding.
-. If the address is found in an interface table and the address is associated with the port on which it was received"
the frame is discarded. &It must already have been received by the destination.'
2. If the address is found in an interface table and the address is not associated with the port on which it was
received" the bridge forwards the frame to the port associated with the address.
,ackets with a source of U and destination of V are received and discarded" since the computer V is directly connected to
the 0$: $" whereas packets from U with a destination of W are forwarded to network % by the bridge.
/roadca!t and M+ltica!t
%ridges forward a broadcast frame out of all connected ports except that on which the frame was received. The normal
action for multicast frame is to treat them as broadcast frame. This is clearly suboptimal" since a bridge may send
multicast frames to parts of the network for which there are no interested receivers. Some bridges implement extra
processing to control the flooding of multicast frames.
Mana1in1 the Interface Ta#le!
$ bridge may implement an interface table using a software data structure or use a 1ontents $ddressable 9emory
&1$9' chip. In either case" the size of the table is finite" and usually constrained to +@@@!s 4 +@ @@@!s of entries. In a large
0$: this may be a limit. To help keep the table small" most bridges maintain a check of how recently each address was
used. $ddresses which have not been used for a long period of time &e.g. minutes' are deleted. This has the effect of
removing unused entries" but if the address is again used" before a frame is received from the same source" it will re5uire
the frame to be flooded to all ports.
$ useful side effect of deleting old addresses is that the bridge interface table records only working 9$1 addresses. If a
:I1 stops sending" its address will be deleted from the table. If the :I1 is subse5uently reconnected" the entry will be
restored" but if the connection is made to another port &the cable is changed' a different &updated' entry will be inserted
corresponding to the actual port associated with the address. &The bridge always updates the interface table for each
source address in a received 9$1 frame" therefore even if a computer changes the point at which it is connected without
first having the interface table entry removed" the bridge will still update the table entry'.
Filter Ta#le!
In some managed bridges" a system administrator may override the normal forwarding by inserting entries in a filter table
to inhibit forwarding between different work groups &for example to provide security for a particular set of 9$1
addresses'. The filter table contains a list of source or destination addresses. Arames which match entries in the filter
table will only be forwarded to specific configured ports. This can be used to implement security polcies and also to
constrcut Xirtual 0$:s.
20
M+lti"le $ort /rid1e! ,Switche!-
$ bridge with more than two interfaces &ports' is also known as a switch. There are important differences between
switches and hubs. In particular" the way in which they forward frames.
$ .ub sending a packet form A to 1.
$ hub &or repeater' forwards a received frame out of all the interfaces &ports'" resulting in the frame reaching all
connected e5uipment" even though the frame may be only destined for a system connected to one particular interface &1"
in the above diagram'.
$ switch" on the other hand" forwards the frame to only the re5uired interface. The switch learns the association between
the systems 9$1 addresses and the interface ports in the same way as a bridge &see above'. %y sending the packet only
where it need to go" the switch reduces the number of packets on the other 0$: segments &and hence the load on these
segments'" increasing the overall performance of the connected 0$:s. The switch also improves security" since frames
only travel where they are intended &and can not in this case" for instance" be observed by an unauthorised computer
attached to segment $'.
21
$ Switch sending a packet from A to 1
Switches &like bridges' normally forward all multicast and broadcast packets to all receivers &some switches have extra
processing to help improve performance of multicast forwarding'. 9ore details about this" and the operation of switches
may be found in a related page &see below'.
$ Switch sending a frame from A to a multicast J broadcast address
:ote*
%ridges receive Ethernet frames using a port set in promiscuous mode" and hence see all frames that are sent over the
0$:. the decide whether to forward the frames that they receive based on the Ethernet 9$1 destination address of a
received frame. This results in reduced traffic on other ports" since traffic is only forwarded when it has to be.
)onnectin1 /rid1e! and Switche! To1ether
22
There is a special rule controlling the inetrconnection of bidges and switches &as there is for Ethernet .ubs'. The rule
says simply" that a bridge J switch Jhub 0$: must form a tree" and not a ring. That is" there must be only one "ath
between any two computers. If more than one parallel path were to exist" a loop would be formed" resulting in endless
circulation of frames over the loop. This would soon result in overload of the network. To prevent this happening" the
IEEE &in IEEE ?@-.+/' has defined the Spanning Tree $lgorithm &ST$' which automaticallt detects loops and disables
one of the parallel paths. The Spanning Tree $lgorithm may also be used to build fault4tolerent networks" since if the
chosen path becomes invalid &e.g. due to a cable J bridge J switch fault'" and an alternate path exists" the alternate path is
enabled automatically.
Ro+ter!
$ router is an Intermediate System &IS' which operates at the network layer of the OSI reference model. <outers may be
used to connect two or more I, networks" or an I, network to an internet connection.
$ router consists of a computer with at least two network interface cards supporting the I, protocol. The router receives
packets from each interface via a network interface and forwards the received packets to an appropriate output network
interface. <eceived packets have all link protocol headers removed" and transmitted packets have a new link protocol
header added prior to transmission.
The router uses the information held in the network layer header &i.e. I, header' to decide whether to forward each
received packet" and which network interface to use to send the packet. 9ost packets are forwareded based on the
packet!s I, destination address" along with routing information held within the router in a routing table. %efore a packet is
forwarded" the processor checks the 9aximum Transfer ;nit &9T;' of the specified interface. ,ackets larger than the
interface!s 9T; must be fragmented by the router into two or more smaller packets. If a packet is received which has the
/on!t Aragment &/A' bit set in the packet header" the packet is not fragmented" but instead discarded. In this case" an
I19, error message is returned to the sender &i.e. to the original packet!s I, source address' informing it of the interface!s
9T; size. This forms the basis for ,ath 9T; discovery &,9T;'.
The routing and filter tables resemble similar tables in link layer bridges and switches. Except" that instead of specifying
link hardware addresses &9$1 addresses'" the router table sepcify network &I, addresses'. The routing table lists known
I, destination addresses with the appropraite network interface to be used to reach that destiantion. $ default entry may
be specified to be used for all addresses not explicitly defined in the table &this is very common in routers close to the
edge of the networ" where the default routes packets towards the Internet backbone'.
$ filter table may also be used to ensure that unwanted packets are discarded. The filter may be used to deny access to
particular protocols or to prevent unauthorised access from remote computers by discarding packets to a specified
destination address. <outers at the edge of IS, networks also often perform filtering of the I, source address" as a way to
prevent spoofing of addresses belonging to other networks.
$ router forwards packets from one I, network to another I, network. 0ike other systems" it routes based on the longest4
prefxi match of the I, addresss in the routing table. One exception to this rule is when a router receives an I, packet to a
network broadcast address. In this case" the router will process the packet internally &to see if it needs to respond' and
then discards the packet. Aorwarding broadcast packet can lead to severe storms of packets" and if uncontrolled could
lead to network overload.
23
$ router introduces delay &latency' as it processes the packets it receives. The total delay observed is the sum of many
components including*
Time taken to process the frame by the data link protocol
Time taken to select the correct output link &i.e. filtering and routing'
Kueuing delay at the output link &when the link is busy'
Other activities which consume processor resources &computing routing tables" network management" generation
of logging information'
The router 5ueue of packets waiting to be sent also introduces a potential cause of packet loss. Since the router has a
finite amount of buffer memory to hold the 5ueue" a router which receives packets at too high a rate may experience a
full 5ueue. In this case" the router ahs no other option than to simply discard excess packets. If re5uired" these may later
be retransmitted by a transport protocol.
$rchitecture of a router
<outers are often used to connect together networks which use different types of links &for instance an ./01 or ,,, link
connecting a )$: to a local Ethernet 0$:'. The optimum &and maximum' packet lengths &i.e. the maximum
transmission unit &9T;'' is different for different types of network. $ router may therefore uses I, to provide
segmentation of packets into a suitable size for transmission on a network.
$ssociated protocols perform network error reporting &I19,'" communication between routers &to determine appropriate
routes to each destination' and remote monitoring of the router operation &network management'.
The operation of a simple modern router is described on a separate page. If you want to know how the router actually
works click .E<E.
Re"eater!
<epeaters operate within the physical layer of the OSI reference model and regenerate the signal . <epeaters are used in
0$:s 9$: and )$:s. They may be used to provide more flexibility in design of a network or to extend the distance
over which a signal may travel down a cable. One example of a repeater is an Ethernet .ub.
24
The 7(8(9 r+le
The 64342 rule is important when considering using repeaters &or +@%T hubs' to build a larger 0$:. This rule states that
a single Ethernet 0$: should not have more than*6 :o path between any two end systems &network interface cards or
other e5uipment' may cross more than AIXE Ethernets segments. 3 :o path between any two end systems may cross
more than AO;< Ethernet hubs or repeaters.2 :o more than T.<EE of the five segments on the longest path may be
active segments &i.e. segments with more than two nodes andJor repeater ports'. The remaining two segments must be
point4to4point links.
.ub J Switch J %ridge J <outer
In data communications" a h+# is a place of convergence where data arrives from one or more directions and is
forwarded out in one or more other directions. $ hub usually includes a switch of some kind.
In telecommunications" a !witch is a network device that selects a path or circuit for sending a unit of data to its
next destination.
$ !witch may also include the function of the ro+ter" a device or program that can determine the route and
specifically what ad#acent network point the data should be sent to.
In general" a !witch is a simpler and faster mechanism than a router" which re5uires knowledge about the
network and how to determine the route
In telecommunication networks" a #rid1e is a product that connects a local area network &0$:' to another local
area network that uses the same protocol &for example" Ethernet or token ring'.
On the Internet" a ro+ter is a device or" in some cases" software in a computer" that determines the next network
point to which a concept of packet should be forwarded toward its destination.
The ro+ter is connected to at least two networks and decides which way to send each information packet based
on its current understanding of the state of the networks it is connected to.
$ ro+ter is located at any gateway &where one network meets another'" including each Internet point4of4
presence. $ router is often included as part of a network switch.
Ethernet
H developed by Uerox in +=82I+=86
H standardized as IEEE ?@-.2
H has replaced token ring" A//I and $<1:ET
25
H usually uses twisted pair cable & <G436'
H IEEE :;<=9% Ethernet is the most widely4installed local area network &0$:' protocol. Specified in a standard"
IEEE ?@-.2" Ethernet was originally developed by Uerox and then developed further by Uerox" /E1" and Intel.
$n Ethernet 0$: typically uses coaxial cable or special grades of twisted pair wires.
H >;/ASE(T% The most commonly installed Ethernet systems are called +@%$SE4T and provide transmission
speeds up to +@ 9bitJs. /evices are connected to the cable and compete for access using a 1arrier Sense
9ultiple $ccess with 1ollision /etection &1S9$J1/' protocol.
H >;;/ASE(T or Fa!t Ethernet provides transmission speeds up to +@@ megabits per second and is typically used
for 0$: backbone systems" supporting workstations with +@%$SE4T cards.
H .i1a#it Ethernet provides an even higher level of backbone support at +@@@ megabits per second &+ gigabit or +
billion bits per second'.
$<1net &$ttached <esource 1omputer network'
$<1net is a widely4installed local area network &0$:' technology that uses a token4bus scheme for managing
line sharing among the workstations and other devices connected on the 0$:.
The 0$: server continuously circulates empty message frames on a bus &a line in which every message goes
through every device on the line and a device uses only those with its address'.
BE:E<I1 $<1:ET %O$</
26
BE:E<I1 $<1:ET %O$</
BE:E<I1 $<1:ET %O$</ AE$T;<ES
?@c2+ 1,;
+7 9.W 10O1O
73O <$9
73O A0$S. <O9
? bit IJO port
-67 bytes &available for memory mapped IJO'
+ serial port O< - bit bi4directional IJO port
- bit IJO port &dedicated'
$utomatic reset on power4up
+7 user definable chip selects
Two standard +7 bit counters.
$<1:ET software interface built4in
Airm ware upload feature up to 2=O
Token removal &turn off $<1:ET stop noise'
-.69bitsJs data rate &$<1:ET'
works in high magnetic fields &external power supply needed'
optoisolation between each node.
What i! AR)NET?
$ttached <esource 1omputer :ETwork
Token4,assing 0ocal $rea :etwork &0$:'
Originally -.6 9bps data rate
27
-66 :odes or Stations
Xariable ,acket 0ength
%us or /istributed Star )iring
;nicast or %roadcast 9essages
One to one or one to all
1oaxial" Aiber Optic" Twisted4pair 1abling
Over -@ 9illion Installed :odes
Originally developed by /atapoint 1orporation as an office network
1hip sets available from S9S1
$T$ ?8?.+4+=== 0ocal $rea :etwork* Token %us
Ideally suited for an industrial network
What are AR)NET@! /enefit!?
%road $cceptance
0arge Installed %ase
/eterministic ,erformance
Simple to Install
0ow 1ost per :ode
<obust /esign
9ultiple 1able 9edia Support
9ulti4master 1ommunication
Where i! AR)NET U!ed?
.X$1
9otor /rives
,ower Beneration
/ata $c5uisition and 1ontrol
9anufacturing Information Systems
28
Office $utomation
Shipboard $utomation
,rinting ,ress 1ontrols
Telecommunications
Baming 9achines
Xehicular :avigation
Security Systems
AR)NET $rotocol
Only Aive Simple 1ommands
ITT 4 Invitation to transmit
A%E 4 Aree buffer en5uiry
,$1 4 ,acket
$1O 4 $cknowledgement
:$O 4 :egative acknowledgement
AR)NET $rotocol Feat+re!
/eterministic Token ,assing
,acket Alow 1ontrol
Error /etection
$uto <econfiguration
Xariable ,acket Size
Supports Xarious Transceivers Y 9edia
Supports Xarious Software /rivers
;p to -66 :odes ,er :etwork
Token ,assing 4 Transmitting on the network is only permitted when a node has the token
Every node can transmit once during each token rotation
%enefits*
29
Every node has a guaranteed response time to transmit
/eterministic behavior
$uto4<econfiguration 4 :etwork is automatically reconfigured when a node #oins or leaves the network
Token pass is automatically reconfigured
Typical time -@ 4 2@ ms
Supports live node insertion and deletion
Xariable ,acket Size
Arom + to 6@8 bytes per packet
,acket Alow 1ontrol 4 Transmitter checks receiver to make sure it is ready to receive a packet
<educed software overhead
Increased bandwidth
:o lost packets due to input buffer overruns
Error /etection 4 +7 bit 1<1 checks each packet
1orrupted packets automatically re#ected
Transmitter is aware of the error
<educed software overhead
%etter 1,; utilization
30
Unit III
'ART AND FIELD/US
'ART Oeriew
The ma#ority of smart field devices installed worldwide today are .$<T4enabled. %ut some new in the automation field
may need a refresher on this powerful technology.
Simply put" the .$<T &.ighway $ddressable <emote Transducer' ,rotocol is the global standard for sending and
receiving digital information across analog wires between smart devices and control or monitoring system.
9ore specifically" .$<T is a bi4directional communication protocol that provides data access between intelligent field
instruments and host systems. $ host can be any software application from technician!s hand4held device or laptop to a
plant!s process control" asset management" safety or other system using any control platform.
A DI.ITAL U$.RADE FOR EAISTIN. $LANTS
.$<T technology offers a reliable" long4term solution for plant operators who seek the benefits of intelligent devices
with digital communication I that is included in the ma#ority of the devices being installed. In many cases however"
31
most applications cannot retrofit their existing automation systems with a system that can accept the digital data which is
provided by the .$<T ,rotocol.
%ecause most automation networks in operation today are based on traditional 34-@m$ analog wiring" .$<T technology
serves a critical role because the digital information is simultaneously communicated with the 34-@m$ signal. )ithout it"
there would be no digital communication.
A )RITI)AL5 DI.ITAL ROLE
.$<T technology is easy to use and very reliable when used for commissioning and calibration of smart devices as well
as for continuous online diagnostics.
There are several reasons to have a host communicate with smart devices. These include*
/evice 1onfiguration or re4configuration
/evice /iagnostics
/evice Troubleshooting
<eading the additional measurement values provided by the device
/evice .ealth and Status
9uch more* There are many benefits of using .$<T technology" and more users are reporting benefits in their
pro#ects on a continual basis. Aor more information please visit Success Stories
Vears of success using these benefits explain why .$<T technology is the largest of all communication protocols"
installed in more than 2@ million devices worldwide.
If you!ve ever used a land4line telephone and noticed the 1aller I/ display to take note of who is calling" you already
know half of what the .$<T ,rotocol doesZit tells who is calling. In an industrial automation network who is a
microprocessor4based smart field device. In addition to letting such smart field devices phone home" .$<T
1ommunication lets a host system send data to the smart instrument.
.$<T emerged in the late+=?@s based on the same technology that brought 1aller I/ to analog telephony. It has
undergone continued development" up to and including automation products now shipping with built4in )ireless.$<T
1ommunication.
'ow 'ART Work!
[.$<T\ is an acronym for .ighway $ddressable <emote Transducer. The .$<T ,rotocol makes use of the %ell -@-
Are5uency Shift Oeying &ASO' standard to superimpose digital communication signals at a low level on top of the 34
-@m$.
32
Are5uency Shift Oeying &ASO'
This enables two4way field communication to take place and makes it possible for additional information beyond #ust the
normal process variable to be communicated toJfrom a smart field instrument. The .$<T ,rotocol communicates at
+-@@ bps without interrupting the 34-@m$ signal and allows a host application &master' to get two or more digital
updates per second from a smart field device. $s the digital ASO signal is phase continuous" there is no interference with
the 34-@m$ signal.
.$<T technology is a masterJslave protocol" which means that a smart field &slave' device only speaks when spoken to
by a master. The .$<T ,rotocol can be used in various modes such as point4to4point or multidrop for communicating
information toJfrom smart field instruments and central control or monitoring systems.
.$<T 1ommunication occurs between two .$<T4enabled devices" typically a smart field device and a control or
monitoring system. 1ommunication occurs using standard instrumentation grade wire and using standard wiring and
termination practices.
The .$<T ,rotocol provides two simultaneous communication channels* the 34-@m$ analog signal and a digital signal.
The 34-@m$ signal communicates the primary measured value &in the case of a field instrument' using the 34-@m$
current loop 4 the fastest and most reliable industry standard. $dditional device information is communicated using a
digital signal that is superimposed on the analog signal.
The digital signal contains information from the device including device status" diagnostics" additional measured or
calculated values" etc. Together" the two communication channels provide a low4cost and very robust complete field
communication solution that is easy to use and configure.
33
Two 1ommunication 1hannels
The .$<T ,rotocol provides for up to two masters &primary and secondary'. This allows secondary masters such as
handheld communicators to be used without interfering with communications toJfrom the primary master" i.e.
controlJmonitoring system.
,rimary and Secondary 9asters
The .$<T ,rotocol permits all digital communication with field devices in either point4to4point or multidrop network
configurations*
34
M+ltidro" )onfi1+ration
There is also an optional burst communication mode where a single slave device can continuously broadcast a standard
.$<T reply message. .igher update rates are possible with this optional burst communication mode and use is normally
restricted to point4to4point configuration.
'ART $rotocol S"ecification!
The .$<T ,rotocol was developed in the late +=?@!s and transferred to the .$<T Aoundation in the early +==@!s. Since
then it has been updated several times. )hen the protocol is updated" it is updated in a way that ensures backward
compatibility with previous versions. The current version of the .$<T ,rotocol is revision 8.2. The 8 denotes the
ma#or revision level and the 2 denotes the minor revision level.
The .$<T ,rotocol implements layers +"-" 2" 3 and 8 of the Open System Interconnection &OSI' 84layer protocol model*
The 'ART $hy!ical Layer is based on the %ell -@- standard" using fre5uency shift keying &ASO' to communicate at
+-@@ bps. The signal fre5uencies representing bit values of @ and + are --@@ and +-@@.z respectively. This signal is
superimposed at a low level on the 34to4-@m$ analog measurement signal without causing any interference with the
analog signal.
The 'ART Data Link Layer defines a master4slave protocol 4 in normal use" a field device only replies when it is
spoken to. There can be two masters" for example" a control system as a primary master and a handheld .$<T
35
communicator as a secodary master. Timing rules define when each master may initiate a communication transaction. ;p
to +6 or more slave devices can be connected to a single multidrop cable pair.
The Network Layer provides routing" end4to4end security" and transport services. It manages sessions for end4to4end
communication with correspondent devices.
The Tran!"ort Layer% The /ata40ink 0ayer ensures communications are successfully propagated from one device to
another. The Transport 0ayer can be used to ensure end4end communication is successful.
The A""lication Layer defines the commands" responses" data types and status reporting supported by the ,rotocol. In
the $pplication 0ayer" the public commands of the protocol are divided into four ma#or groups*
+. ;niversal 1ommands 4 provide functions which must be implemented in all field devices
-. 1ommon ,ractice 1ommands 4 provide functions common to many" but not all field devices
2. /evice Specific 1ommands 4 provide functions that are uni5ue to a particular field device and are specified by
the device manufacturer
3. /evice Aamily 1ommands 4 provide a set of standardized functions for instruments with particular measurement
types" allowing full generic access without using device4specific commands.
'ART )o**and!
The .$<T ,rotocol is a master4slave communication protocol which means that during normal operation" each slave &a
field device' communication is initiated by a re5uest &or command' from the master &host' communication device. The
master or host is generally a distributed control" ,01" or ,14based asset management system for example. The slave
device is typically a field measurement device such as pressure" level" temperature" flow or other transmitters.
In order to make certain any .$<T4enabled device from any supplier can communicate properly and respond to a
command with the correct information" the set and types of commands are defined in the .$<T Specifications and
implemented in all .$<T registered devices.
U!er! need not worry about these commands because they are included in the functions of the host. The specific
capabilities of a device &device specific commands' are available to the host when the host is given the instructions
included in the /evice /escription &//' of a specific device.
$n important point is that defined device status indications are included with each communication response to the host.
The host then interprets these status indicators and may provide basic device diagnostic information.
The 'ART )o**and Set provides uniform and consistent communication for all field devices. .ost applications may
implement any of the necessary commands for a particular application. The command set includes three classes*
;niversal
$ll devices using the .$<T ,rotocol must recognize and support the universal commands. ;niversal commands provide
access to information useful in normal operations &e.g." read primary variable and units'.
1ommon ,ractice commands provide functions implemented by many" but not necessarily all" .$<T 1ommunication
devices.
36
/evice Specific commands represent functions that are uni5ue to each field device. These commands access setup and
calibration information" as well as information about the construction of the device. Information on /evice Specific
commands is available from device manufacturers.
A $artial Li!t of 'ART )o**and!%
Unier!al )o**and! )o**on $ractice )o**and! Deice S"ecific )o**and!
<ead manufacturer and device
type
<ead primary variable &,X' and
units
<ead current output and percent
of range
<ead up to four pre4defined
dynamic variables
<ead or write eight4character
tag" +74character descriptor" date
<ead or write 2-4character
message
<ead device range values" units"
and damping time constant
<ead or write final assembly
number
)rite polling address
<ead selection of up to four
dynamic variables
)rite damping time constant
)rite device range values
1alibrate &set zero" set span'
Set fixed output current
,erform self4test
,erform master reset
Trim ,X zero
)rite ,X unit
Trim /$1 zero and gain
)rite transfer function
&s5uare rootJlinear'
)rite sensor serial number
<ead or write dynamic
variable assignments
<ead or write low4flow cut4
off
Start" stop" or clear totalizer
<ead or write density
calibration factor
1hoose ,X &mass" flow" or
density'
<ead or write materials or
construction information
Trim sensor calibration
,I/ enable
)rite ,I/ set point
Xalve characterization
Xalve set point
Travel limits
;ser units
0ocal display information
'i1hway Addre!!a#le Re*ote Tran!d+cer $rotocol
'ART
$rotocol Infor*ation
Ty"e of
Network
/evice %us &,rocess $utomation'
$hy!ical
Media
0egacy 34-@ m$ analog
instrumentation wiring or -.3 B.z
)ireless
Network
To"olo1y
One4on4One" 9ultidrop" )ireless
9esh
Ma3i*+* +6 in multidrop
37
Deice!
Ma3i*+*
S"eed
/epends on ,hysical 0ayer employed
Deice
Addre!!in1
.ardwareJSoftware
.oernin1
/ody
.$<T 1ommunication Aoundation
The .$<T 1ommunications ,rotocol &.ighway $ddressable <emote Transducer ,rotocol' is an early implementation of
Aieldbus" a digital industrial automation protocol. Its most notable advantage is that it can communicate over legacy 34-@
m$ analog instrumentation wiring" sharing the pair of wires used by the older system. $ccording to Emerson" N+P due to
the huge installed base of 34-@ m$ systems throughout the world" the .$<T ,rotocol is one of the most popular
industrial protocols today. .$<T protocol has made a good transition protocol for users who were comfortable using the
legacy 34-@ m$ signals" but wanted to implement a smart protocol. Industries seem to be using ,rofibus /,J,$ and
Aoundation fieldbus &also by <osemount' more as users become familiar with later technology and look to take
advantage of the enhanced diagnostics they can provide.
The protocol was developed by <osemount Inc." built off the %ell -@- early communications standard" in the mid4+=?@s
as proprietary digital communication protocol for their smart field instruments. Soon it evolved into .$<T. In +=?7" it
was made an open protocol. Since then" the capabilities of the protocol have been enhanced by successive revisions to
the specification.
Mode!
There are two main operational modes of .$<T instruments* analogJdigital mode" and multidrop mode.
In point4to4point mode &analogJdigital' the digital signals are overlaid on the 34-@ m$ loop current. %oth the 34-@ m$
current and the digital signal are valid output values from the instrument. The polling address of the instrument is set to
@. Only one instrument can be put on each instrument cable signal pair. One signal" generally specified by the user" is
specified to be the 34-@ m$ signal. Other signals are sent digitally on top of the 34-@ m$ signal. Aor example" pressure
can be sent as 34-@ m$" representing a range of pressures" and temperature can be sent digitally over the same wires. In
point4to4point mode" the digital part of the .$<T protocol can be seen as a kind of digital current loop interface.
In multidrop mode &digital' only the digital signals are used. The analog loop current is fixed at 3 m$. In multidrop mode
it is possible to have more than one instruments on one signal cable. .$<T revisions 2 through 6 allowed polling
addresses of the instruments to be in the range +4+6. .$<T 7 and later allowed address up to 72. Each instrument needs
to have a uni5ue address.
The .$<T ,acket has the following structure
Field Na*e Len1th ,/yte!- $+r"o!e
,reamble 64-@ Synchronization and 1arrier /etect
Start %yte + Specifies 9aster :umber
38
$ddress +46 Specifies slave" Specifies 9aster and Indicates %urst 9ode
1ommand + :umerical Xalue for the command to be executed
:umber of data
bytes
+ Indicates the size of the /ata Aield
Status 9aster &@' Slave
&-'
Execution and .ealth <eply
/ata @4-62 /ata associated with the command
1hecksum + UO< of all bytes from Start %yte to 0ast byte of /ata
$rea*#le
1urrently all the newer devices implement 6 byte preamble" since anything greater reduces the communication speed.
.owever" masters are responsible for backwards support. 9aster communication to a new device starts with the
maximum preamble length &-@ bytes' and is later reduced once the preamble size for the current device is determined.
Start deli*iter
This byte contains the 9aster number and specifies the communication packet is starting.
Addre!!
Specifies the destination address as implemented in one of the .$<T schemes. The original addressing scheme used only
3 bits to specify the device address" which limited the number of devices to +7 including the master.
The newer scheme utilizes 2? bits to specify the device address. This address is re5uested from the device using either
1ommand @" or 1ommand ++.
)o**and
This is a + byte numerical value representing which command is to be executed. 1ommand @ and 1ommand ++ are used
to re5uest the device number.
N+*#er of data #yte!
Specifies the number of communication data bytes to follow.
Stat+!
The status field is absent for the master and is two bytes for the slave. This field is used by the slave to inform the master
whether it completed the task and what its current health status is.
Data
39
/ata contained in this field depends on the command to be executed.
)heck!+*
1hecksum is composed of an UO< of all the bytes starting from the start byte and ending with the last byte of the data
field" including those bytes.
Field#+! is the name of a family of industrial computer network protocols used for real4time distributed control"
standardized as IE) 6>>7:.
$ complex automated industrial system Z such as manufacturing assembly line Z usually needs a distributed control
systemZan organized hierarchy of controller systemsZto function. In this hierarchy" there is usually a .uman 9achine
Interface &.9I' at the top" where an operator can monitor or operate the system. This is typically linked to a middle layer
of programmable logic controllers &,01' via a non4time4critical communications system &e.g. Ethernet'. $t the bottom of
the control chain is the fieldbus that links the ,01s to the components that actually do the work" such as sensors"
actuators" electric motors" console lights" switches" valves and contactors.
De!cri"tion
Aieldbus is an industrial network system for real4time distributed control. It is a way to connect instruments in a
manufacturing plant. Aieldbus works on a network structure which typically allows daisy4chain" star" ring" branch" and
tree network topologies. ,reviously" computers were connected using <S4-2- &serial connections' by which only two
devices could communicate. This would be the e5uivalent of the currently used 34-@ m$ communication scheme which
re5uires that each device has its own communication point at the controller level" while the fieldbus is the e5uivalent of
the current 0$:4type connections" which re5uire only one communication point at the controller level and allow
multiple &hundreds' of analog and digital points to be connected at the same time. This reduces both the length of the
cable re5uired and the number of cables re5uired. Aurthermore" since devices that communicate through fieldbus re5uire
a microprocessor" multiple points are typically provided by the same device. Some fieldbus devices now support control
schemes such as ,I/ control on the device side instead of forcing the controller to do the processing.
'i!tory
/it#+!
The oldest commonly used field bus technology is %itbus. %itbus was created by Intel 1orporation to enhance use of
9ultibus systems in industrial systems by separating slow iJo functions from faster memory access. In +=?2" Intel created
the ?@33 %itbus microcontroller by adding field bus firmware to its existing ?@6+ microcontroller. %itbus uses EI$43?6
at the physical layer" with two twisted pairs 4 one for data and the other for clocking and signals. ;se of S/01 at the data
link layer permits -6@ nodes on one segment with a total distance of +2.- km. %itbus has one master node and multiple
slaves" with slaves only responding to re5uests from the master. %itbus does not define routing at the network layer. The
?@33 permits only a relatively small data packet &+2 bytes'" but embeds an efficient set of <$1 &remote access and
control' tasks and the ability to develop custom <$1 tasks. In +==@" the IEEE adopted %itbus as the 9icrocontroller
System Serial 1ontrol %us &IEEE4+++?'.N+P N-P
Today %IT%;S is maintained by the %E;B 4 %IT%;S European ;sers Broup.N2P
40
StandardiBation
$lthough fieldbus technology has been around since +=??" with the completion of the IS$ S6@.@- standard" the
development of the international standard took many years. In +===" the IE1 S1761J)B7 standards committee met to
resolve difference in the draft IE1 fieldbus standard. The result of this meeting was the initial form of the IE1 7++6?
standard with eight different protocol sets called Types as follows*
Type + Aoundation Aieldbus .+
Type - 1ontrol:et
Type 2 ,<OAI%;S
Type 3 ,4:et
Type 6 AO;:/$TIO: fieldbus .SE &.igh Speed Ethernet'
Type 7 Swift:et &a protocol developed for %oeing" since withdrawn'
Type 8 )orldAI,
Type ? Interbus
This form of standard was first developed for the European 1ommon 9arket" concentrates less on commonality" and
achieves its primary purposeZelimination of restraint of trade between nations. Issues of commonality are now left to
the international consortia that support each of the fieldbus standard types. $lmost as soon as it was approved" the IE1
standards development work ceased and the committee was dissolved. $ new IE1 committee S1761J9T4= was formed
to resolve the conflicts in form and substance within the more than 3@@@ pages of IE1 7++6?. The work on the above
protocol types is substantially complete. :ew protocols" such as for safety fieldbuses or real4time ethernet4 fieldbuses are
being accepted into the definition of the international fieldbus standard during a typical 64year maintenance cycle.
%oth Aoundation Aieldbus and ,rofibus technologies are now commonly implemented within the process control field"
both for new developments and ma#or refits. In -@@7" 1hina saw the largest AA &Aoundation Aieldbus' systems
installations at :an.ai and SE11O" each with around +6@@@ fieldbus devices connected.
Ncitation neededP
IE) 6>>7: !"ecification
There were many competing technologies for fieldbus and the original hope for one single unified communications
mechanism has not been realized. This should not be unexpected since fieldbus technology needs to be implemented
differently in different applications( automotive fieldbus is functionally different from process plant control. The final
edition of IE1 standard IE1 7++6? allows ? technologies.This are the some hierarchic layer of the automation protocols.
IE1 7++6? consists of the following parts" under the general title /igital data communications for measurement and
control I Aieldbus for use in industrial control systems*
,art +* Overview and guidance for the IE1 7++6? series
,art -* ,hysical 0ayer specification and service definition
,art 2* /ata 0ink Service definition
41
,art 3* /ata 0ink ,rotocol specification
,art 6* $pplication 0ayer Service definition
,art 7* $pplication 0ayer ,rotocol specification
Standard!
There are a wide variety of competing fieldbus standards. Some of the most widely used ones include*
$S4Interface
1$:
Ether1$T
AO;:/$TIO: fieldbus
Interbus
0on)orks
9odbus
,rofibus
%IT%;S
1ompo:et
Safety%;S p
<$,IEnet
See 0ist of automation protocols for more examples.
)o!t adanta1e
The amount of cabling re5uired is much lower in Aieldbus than in 34-@ m$ installations. This is because many devices
share the same set of cables in a multi4dropped fashion rather than re5uiring a dedicated set of cables per device as in the
case of 34-@ m$ devices. 9oreover" several parameters can be communicated per device in a Aieldbus network whereas
only one parameter can be transmitted on a 34-@ m$ connection. Aieldbus also provides a good foundation for the
creation of a predictive and proactive maintenance strategy. The diagnostics available from fieldbus devices can be used
to address issues with devices before they become critical problems.
N3P
Networkin1
)ith the exception of $<1:ET" which was conceived as early as +=86 for office connectivity and later found uses in
industry" the ma#ority of fieldbus standards were developed in the +=?@s and became fully established in the marketplace
42
during the mid4+==@s. In the ;nited States" $llen4%radley developed standards that eventually grew into /evice:et and
1ontrol:et( in Europe" Siemens and other manufacturers developed a protocol which evolved into ,<OAI%;S.
/uring the +=?@s" to solve communication problems between different control systems in cars" the Berman company
<obert %osch Bmb. first developed the 1ontroller $rea :etwork &1$:'. The concept of 1$: was that every device
can be connected by a single set of wires" and every device that is connected can freely exchange data with any other
device. 1$: soon migrated into the factory automation marketplace &with many others'.
/espite each technology sharing the generic name of fieldbus the various fieldbus are not readily interchangeable. The
differences between them are so profound that they cannot be easily connected to each other.N6P To understand the
differences among fieldbus standards" it is necessary to understand how fieldbus networks are designed. )ith reference
to the OSI model" fieldbus standards are determined by the physical media of the cabling" and layers one" two and seven
of the reference model.
Aor each technology the physical medium and the physical layer standards fully describe" in detail" the implementation of
bit timing" synchronization" encodingJdecoding" band rate" bus length and the physical connection of the transceiver to
the communication wires. The data link layer standard is responsible for fully specifying how messages are assembled
ready for transmission by the physical layer" error handling" message4filtering and bus arbitration and how these
standards are to be implemented in hardware. The application layer standard" in general defines how the data
communication layers are interfaced to the application that wishes to communicate. It describes message specifications"
network management implementations and response to the re5uest from the application of services. 0ayers three to six
are not described in fieldbus standards.N7P
Technical committees" with representatives of many different companies" have been responsible for turning the original
specifications into international ISO standards. %ury" among others" reports that work is underway to implement a
common fieldbus protocol.N8P This will entail a common set of application4layer services that can be provided regardless
of the lower4layer implementation details. $lthough very much in its infancy" it is expected that this protocol may
become reality by -@+@. )hether designed for low4level sensor communications or high4level machine connectivity &or
both'" a fieldbus is an important enabling technology for an open architecture controller.N?P
Aeatures
/ifferent fieldbuses offer different sets of features and performance. It is difficult to make a general comparison of
fieldbus performance because of fundamental differences in data transfer methodology. In the comparison table below it
is simply noted if the fieldbus in 5uestion typically supports data update cycles of + millisecond or faster.
$roce!! Field#+! != Deice Network!
It should be noted that re5uirements of fieldbus networks for process automation applications &flowmeters" pressure
transmitters" and other measurement devices and control valves in industries such as hydrocarbon processing and power
generation' are different from the re5uirements of fieldbus networks found in discrete manufacturing applications such as
automotive manufacturing" where large numbers of discrete sensors are used including motion sensors" position sensors"
and so on. /iscrete fieldbus networks are often referred to as device networks.
N=P
43
Ethernet and Field#+!
<ecently a number of Ethernet4based industrial communication systems have been established" most of them with
extensions for real4time communication. These have the potential to replace the traditional fieldbuses in the long term.
.ere is a partial list of the new Ethernet4based industrial communication systems*
$A/U
Ether1$T
Ether:etJI,
Ethernet ,owerlink
AO;:/$TIO: .SE
%$1net
,<OAI:ET IO
,<OAI:ET I<T
Safety:ET p
SE<1OS III
TTEthernet
X$<$:
<$,IEnet
Safety
Aieldbus can be used for systems which must meet safety4relevant standards like IE1 7+6@? or E: =634+. /epending on
the actual protocol" fieldbus can provide measures like counters" 1<1!s" echo" timeout" uni5ue sender and receiver I/!s
or cross check. EthernetJI, and SE<1OS III both use the 1I, Safety protocol"N+@P Ethernet ,owerlink uses
openS$AETV" while AO;:/$TIO: Aieldbus and ,rofibus &,<OAIsafe' can address SI0 - and SI0 2 process safety
applications.
In Ganuary -@@7" the Aieldbus Aoundation announced that T]X <heinland Industrie Service Bmb." $utomation"
Software and Information Technology" a global" independent and accredited testing agency" had granted ,rotocol Type
$pproval for its Safety Specifications. The Aoundation Technical Specifications 4 Safety Instrumented Aunctions are in
compliance with International Electrotechnical 1ommission &IE1' 7+6@? standard &functional safety of
electricalJelectronicJprogrammable electronic safety4related systems' re5uirements up to" and including" Safety Integrity
0evel 2 &SI0 2'.
N++P
Interchan1ea#ility ! Intero"era#ility
44
Interchan1ea#ility is an ability that an ob#ect can be replaced by another ob#ect without affecting code using the ob#ect.
That chance usually re5uires two ob#ects share an interface that is either same strictly or compatible in particular case.
See encapsulation article for detail.
If interoperability is the measure of how well devices can interact" interchangeability is the measure of the degree to
which multiple items are directly substitutive. 9ore simply" if device $ and device % are functionally e5uivalent" they are
interchangeable.
One of the ma#or interests in open solutions is the ability to swap components for those from alternate vendors. This has
the primary benefit of mitigating vendor lock4in" and the secondary benefit of keeping price pressure on all vendors.The
threat of being replaced is typically enough to prevent vendors from substantially #acking up prices.
1ustomization is the enemy of interchangeability. Aeatures that are narrowly supported in the industry become barriers to
substitution. )hile vendors are certainly eager to develop and sell these features" the onus is typically on customers to
avoid deploying these features en masse. $nd the important point here is that it is ubi5uity not standards that determines
this.
Open Alow is by far the hottest standard right now" but there is a lot of space for vendors to claim OpenAlow support.
Aorgetting even the difference between OpenAlow +.@ and +.2.+" there are multiple capabilities within a single version
that need to be supported e5ually across vendors for interchangeability to be the case. It is possible" but customers need
to be cognizant of the different levels of support for the standard before they make design decisions if interchangeability
is a desire.
$nd even when there are not multiple versions of standard" there are instances where standards are not enough to
guarantee interchangeability. In the wireless controller space" one of the potential benefits of 1$,)$, was to make it
possible to mix and match" but how many )0$: solutions are interchangeable at the deviceJ$, level^
$ more common example" some enterprise networks have adopted 1isco_s EIB<, protocol. :etwork architectures and
surrounding infrastructure have been designed with this protocol in mind" essentially making those 1isco devices
irreplaceable except by other 1isco devices. $nd even though 1isco has recently opened up the protocol" that doesn!t
change the number of commercial4grade alternatives. In effect" users haveIby their own designIgiven up
interchangeability.
I should note that the power of interchangeability is not necessarily in deploying multiple products alongside each other.
<ather the power is in the ability to replace products with alternatives. In the fight against vendor lock4in &read* higher
pricing and inability to switch'" it is the threat of replaceability" not interoperability" that makes a difference. Take for
example the laptop and ,1 market. $ company will standardize on a single &or small set of' laptop model. They can
negotiate pricing because it is not all that difficult to change from one vendor to another &from Intel to /ell" or whatever'.
The guys at 0enovo know this" so they have to go into the deal willing to negotiate.
So how do you practically navigate the interchangeability waters^
$s with interoperability" where you draw the solution boundaries can have a profound impact on the degree to which two
systems are interchangeable. If drawn too narrowly &at the device level" for instance'" the fidelity of feature parity must
be extremely high. If drawn more broadly &at the system level" for example'" functional e5uivalence can take many
forms.
45
In the latter case" one4for4one feature and protocol parity might be less important than broader technology
interchangeability. Aor example" in any fabric solution" individual nodes are not interchangeable because of the
proprietary fabric protocols. Expanding the boundary to include the system allows interchangeability to be evaluated in
terms of Ethernet and 0- support. In this scenario" interchangeability might actually be achieved despite box4for4box
differences.
So what do I conclude on interoperability and interchangeability^
I think that interchangeability and interoperability are probably the two most common meanings for open. The extent to
which one" the other" or both are desirable is largely dependent on organizational discipline. I actually think customers
have more power here than vendors" as counter4intuitive as that seems.
9any customers include interchangeability as a reason to buy &sometimes referring to it in the negative as avoiding
vendor lock4in'" but having interchangeability as a selection criterion while lacking the will &or budget' to execute a swap
introduces artificial constraints on solution selection. )hile there might be business reasons to advocate this
position publicly &price pressure on the primary vendor" for instance'" customers should be preciseIat least internallyI
about what really constitutes a purchasing re5uirement.
Intero"era#ility
Intero"era#ility is the ability of making systems and organizations work together &inter4operate'. )hile the term was
initially defined for information technology or systems engineering services to allow for information exchange"
N+P
a more
broad definition takes into account social" political" and organizational factors that impact system to system performance.
N-P
Task of building coherent services for users when the individual components are technically different and manage by
different organizations
N2P
Syntactic intero"era#ility
If two or more systems are capable of communicating and exchanging data" they are exhibiting syntactic interoperability.
Specified data formats" communication protocols and the like are fundamental. U90 or SK0 standards are among the
tools of syntactic interoperability. This is also true for lower4level data formats" such as ensuring alphabetical characters
are stored in a same variation of $S1II or a ;nicode format &for English or international text' in all the communicating
systems.
Syntactical interoperability is a necessary condition for further interoperability.
Se*antic intero"era#ility
%eyond the ability of two or more computer systems to exchange information" semantic interoperability is the ability to
automatically interpret the information exchanged meaningfully and accurately in order to produce useful results as
defined by the end users of both systems. To achieve semantic interoperability" both sides must refer to a common
information exchange reference model. The content of the information exchange re5uests are unambiguously defined*
what is sent is the same as what is understood. The possibility of promoting this result by user4driven convergence of
disparate interpretations of the same information has been ob#ect of study by research prototypes such as S2/%.
)ro!!(do*ain intero"era#ility
46
9ain article* 1ross4domain interoperability
9ultiple social" organizational" political" legal entities working together for a common interest andJor information
exchange.
N3P
Intero"era#ility and o"en !tandard!
Interoperability must be distinguished from open standards. $lthough the goal of each is to provide effective and
efficient exchange between computer systems" the mechanisms for accomplishing that goal differ. Open standards imply
interoperability ab4initio" i.e. by definition" while interoperability does not" by itself" imply wider exchange between a
range of products" or similar products from several different vendors" or even between past and future revisions of the
same product. Interoperability may be developed post4facto" as a special measure between two products" while excluding
the rest" or when a vendor is forced to adapt its system to make it interoperable with a dominant system.
O"en !tandard!
Open standards rely on a broadly consultative and inclusive group including representatives from vendors" academicians
and others holding a stake in the development. That discusses and debates the technical and economic merits" demerits
and feasibility of a proposed common protocol. $fter the doubts and reservations of all members are addressed" the
resulting common document is endorsed as a common standard. This document is subse5uently released to the public"
and henceforth becomes an open standard. It is usually published and is available freely or at a nominal cost to any and
all comers" with no further encumbrances. Xarious vendors and individuals &even those who were not part of the original
group' can use the standards document to make products that implement the common protocol defined in the standard"
and are thus intero"era#le #y de!i1n5 with no specific liability or advantage for any customer for choosing one product
over another on the basis of standardised features. The vendors! products compete on the 5uality of their implementation"
user interface" ease of use" performance" price" and a host of other factors" while keeping the customers data intact and
transferable even if he chooses to switch to another competing product for business reasons.
Introd+ction to OLE for $roce!! )ontrol ,O$)-
O0E for ,rocess 1ontrol &O,1'" is the original name for an open standards specification developed in
+==7 by an industrial automation industry task force. The standard specifies the communication of
real4time plant data between control devices from different manufacturers. $fter the initial release" the O,1 Aoundation
was created to maintain the standard. Since then" standards have been added and names have been changed. 1urrently
&Gune" -@@7'" O,1 is a series of standards specifications. &Seven current standards and two emerging standards.' The
first standard &originally called simply the O,1 Specification'" is now called the /ata $ccess Specification" or &later
on the same page' O,1 /ata $ccess" or O,1 /ata $ccess Specification. O,1 is generally understood to stand for
O0E for ,rocess 1ontrol" even though no page on the O,1 Aoundation website suggests that the letters O,1 ever
stood for anything" except for some content written by member companies about themselves.
Ori1in and +!e!
The O,1 Specification was based on the O0E" 1O9" and /1O9 technologies developed by 9icrosoft for the
9icrosoft )indows operating system family. O,1 was designed to bridge )indows based applications and process
control hardware and software applications. It is an open standard that permits a consistent method of accessing field
47
data from plant floor devices. This method remains the same regardless of the type and source of data. O,1 servers
provide a method for many different software packages to access data from a process control device" such as a ,01 or
/1S. Traditionally" any time a package needed access to data from a device" a custom interface" or driver" had to be
written. The purpose of O,1 is to define a common interface that is written once and then reused by any business"
S1$/$" .9I" or custom software packages. Once an O,1 server is written for a particular device" it can be reused by
any application that is able to act as an O,1 client. O,1 servers use 9icrosoft_s O0E technology &also known as the
1omponent Ob#ect 9odel" or 1O9' to communicate with clients. 1O9 technology permits a standard for realtime
information exchange between software applications and process hardware to be defined.
Deelo"*ent
The O,1 ;nified $rchitecture &;$' has been specified and is being tested and implemented through
its Early $dopters program. It can be implemented with Gava" 9icrosoft .:ET" or 1" eliminating the
need to use a 9icrosoft )indows based platform of earlier O,1 versions. ;$ combines the
functionality of the existing O,1 interfaces with new technologies such as U90 and )eb Services to
deliver higher level 9ES and E<, support. It looks to become the standard for exchanging industrial
data" replacing AactoryTalk" $rchestra" some 9odbus applications" and O,1/$.
Unit IC
MOD/US AND $ROFI/US $A0D$0FMS AND FF
48
Mod#+!
Introd+ction
9odbus is a serial communications protocol originally published by 9odicon &now Schneider Electric' in +=8= for use
with its programmable logic controllers &,01s'. Simple and robust" it has since become a de facto standard
communication protocol" and it is now a commonly available means of connecting industrial electronic devices.N+P The
main reasons for the use of 9odbus in the industrial environment are*
developed with industrial applications in mind
openly published and royalty4free
easy to deploy and maintain
moves raw bits or words without placing many restrictions on vendors
9odbus enables communication among many &approximately -3@' devices connected to the same network" for example
a system that measures temperature and humidity and communicates the results to a computer. 9odbus is often used to
connect a supervisory computer with a remote terminal unit &<T;' in supervisory control and data ac5uisition &S1$/$'
systems. 9any of the data types are named from its use in driving relays* a single4bit physical output is called a coil" and
a single4bit physical input is called a discrete input or a contact.
The development and update of 9odbus protocols has been managed by the 9odbus OrganizationN-P since $pril -@@3"
when Schneider Electric transferred rights to that organization" signaling a clear commitment to openness.N2P
The 9odbus Organization is an association formed of independent users and suppliers of 9odbus compliant devices that
seeks to drive the adoption of the 9odbus communication protocol suite" and its evolution to address architectures for
distributed automation systems across multiple market segments.N3P
1ommunication and devices
Each device intended to communicate using 9odbus is given a uni5ue address. In serial and 9%` networks" only the
node assigned as the 9aster may initiate a command. On Ethernet" any device can send out a 9odbus command"
although usually only one master device does so. $ 9odbus command contains the 9odbus address of the device it is
intended for. Only the intended device will act on the command" even though other devices might receive it &an exception
is specific broadcastable commands sent to node @ which are acted on but not acknowledged'. $ll 9odbus commands
contain checksum information" to ensure the command arrives undamaged. The basic 9odbus commands can instruct an
<T; to change the value in one of its registers" control or read an IJO port" and command the device to send back one or
more values contained in its registers.
There are many modems and gateways that support 9odbus" as it is a very simple protocol and often copied. Some of
them were specifically designed for this protocol. /ifferent implementations use wireline" wireless communication" such
as in the IS9 band" and even short message service &S9S' or Beneral ,acket <adio Service &B,<S'. One of the more
common designs of wireless networks makes use of 9esh networking. Typical problems that designers have to overcome
include high latency and timing issues.
Arame format
49
$ll 9odbus variants choose different frame formats.N+P
9odbus <T; frame format
:ame 0ength &bits' Aunction
Start -? $t least 2 +a- character times of silence &mark condition'
$ddress ? Station address
Aunction ? Indicates the function code( e.g." read coilsJinputs
/ata n b ? /ata ` length will be filled depending on the message type
1<1 +7 bits 1hecksum
End -? $t least 2 +a- character times of silence between frames
9odbus $S1II frame format
:ame 0ength &char.' Aunction
Start + Starts with colon & * ' &$S1II hex value is @x2$'
$ddress - Station address
Aunction - Indicates the function codes like read coils J inputs
/ata n /ata ` length will be filled depending on the message type
0<1 - 1hecksum
End - 1arriage return I line feed &1<J0A' pair &$S1II values of @x@/ Y @x@$'
9odbus T1, frame format
:ame 0ength &bytes' Aunction
50
Transaction identifier - Aor synchronization between messages of server Y client
,rotocol identifier - Wero for 9odbusJT1,
0ength field - :umber of remaining bytes in this frame
;nit identifier + Slave address &-66 if not used'
Aunction code + Aunction codes as in other variants
/ata bytes n /ata as response or commands
;nit identifier is used with 9odbusJT1, devices that are composites of several 9odbus devices" e.g. on 9odbusJT1, to
9odbus <T; gateways. In such case" the unit identifier tells the Slave $ddress of the device behind the gateway.
:atively 9odbusJT1,4capable devices usually ignore the ;nit Identifier.
The byte order is %ig4Endian &first byte contains 9S%'.
Implementations
$lmost all implementations have variations from the official standard. /ifferent varieties might not communicate
correctly between e5uipment of different suppliers. Some of the most common variations are*
/ata types
o Aloating point IEEE
o 2-4bit integer
o ?4bit data
o 9ixed data types
o %it fields in integers
o 9ultipliers to change data toJfrom integer. +@" +@@" +@@@" -67 ...
,rotocol extensions
o +74bit slave addresses
o 2-4bit data size &+ address F 2- bits of data returned.'
o )ord swapped data
0imitations
51
Since 9odbus was designed in the late +=8@s to communicate to programmable logic controllers" the number of
data types is limited to those understood by ,01s at the time. 0arge binary ob#ects are not supported.
:o standard way exists for a node to find the description of a data ob#ect" for example" to determine if a register
value represents a temperature between 2@ and +86 degrees.
Since 9odbus is a masterJslave protocol" there is no way for a field device to report by exception &except over
Ethernet T1,JI," called open4mbus'4 the master node must routinely poll each field device" and look for changes
in the data. This consumes bandwidth and network time in applications where bandwidth may be expensive" such
as over a low4bit4rate radio link.
9odbus is restricted to addressing -38 devices on one data link" which limits the number of field devices that
may be connected to a master station &once again Ethernet T1,JI, proving the exception'.
9odbus transmissions must be contiguous which limits the types of remote communications devices to those
that can buffer data to avoid gaps in the transmission.
9odbus protocol itself provides no security against unauthorized commands or interception of data.
F+nction Field
The Aunction 1ode field tells the addressed slave what function to perform.
The following functions are supported by 9odbus poll
;> READ )OIL STATUS
;< READ IN$UT STATUS
;9 READ 'OLDIN. RE.ISTERS
;8 READ IN$UT RE.ISTERS
;7 WRITE SIN.LE )OIL
;6 WRITE SIN.LE RE.ISTER
>7 WRITE MULTI$LE )OILS
>6 WRITE MULTI$LE RE.ISTERS
The data field contains the re5uested or send data.
)ontent! of the Error )heckin1 Field
Two kinds of error4checking methods are used for standard 9odbus networks. The error checking field contents depend
upon the method that is being used.
AS)II
)hen $S1II mode is used for character framing" the error4checking field contains two $S1II characters. The error check
characters are the result of a 0ongitudinal <edundancy 1heck &0<1' calculation that is performed on the message
contents" exclusive of the beginning colon and terminating 1<0A characters.
The 0<1 characters are appended to the message as the last field preceding the 1<0A characters.
52
RTU
)hen <T; mode is used for character framing" the error4checking field contains a +74bit value implemented as two
eight4bit bytes. The error check value is the result of a 1yclical <edundancy 1heck calculation performed on the message
contents.
The 1<1 field is appended to the message as the last field in the message. )hen this is done" the low4order byte of the
field is appended first" followed by the high4order byte. The 1<1 high4order byte is the last byte to be sent in the
message.
F+nction ;> ,;>he3- Read )oil!
<eads the O:JOAA status of discrete coils in the slave.
ReD+e!t
The re5uest message specifies the starting coil and 5uantity of coils to be read.
Example of a re5uest to read +@...-- &1oil ++ to -2' from slave device address 3*
Field Na*e RTU ,he3- AS)II )haracter!
.eader :one * &1olon'
Slave $ddress @3 @ 3
Aunction @+ @ +
Starting $ddress .i @@ @ @
Starting $ddress 0o @$ @ $
Kuantity of 1oils .i @@ @ @
Kuantity of 1oils 0o @/ @ /
Error 1heck 0o // 0<1 &E 3'
Error 1heck .i =?
Trailer :one 1< 0A
Total %ytes ? +8

Re!"on!e
The coil status response message is packed as one coil per bit of the data field. Status is indicated as* + is the value O:"
and @ is the value OAA. The 0S% of the first data byte contains the coil addressed in the re5uest. The other coils follow
toward the high4order end of this byte and from low order to high order in subse5uent bytes. If the returned coil 5uantity
53
is not a multiple of eight" the remaining bits in the final data byte will be padded with zeroes &toward the high4order end
of the byte'. The byte count field specifies the 5uantity of complete bytes of data.
Example of a response to the re5uest*
Field Na*e RTU ,he3- AS)II )haracter!
.eader :one * &1olon'
Slave $ddress @3 @ 3
Aunction @+ @ +
%yte 1ount @- @ -
/ata &1oils 8...+@' @$ @ $
/ata &1oils -8...-@' ++ + +
Error 1heck 0o %2 0<1 &/ E'
Error 1heck .i 6@ :one
Trailer :one 1< 0A
Total %ytes 8 +6

Mod#+! Tro+#le !hootin1
This document may help you to solve problem you may encounter when using the 9odbus Serial &<T; or $S1II'
protocol with the Engiby driver on ,1/ system. :ote that a good knowledge of the partner device is necessary to
correctly configure the driver on the ,1/.
Ty"ical tro+#le! with the Slae Drier
No co**+nication
In the Slave driver this is indicated by the error cSynchro_. It means that the Slave driver does not receive any re5uests
from the 9aster. Airst check the cabling &=@Q or the errors'. In <S -2- Tx and <x must be crossed. In <S 3?6 don_t
cross the wires. The indication Td` and Td4 is not always identical on different devices. ,ossible labeling for Td` or /
or TxJ<x` or TxJ<x4, or $ ,ossible labeling for Td4 or J/ or TxJ<x4 or TxJ<x4: or % )ith a long bus cable"
check the end4resistors. The S$I$ recommendation for S4%us network is also valid for 9odbus. <efer to the S4%us
manual.
Dia1no!tic! error!
Typically reasons are*
4 the baudrate or the bit settings are not the same on 9aster and on the Slaves
54
4 wrong cabling &crossed or missing wires'
4 bad ground connection between 9aster and Slaves
4 with <S3?6" bad or missing termination &pul4up" pul4down" resistors inc. supply( termination resistors'
Synchro error
$s explained above this code is displayed if no re5uest is received from the Slave. This code is also displayed if the
interval of the re5uests from the master is lower than the ad#usted timeout in 9odbus Slave Abox. If necessary increase
this timeout.
SASI error
This error indicate that the driver could not take control of the serial line. $ typical error is when the same port is already
declared in the .ardware settings as S4%us ,B; port" 9odem or Bateway port. <emove any configuration on the port
used by the 9odbus /river. Ensure also that no other part of your program uses the same port. Else the corresponding
module may be missing" wrong e5uipped or defective. Aurthermore" the ,B; port &1O9 @ on most systems' is forced in
,B; mode when a ,B; cable is used. On :T4systems check the option F+ll RS<9< hand!hakin1 in the device
configurator. ;se the option )hannel ; $.U if you want to use it alternatively with ,B; and 9odbus.
Ty"ical tro+#le! with the Ma!ter Drier
No co**+nication
In the 9aster driver" missing communication is indicated with timeout errors. Airst check the cabling &=@Q or the errors'.
In <S -2- Tx and <x must be crossed. In <S 3?6 don_t cross the wires. The indication Td` and Td4 is not always
identical on different devices. Tray to exchange Td` with Td4 )ith a long bus cable" check the end4resistors. The S$I$
recommendation for S4%us network are also valid for 9odbus. <efer to the S4%us manual.
Some slave device needs an activation or a configuration of the 9odbus port before you can use it. 1heck this point with
the manufacturer of the slave device.
Some slaves may have a high sensitivity on inter4character delay in <T; mode. The ,1/ firmware doesn!t warrantee
that this delay is always respected as specified for 9odbus. This problem is increased with the use of the )eb4server in
the ,1/. $ special feature &called the !freeze bit!' has been added in the ,1/ firmware and the 9odbus driver. It gives
positive results in all cases till now. Vou need at least 9odbus library version -.6.@-8 and A) +.@?.xx on ,1/2 &other
systems not yet known'.
Dia1no!tic! error!
Typical reasons are*
4 the baudrate or the bit settings are not the same on 9aster and on the Slaves
4 wrong cabling &crossed or missing wires'
4 bad ground connection between 9aster and Slaves
4 with <S3?6" bad or missing termination &pul4up" pul4down" resistors inc. supply( termination resistors'
SASI error
55
Same comments as for the Slave /river. See comments above.
So*e reD+e!t! re*ain! witho+t re!"on!e
Some slaves do not supports all 9odbus functions or have restriction on the number of re5uested values.
1heck the following*
4 Vou use the correct 9odbus function
4 The address where you re5uest values is valid for the slave
4 The number of re5uested values is supported by the slave
$ll these data should be given in the manual of the slave device" else ask the manufacturer.
Error ESlae *e!!a1e@ in the Ma!ter F#o3
This error means that the slave refused the re5uest and sent an error message back &also called !exception response!'.
Typical causes are*
4 The re5uested address is not valid for the slave.
4 The range overpasses the valid address range in the slave.
4 $ value sent is not accepted by the slave.
Take care at the address offset option &@ or +'. If this option is not correctly set the address maybe shifted by one and be
invalid for the slave.
E.g. address -6 in the master with offsetF+" maybe understand as address -3 in the slave if the offset + is not applied by
the slave. $ddress -3 may be invalid for the slave.
$ROFI/US%
Introd+ction
,<OAI%;S is not one communication system" but a variety of protocols built on the same field4bus technology bundle.
;sers can combine varieties of ,<OAI%;S protocols with their own software and other re5uirements" resulting in a
uni5ue application profile. )ith many profiles available" ,<OAI%;S can suit specific needs. One thing remains the
same" though. Through thorough testing" ,<OAI%;S devices meet a high standard of 5uality befitting a high 5uality
network.
'i!tory
,<OAI%;S was born out of a combined push by the Berman government" Berman companies" and other industry leaders
in the late +=?@s. Their effort created an automation solution that is not only still viable today" but has led to further
solutions. The proud heritage of ,<OAI%;S allows for many European customers to turn to automation specific to their
needs.
Ori1in
The 1entral $ssociation for the Electrical Industry created ,<OAI%;S.In +=?8" -+ companies and institutions in
Bermany #oined forces to create a new protocol. Their goal was to create a bit4serial Aieldbus system. In order for the
system to be viable" they needed to standardize the field device interface. The group" which had taken the name 1entral
$ssociation for the Electrical Industry &WXEI'" completed its goal with the reation of ,<OAI%;S A9S
&Aieldbus message Specification'.
This new protocol satisfied standardization of Industrial $utomation through a protocol capable of sending complex
communications. The WXEI was not finished" though. In +==2" the group introduced a new standard" ,<OAI%;S /,
56
&/ecentralized ,eriphery'. This new version featured more simplicity" including easier configuration and faster
messaging.
Or1aniBation!
,<OAI%;S standards are maintained and advanced via a pair of important organizations. In +=?=" ,<OAI%;S
manufacturers and users created the ,<OAI%;S ;ser Organization &,:O'. This group was" and still is" a non4
commercial venture. 9embers work to advance ,<OAI%;S through support and education" including publishing
documents that help users satisfy their needs using existing technology.
$ larger group was formed in +==6 and named ,<OAI%;S International" or ,I. $s the largest Aieldbus user association
in the world" ,I is able to undertake many tasks vital to the progression of ,<OAI%;S. 0ike the ,:O" ,I educates users
on ,<OAI%;S and helps advance its placement throughout the world. The organization goes further" though" by helping
with 5uality assurance" setting standards" and developing new ,<OAI%;S technologies.
Oeriew
,<OAI%;S is a smart" field4bus technology. /evices on the system connect to a central line. Once connected" these
devices can communicate information in an efficient manner" but can go beyond automation messages. ,<OAI%;S
devices can also participate in self4diagnosis and connection diagnosis. $t the most basic level" ,<OAI%;S benefits from
superior design of its OSI layers and basic topology.
OSI Model
,<OAI%;S OSI 9odel
,<OAI%;S networks make use of three separate layers of the OSI :etwork model. Airst" ,<OAI%;S describes the
application layer. There are multiple versions of ,<OAI%;S that handle different types of messaging at the application
layer. Some of the types of messaging ,<OAI%;S supports include cyclic and acyclic data exchange" diagnosis" alarm4
handling" and isochronous messaging.
,<OAI%;S does not define layers three through six. It does" however" define the data link and physical layers" layers one
57
and two. The data link layer is completed through a Aield bus /ata 0ink" or A/0. The A/0 system combines two
common schemes" master4slave methodology and token passing. In a master4slave network" masters" usually controllers"
send re5uests to slaves" sensors and actuators. The slaves respond accordingly. ,<OAI%;S also includes token passing" a
system in which a [token\ signal is passed between nodes. Only the node with the token can communicate. The token
passing concept is like the speaking conch( only the person with the conch is allowed to talk.
Ainally" ,<OAI%;S defines a physical layer" though it leaves room for flexibility. ,<OAI%;S systems can have three
types of media. The first is a standard twisted4pair wiring system" in this case <S3?6. Two more advanced systems are
also available. ,<OAI%;S systems can now operate using fiber4optic transmission in cases where that is more
appropriate. $ safety4enhanced system called 9anchester %us ,ower" or 9%," is also available in situations where the
chemical environment is prone to explosion.
To"olo1y
,<OAI%;S uses the bus topology. In this topology" a central line" or bus" is wired throughout the system. /evices are
attached to this central bus. One bus eliminates the need for a full4length line going from the central controller to each
individual device.
In the past" each ,<OAI%;S device had to connect directly to the central bus. Technological advancements" however"
have made it possible for a new [two4wire\ system. In this topology" the ,<OAI%;S central bus can connect to a
,rofi:et Ethernet system. In this way" multiple ,<OAI%;S busses can connect to each other.
Ty"e! of $ROFI/US
,<OAI%;S has advanced through a handful of revisions. In some cases" advances have led to a new type of ,<OAI%;S.
In other cases" new revisions mean different versions of the same type of ,<OAI%;S. In any case" the variety of
,<OAI%;S solutions mean the system can be adapted to fit the varying needs of different industries.
$ROFI/US FMS
The initial version of ,<OAI%;S was ,<OAI%;S A9S" Aieldbus 9essage Specification. ,<OAI%;S A9S was
designed to communicate between ,rogrammable 1ontrollers and ,1s" sending complex information between them.
;nfortunately" being the initial effort of ,<OAI%;S designers" the A9S technology was not as flexible as needed. This
protocol was not appropriate for less complex messages or communication on a wider" more complicated network. :ew
types of ,<OAI%;S would satisfy those needs. ,<OAI%;S A9S is still in use today" though the vast ma#ority of users
find newer solutions to be more appropriate.
$ROFI/US D$
The second type of ,<OAI%;S is more universal. 1alled ,<OAI%;S /," for /ecentralized ,eriphery" this new protocol
is much simpler and faster. ,<OAI%;S /, is used in the overwhelming ma#ority of ,<OAI%;S application profiles in
use today. $pplication profiles allow users to combine their re5uirements for a specific solution" and they will be
discussed in more detail shortly. ,<OAI%;S /, has" itself" three separate versions. Each version" from /,4X@ to /,4X+
and /,4X-" provides newer" more complicated features.
$ROFI/US $A
58
,<OAI%;S ,$ is a protocol designed for ,rocess $utomation. In actuality" ,<OAI%;S ,$ is a type of ,<OAI%;S /,
$pplication profile. ,<OAI%;S ,$ standardizes the process of transmitting measured data. It does hold a very important
uni5ue characteristic" though. ,<OAI%;S ,$ was designed specifically for use in hazardous environments.
In most environments" ,<OAI%;S ,$ operates over <S3?6 twisted pair media. This media" along with the ,$
application profile supports power over the bus. In explosive environments" though" that power can lead to sparks that
induce explosions. To handle this" ,<OAI%;S ,$ can be used with 9anchester %us ,owered technology &9%,'.
M/$ Technolo1y
The 9%, media was designed specifically to be used in ,<OAI%;S ,$. It permits transmission of both data and power.
The technology steps the power down" though. $ smaller power reduces" or nearly eliminates" the possibility of
explosion. %uses using 9%, can reach +=@@ meters and can support branches.
A""lication $rofile!
,<OAI%;S can be tailored to specific needs using application profiles. There are many profiles that combine standards
for transmission media" communication protocol &A9S" /,4X@" etcd'" and uni5ue protocols. Each application profile is
tailored to a specific use" and new profiles appear regularly. To list them all would be cumbersome.
Some application profiles are widespread" though. Two examples are ,<OAIsafe and ,<OAIdrive. ,<OAIsafe
,<OAIsafe uses additional software to create a high4integrity network. This network is useful in situations where high
safety is a re5uirement. Aor suppliers and manufacturers to be certified in ,<OAIsafe" they must maintain high standards
in 5uality.
F+ality A!!+rance
The ,<OAI%;S ;ser Organization has created a conformance testing program to ensure devices meet high standards. In
this program" a device is sent to an independent laboratory for testing. The device then undergoes a comprehensive series
of tests" including .ardware" 1onformity" and Aunction tests" among others. The test results are documented.)hen a
device passes all tests" its manufacturer can apply for a conformance certificate. The certificate is valid for three years
and can be renewed with further testing.
$ROFI/US(FMS )o**+nication Model
The ,<OAI%;S4A9S communication model permits distributed application processes to be unified into a common
process by using communication relationships. That portion of an application process in a field device which can be
reached via communication is called a virtual field device &XA/'. Aigure +? shows the relationship between the real field
device and the virtual field device. In this example" only certain variables &i.e." number of units" rate of failure and
downtime' are part of the virtual field device and can be read or written via the two communication relationships.
59
Cirt+al field deice with o#Gect dictionary
)o**+nication O#Gect! and O#Gect Dictionary ,OD-
$ll communication ob#ects of an A9S device are entered in the device!s local ob#ect dictionary. The ob#ect dictionary can
be predefined for simple devices. )hen complex devices are involved" the ob#ect dictionary is configured and loaded to
the device either locally or remotely. The ob#ect dictionary contains description" structure and data type" as well as the
relationship between the internal device addresses of the communication ob#ects and their designation on the bus
&indexJname'. The ob#ect dictionary is comprised of the following elements*
'eader
1ontains information on the structure of the ob#ect dictionary

Li!t of !tatic data ty"e!
0ists static data types supported

Static o#Gect dictionary
1ontains all static communication ob#ects

Dyna*ic li!t of the aria#le li!t!
0ists all known variable lists

Dyna*ic "ro1ra* li!t
0ists all known programs
The individual parts of the ob#ect dictionary must only be present when the device actually supports these functions.
60
Static co**+nication o#Gect! are entered in the static ob#ect dictionary. They can be predefined by the manufacturer of
the device or specified during configuration of the bus system. A9S recognizes five types of communication ob#ects*
Si*"le Caria#le
Array
Series of simple variables of the same type
Record
Series of simple variables of different types
Do*ain
Eent
Dyna*ic co**+nication o#Gect! are entered in the dynamic portion of the ob#ect dictionary. They can be predefined or
defined" deleted or changed with the A9S services. A9S recognizes two types of dynamic communication ob#ects.
$ro1ra* inocation
Caria#le
li!t
series of simple variables" arrays or records
Lo1ical addre!!in1 is the preferred method of addressing for A9S communication ob#ects. $ccessing is performed with
a short address &the index' which is a number of type ;nsigned+7. Each ob#ect has a individual index. $s an option" the
ob#ects can also be addressed by name or with their physical address.
Every communication ob#ect can be optionally protected against unauthorized access. $ccess to an ob#ect may only be
permitted with a certain password or access may only be permitted for a certain group of devices. ,assword and device
group can be specified in the ob#ect dictionary for each ob#ect individually. In addition" permissible services &read4only
accesses' for accessing an ob#ect can be restricted.
$ROFI/US /+! Acce!! $rotocol
$ll three ,<OAI%;S versions &/," A9S and ,$' use a uniform bus access protocol. This protocol is implemented by
layer - of the OSI reference model. This also includes data security and the handling of the transmission protocols and
telegrams.
In ,<OAI%;S" layer - is called Aieldbus /ata 0ink &A/0'. The 9edium $ccess 1ontrol &9$1' specifies the procedure
when a station is permitted to transmit data. The 9$1 must ensure that only one station has the right to transmit data at a
time. The ,<OAI%;S protocol has been designed to meet two primary re5uirements for the 9edium $ccess 1ontrol *
e /uring communication between complex automation systems &master'" it must be ensured that each of these stations
gets sufficient time to execute its communication tasks within a precisely defined time interval.
e 1yclic" real4time data transmission is to be implemented as fast and as simple as possible for communication between a
complex programmable controller and its assigned simple IJO devices &slaves'.
61
Therefore" the ,<OAI%;S bus access protocol &see figure 7' includes the token passing procedure which is used by
complex bus stations &master' to communicate with each other" and the master4slave procedure which is used by complex
bus stations to communicate with the simple IJO devices &slaves'.
All three $ROFI/US er!ion! +!e a +nifor* #+! acce!! "rotocol
The token "a!!in1 "roced+re guarantees that the bus access right &the token' is assigned to each master within a
precisely defined time frame. The token message" a special telegram for passing access rights from one master to the next
master must be passed around the logical token ring once to all masters within a prescribed maximum token rotation
time. In ,<OAI%;S the token passing procedure is only used for communication between complex stations &master'.
The *a!ter(!lae "roced+re permits the master &the active station' which currently owns the token to access the
assigned slaves &the passive stations'. The master can send messages to the slaves or read messages from the slaves. )ith
this method of access it is possible to implement the following system configurations*
e ,ure master4slave system
e ,ure master4master system &with token passing'
e $ combination of the two
Aigure 7 shows a ,<OAI%;S configuration with three active stations &masters' and seven passive stations &slaves'. The
three masters form a logical token ring. )hen an active station receives the token telegram" it can perform its master role
for a certain period of time. /uring this time it can communicate with all slave stations in a master4slave communication
relationship and with all master stations in a master4master communication relationship.
$ token ring is the organizational chain of active stations which form a logical ring based on their station addresses. In
this ring the token &bus access right' is passed from one master to the next in a specified order &increasing addresses'.
62
In the start4up phase of the bus system" the task of the medium access control &9$1' of the active stations is to detect
this logical assignment and to establish the token ring. In the operational phase" defective or switched4 off &active'
stations must be removed from the ring and new active stations can be added to the ring. In addition" the bus access
control ensures that the token is passed from one master to the next in order of increasing addresses. The actual token
hold time of a master depends on the configured token rotation time. In addition the detection of defects on the
transmission medium and on the line receiver" as well as the detection of errors in station addressing &e.g." multiple
addresses assigned' or in token passing &e.g." multiple tokens or token loss' are characteristic features of the ,<OAI%;S
medium access control.
Serice F+nction D$ $A FMS
SDA Send /ata with $cknowledge e
SRD Send and <e5uest /ata with reply e e e
SDN Send /ata with :o acknowledge e e e
)SRD 1yclic Send and <e5uest /ata with reply e
Serice! of the $ROFI/US data !ec+rity layer ,layer <-
$nother important task of layer - is data !ec+rity. ,<OAI%;S layer - frame formats ensure high data integrity. $ll
telegrams have 'a**in1 Di!tance 'DH8. This is achieved by using special start and end delimiters slip4free
synchronization and a parity bit for each octet as defined in the international standard IE1 ?8@464+.
,<OAI%;S layer - operates in a connectionless mode. In addition to logical peer4to4peer data transmission" it provides
multi4peer communication &%roadcast and 9ulticast'.
/roadca!t co**+nication means that an active station sends an unacknowledged message to all other stations &master
and slaves'.
M+ltica!t co**+nication means that an active station sends an unacknowledged message to a predetermined group of
stations &master and slaves'.
In ,<OAI%;S4A9S" /, and ,$ an individual subset of layer4- services is used. See table 8. The services are called via
service access points &S$,s' of layer - by the higher layers. In ,<OAI%;S4A9S these service access points are used to
address the logical communication relationships. In ,<OAI%;S4/, and ,$ a precisely defined function is assigned to
each service access point. Several service access points can be used simultaneously for all active and passive stations. $
distinction is made between source &SS$,' and destination service access points &/S$,'.
63
Unit C
INDUSTRIAL ET'ERNET AND WIRELESS )OMMUNI)ATION
Ind+!trial Ethernet
Industrial Ethernet switch
Ind+!trial Ethernet &IE' refers to the use of standard Ethernet protocols with rugged connectors and extended
temperature switches in an industrial environment" for automation or process control. 1omponents used in plant process
64
areas must be designed to work in harsh environments of temperature extremes" humidity" and vibration that exceed the
ranges for information technology e5uipment intended for installation in controlled environments.
The use of fiber Ethernet reduces the problems of electrical noise and provides electrical isolation to prevent e5uipment
damage. Some industrial networks emphasized deterministic delivery of transmitted data" whereas Ethernet used
collision detection which made transport time for individual data packets difficult to estimate with increasing network
traffic. Typically" industrial use of Ethernet use full4duplex standards and other methods so that collisions do not
unacceptably influence transmission times.
A""lication eniron*ent
)hile industrial Ethernet systems use the same protocols as Ethernet applied to office automation" industrial plant use
re5uires consideration of the environment in which the e5uipment must operate. ,lant4floor e5uipment must tolerate a
wider range of temperature" vibration" and electrical noise than e5uipment installed in dedicated information4technology
areas. Since closed4loop process control may rely on an Ethernet link" economic cost of interruptions may be high and
availability is therefore an essential criterion. Industrial Ethernet networks must interoperate with both current and legacy
systems" and must provide predictable performance and maintainability. In addition to physical compatibility and low4
level transport protocols" a practical industrial Ethernet system must also provide interoperability of higher levels of the
OSI model. $n industrial network must provide security both from intrusions from outside the plant" and from
inadvertent or unauthorized use within the plant.N+P
Industrial networks often use network switches to segment a large system into logical sub4networks" divided by address"
protocol" or application. ;sing network switches allows the network to be broken up into many small collision domains.
This reduces the risk of a faulty or mis4configured device generating excess network traffic. )hen an industrial network
must connect to an office network or external networks" a firewall system can be inserted to control exchange of data
between the networks. To preserve the performance and reliability of the industrial network" general office automation
systems are separated from the network used for control or IJO devices.
Adanta1e! and diffic+ltie!
,01 &,rogrammable logic controller' communicate using one of several possible open or proprietary protocols" such as
9odbus" Sinec .+" ,rofibus" 1$:open" /evice:et or AO;:/$TIO: Aieldbus. The idea to use standard Ethernet
makes these systems more inter4operable.
Some of the advantages over other types of industrial network are*
Increased speed" up from =.7 kbitJs with <S4-2- to + BbitJs with Bigabit Ethernet over 1at6eJ1at7 cables or
optical fiber
Increased distance
$bility to use standard access points" routers" switches" hubs" cables and optical fiber
$bility to have more than two nodes on link" which was possible with <S43?6 but not with <S4-2-
,eer4to4peer architectures may replace master4slave ones
%etter interoperability
65
/ifficulties of using Industrial Ethernet include*
9igrating existing systems to a new protocol
<eal4time uses may suffer for protocols using T1,
9anaging a whole T1,JI, stack is more complex than #ust receiving serial data
The minimum Ethernet frame size is 73 bytes" while typical industrial communication data sizes can be closer to
+I? bytes. This protocol overhead affects data transmission efficiency.
Radio link
$ radio repeater is a combination of a radio receiver and a radio transmitter that receives a weak or low4level signal and
retransmits it at a higher level or higher power" so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. This
article refers to professional" commercial" and government radio systems. $ separate article exists for $mateur radio
repeaters.
In dispatching" amateur radio" and emergency services communications" repeaters are used extensively to relay radio
signals across a wider area. )ith most emergency &and some other' dispatching systems" the repeater is synonymous with
the base station" which performs both functions. This includes police" fire brigade" ambulance" taxicab" tow truck" and
other services. The Beneral 9obile <adio Service in the ;nited States and ;.A 1% service in $ustralia also use
repeaters in much the same fashion as amateur radio operators do.
Aor decades" cross4band repeaters have been used as fixed links. The links can be used for remote control of base stations
at distant sites or to send audio from a diversity &voting' receiver site back to the diversity combining system &voting
comparator'. Some legacy links occur in the ;S +6@4+8@ 9.z band. ;S Aederal 1ommunications 1ommission rule
changes did not allow +6@ 9.z links after the +=8@s. :ewer links are more often seen on 8-487 9.z &9id4band'" 36@4
38@ 9.z interstitial channels" or =@@ 9.z links. These links" known as fixed stations in ;S licensing" typically connect
an e5uipment site with a dispatching office
The )o*"onent!

The following diagram illustrate ma#or components in two4way radio system. The diagram shows a typical wide area
network.
66
Ty"ical Network )o*"onent
In a typical configuration" a wide area radio network consists of 2 ma#or components*
4 Switching system
4 %ase Stations
4 <adio Terminal

:ote that the above configuration applies to a wide area radio network. Aor a single site radio network" typically there is
no centralized switching system. Its cswitching_ or commonly known as controller resides in the same physical location
as %ase Station. Thus" a single4site radio network consists of*
4 %ase station or site repeater &which includes site controller'
4 <adio Terminal
Radio Ter*inal
$lso known as* Subscribers ;nit" <adio ;nit" 9obile Station" ,ortable <adio" 9obile <adio" Aixed4Station <adio
This is a device for the user to communicate and interface to the network. Aor end4users" they will mostly see these
devices more often than the radio infrastructure itself. Thus" the ergonomics and performance of radio terminal &i.e. size"
weight" battery life" user interface and ease of use' plays important role for end4user_s acceptance of radio system.
In general" radio terminal can be classified into*
$orta#le Radio
67
This is the device that users can carry while in the move. Since users carry this device most of the time" the
ergonomics of portable radio &i.e. size and weight' is one of important factors for users. .owever" size" weight
and battery life are" among others" factors that limit the performance of radio unit. ,ortable radios usually have
lower power output compared to mobile or fixed4station radio due to the above limitation factors. Thus" the range
of portable radio is typically smaller than mobile or fixed4station radio. In many cases" portable radio with higher
power comes with bigger form factors. ;sually there will be a trade4off between the size of portable and power
output. Either you can have smaller form factor radio but lower power or higher power but bigger form factor.
Mo#ile Radio
This is the device that permanently installed in a vehicle or a car. The size and weight of this mobile radio is
bigger than portable radio but it usually does not really matter to user because mobile radio is permanently fixed
into the vehicle &i.e. users do not have to ccarry_ a mobile radio'. Typically" mobile radio has higher power output
than portable radio due to its form factor which facilitate more components to produce higher power as well as it
does not have issue with battery life &it uses vehicle battery for its power'. Thus" the range of a mobile radio is
usually greater than portable radio.
Fi3ed(Station Radio
This device is usually installed in a fixed location such as a branch office or a field post. Typically" a fixed4
station radio is a mobile radio with a power supply" external microphone or speaker and better antenna system
&such as directional antenna'. Thus" the range of fixed4station radio is greater than mobile and portable radio.
/a!e Station or Re"eater
$lso known as* Site repeater" <A <epeater" Site
This is a network component that provides <A coverage in a radio network. In typical configuration" a base station can
consist of <A <epeater&s'" 1ontroller&s'" antenna distribution system &i.e. duplexer" combiner" etc' and ,ower Supply.
In the traditional Two4way <adio world" the term /a!e Station is also known as a fixed station that receives a signal but
do not re4broadcast the signal to other radio users in the system. This configuration allows an operator" commonly known
as the dispatcher" sitting in the office to communicate with the radio terminals in the field. The term Re"eater is used
referring to a transceiver that receive a signal and re4transmit it at the same time. The primary purpose of repeaters is to
extend coverage. The main difference between base station and repeater is that a repeater repeats a signal that it receives"
a base station doesn_t.
:owadays" the term of %ase Station and <epeaters are often mixed referring to network component that provides <A
coverage.
In one radio network" there can be multiple base stations or repeaters to provide necessary coverage. In a wide area
configuration" these base stations are connected to a central switch that manages the entire network. The connection from
the base stations to switch is called a Site 0ink.
68
Switchin1 Sy!te* or )ontroller
$lso known as* 1entral controller" central switch" 9obile Switching Office &9SO'
This is a network component that manages the entire network. The switching system" for example" manages the traffic in
and out and route the communication to and from base stations. Switching system is the brain of the network without
which the network will not be able to handle wide area network calls.
In typical configuration" a switching system can consist of multiple devices or e5uipments. Each e5uipment handles
specific function. Aor example" one e5uipment handles the routing of the calls while the other handles interaction with
base stations. 9ore often than not" these devices or e5uipments are placed in rack&s' or cabinet&s'. /epending on the
complexity of the network" the switching system can have from one to tens of racks.
Mo#ile Switchin1 Office ,MSO-
$lso known as* Switching system" 1ontroller" 1entral controller" central switch
This refers to physical location where all of network switching or controller is placed. This term is derived from cellular
network for a common term to refer to its switching system. Since the switching system is located in one physical
location" the [generic\ term is 9obile Switching Office &9SO' with an [office\ word added to emphasize a location that
accommodates various e5uipment of the switch.
In two4way radio" this term is sometimes also used to refer to the radio switching system" especially for radio network
with complex switching system. $ digital trunked radio system like i/E:" for example" has an architecture similar to a
cellular system. Its switching system is as complex as the cellular system. Thus" the i/E: switching system sometimes
refers to i/E: 9SO.
Site Link
This is a facility to connect base station&s' to its switching system. /epending on the technology and products" site link
can be E+" partial E+" microwave" 3)" fiber4optic network and any other means to connect base station to its switching
with necessary bandwidth and performance. In many radio network installations" site link&s' can be leased from a
telecom provider &i.e. E+ line' or owned by the organization &i.e. microwave'. 0eased line will typically incur a monthly
recurring cost but has lower maintenance cost while privately owned link will need a higher capital expenditure to buy
the e5uipment and maintenance expenses but organizations do not to need to pay monthly subscription like leased line.
There are several discussions on the use of satellite as site link. The long delay of satellite link is one of the main factors
that need to be considered for two4way radio network implementation" especially for group call type of communication.
The use of satellite link for two4way radio is discussed in the $dvanced Topics.
Antenna Sy!te*
This is a device connected to the base station J repeater to propagate the <adio Are5uency &<A' energy. $ntenna system
plays an important role to determine the efficiency of converting electrical energy into <A energy. Thus" determine the
area of coverage.
69
There are several antenna configurations to meet various condition and terrain.
$ typical antenna parameters are*
H FreD+ency /and* This is the range of the band that the antenna will operate in &i.e. ?@74?8@ 9.z'. This only
means that the antenna will operate within this band. It usually does not necessarily mean that the antenna will
operate over the entire band.
H /andwidth* The maximum fre5uency separation that this antenna will operate within the fre5uency band.
H .ain* $ntenna gain is proportional to the product of directivity and the antenna_s efficiency. /irectivity is a
measure of how an antenna focuses energy. $ntenna_s efficiency accounts for loss associated with antenna. Bain
is achieved in an antenna by re4directing energy from some directions into the desired directions. The higher the
gain of the antenna" the further the coverage obtained. .owever" a higher gain antenna typically means higher
cost.
H Radiation $attern* In Two4)ay <adio" there are usually uni4directional antenna or omni4directional antenna.
The names reflect the radiation pattern produced by each type of antenna.
H Ma3i*+* In"+t $ower* 0ook for the specs with the maximum input power rating of the antenna is greater
than the <A power output rating of the transmitter&s'.
H CSWR ,Colta1e Standin1 Wae Ratio-* $ high XS)< &Xoltage Standing )ave <atio' implies a large
amount of reflected power. This means that the amount of forward power is less. Therefore" the higher the
XS)<" the less efficient the antenna.
H Len1th* This refers to the physical length of the antenna. $ long antenna is cumbersome to ship" store or
install.
H Wind Loadin1* In windy areas" the load of the wind on the antenna must be taken into account.

Di!"atcher or )on!ole Sy!te*
This is a network sub4system where an operator" commonly known as dispatcher" interface with the network to monitor
users_ activities and communicate with users in the field. The dispatcher acts as the central focus of the most two4way
radio system and usually has more powerful features to allow the dispatcher operator to effectively monitor and manage
the users in the field. The dispatcher is usually located at organization_s control center &also known as* 1ommand and
1ontrol room or 9onitor room'.
In traditional two4way radio system" console or dispatcher system has various buttons and 0E/s to facilitate monitoring
and managing various talk group. In a modern two4way radio system" these buttons and 0E/s are replaced with ,ersonal
1omputer e5uipped with specialized /igital Sound ,rocessing &/S,' card and other specialized e5uipment to facilitate
monitoring and managing users effectively. 9any dispatcher and console system has a Braphical ;ser Interface &B;I'
for ease of use.
Network Mana1e*ent Sy!te*
This is a network sub4system to monitor and manage all related components in the entire network. /epending on the
products" :etwork 9anagement System can vary in term of functionalities and performance. $n industry standard for
70
network management which follows the Open System Interconnection &OSI' reference model will have" at least" the
following functional management known as A1$,S*
4 Fa+lt management
4 )onfi1+ration management
4 Acco+ntin1 management
4 $erfor*ance management" and
4 Sec+rity management
In modern two4way radio system" the :etwork 9anagement System uses computerized system" such as ,ersonal
1omputer with specialized hardware and software to perform the function. The use of ,ersonal 1omputer with Braphical
;ser Interface &B;I' will make it easier for network manager to monitor and manage the network.
Area of )oera1e
$rea of coverage indicates the area where the radio terminals have usable signal &uplink and downlink' to use the radio
network. The usable signal means an acceptable signal level that allows user to communicate. $ term that is mostly used
in area of coverage is coverage reliability. $ =6Q coverage reliability means that there is =6Q chance that user will have
the acceptable signal level in particular area of coverage. The higher the number" the better the coverage but it usually
comes with higher cost due to the need to build more base station or repeater sites.
Radio Mode*! for Data A""lication!
INTRODU)TION to RTco*
TM
Radio Mode*!
)e have a wide and diverse customer base using our <Tcom
T9
modems. %ut what makes them so popular you may askf
The answer is the uni5ue <Tcom
T9
protocol used by the modem for its on air communications. This protocol is to code
efficient that it permits real time data transfers without any significant delay. In fact the transmit to receive acknowledge
is often as little as 2ms making the link transparent to the sending terminal as if it were over cablef
Radio Mode*! for "oint to "oint data link!%
)ith the <T1om!s basically what goes in comes out f There are versions offering communications over distances of #ust
a +@@ meters to over 6@Om" at data rates from +-@@baud to 68"7@@Obps" with full support for 8 or ? bit $S1II" + or -
stop bits and even or odd parityf.
Wire Free /roadca!t5 M+lti(Dro" Sy!te*!5 wire free #+! #rid1e!%
71
The transparency of the <Tcom
T9
protocol and the minimal latency make it practical to set up star multi4drop broadcast
networks where a single radio modem is connected to the master and slaves are each connected to their own modem or
share a modem using <S3?6 or <S3-- local bus.
Effectively the either becomes the cable with the master modem connected to it and the slaves the slaves hang off the
cable &either' as beforef The broadcast comes from the master and the slave with the matching address responds.
Radio Mode*! for Ind+!try% With RS8:7 and RS8<<%
Interfaces* TT0" <S-2-" <S3-- and or 34wire <S3?6 are supported. 1ustom interface standards are also available to
special order. <S3-- and <S3?6 interfaces are very common in industry and are valued for their ability to operate over
long distances and for supporting multi4drop access. &more than one modem or device shares the same cable'.
Our <adio 9odems such as the Blobal" ;niversal and Outback all feature <S-2- ` <S3-- and <S3?6 interfaces as
standard. This makes these units ideal for networking with ,01!s and other similar industrial devices. They also include
internal links that permit selection of - or 34wire operation" a rarity these daysf
The universal modem operates at up to 68"7@@bps over distances of up to 2@@m" whilst the global +@m) up to 2km and
the Blobal B6@@ &6@@m)' up to 2@Om.
'alf D+"le3 ! F+ll D+"le3 and /+ffered )o**+nication!
.alf duplex communications is the mainstay of professional industrial communications systems. It is used by ,01!s and
on scanning telemetry alike. .alf duplex communications is where the sending station sends and receives a message over
a single radio channel or cable. The se5uence is as follows*4
N@+@+@+@+P*NaddressP*NmessageP*N1<1P....turnaround delay......N+@+@+@+@+P*Nreply addressP*Nreply messageP*N1<1P
72
)ith full duplex operation the system normally re5uires two channels to communicate. In the case of cabled systems and
second cable pair or a second modulated carrier and in the case of radio systems a second radio channel normally spaced
at least +@9.z away from the sending carrier. In theory full duplex communications offers many advantages of speed
over half duplex. .owever the improvement are often marginal in particular if packets of data are small. This is because
the reply still cannot be generated until the outgoing message is complete and checked for errors.
N@+@+@+@+P*NaddressP*NmessageP*N1<1P....D+ms delay....N+@+@+@+@+P*Nreply addressP*Nreply messageP*N1<1P
In cases of high noise the :$O can be sent 5uicker to re5uest another packet. %ut in general most links are operated over
conditions with a SI:$/ of better than -@d%. The only saving can be in turn around timef In our case something that can
be as little as +6msf
Aake full duplex or buffered systems can be supplied where the data is loaded into a buffer at the sending end. The
message is then sent over the radio channel and loaded into a buffer at the other end. Ainally it is down loaded into the
remote terminal. This type of system is very slow and can has the ma#or problem of an indeterminate time for reply due
to buffering effect. It is only suitable for a very limited number of applications.
Radio !"ectr+*
Radio !"ectr+* refers to the part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponding to radio fre5uencies I that is"
fre5uencies lower than around 2@@ B.z &or" e5uivalently" wavelengths longer than about + mm'. Electromagnetic waves
in this fre5uency range" called radio waves" are used for radio communication and various other applications" such as
heating. The generation of radio waves is strictly regulated by the government in most countries" coordinated by an
international standards body called the International Telecommunications ;nion &IT;'. /ifferent parts of the radio
spectrum are allocated for different radio transmission technologies and applications. In some cases" parts of the radio
spectrum is sold or licensed to operators of private radio transmission services &for example" cellular telephone operators
or broadcast television stations'. <anges of allocated fre5uencies are often referred to by their provisioned use &for
example" cellular spectrum or television spectrum'.
N+P
/y freD+ency
$ #and is a small section of the spectrum of radio communication fre5uencies" in which channels are usually used or set
aside for the same purpose.
$bove 2@@ B.z" the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth!s atmosphere is so great that the atmosphere is
effectively opa5ue" until it becomes transparent again in the near4infrared and optical window fre5uency ranges.
To prevent interference and allow for efficient use of the radio spectrum" similar services are allocated in bands. Aor
example" broadcasting" mobile radio" or navigation devices" will be allocated in non4overlapping ranges of fre5uencies.
Each of these bands has a basic bandplan which dictates how it is to be used and shared" to avoid interference and to set
protocol for the compatibility of transmitters and receivers. See detail of
bands*http*JJwww.ntia.doc.govJfilesJntiaJSpectrumg;segSummaryg9aster4@7-+-@+@.pdf
73
$s a matter of convention" bands are divided at wavelengths of +@
n
metres" or fre5uencies of 2b+@
n
hertz. Aor example"
2@ 9.z or +@ m divides shortwave &lower and longer' from X.A &shorter and higher'. These are the parts of the radio
spectrum" and not its fre5uency allocation.
/and na*e A##reiation ITU
#and
FreD+ency
and
waelen1th in air
E3a*"le +!e!
Tremendously
low fre5uency
T0A D 2 .z
E +@@"@@@ km
:atural and artificial electromagnetic noise
Extremely low
fre5uency
E0A 2I2@ .z
+@@"@@@ km I +@"@@@ km
1ommunication with submarines
Super low
fre5uency
S0A 2@I2@@ .z
+@"@@@ km I +@@@ km
1ommunication with submarines
;ltra low
fre5uency
;0A 2@@I2@@@ .z
+@@@ km I +@@ km
Submarine communication" 1ommunication
within mines
Xery low
fre5uency
X0A 3 2I2@ k.z
+@@ km I +@ km
:avigation" time signals" submarine
communication" wireless heart rate monitors"
geophysics
0ow fre5uency 0A 6 2@I2@@ k.z
+@ km I + km
:avigation" time signals" $9 longwave
broadcasting &Europe and parts of $sia'" <AI/"
amateur radio
9edium
fre5uency
9A 7 2@@I2@@@ k.z
+ km I +@@ m
$9 &medium4wave' broadcasts" amateur radio"
avalanche beacons
.igh fre5uency .A 8 2I2@ 9.z
+@@ m I +@ m
Shortwave broadcasts" citizens! band radio"
amateur radio and over4the4horizon aviation
communications" <AI/" Over4the4horizon radar"
$utomatic link establishment &$0E' J :ear
Xertical Incidence Skywave &:XIS' radio
communications" 9arine and mobile radio
telephony
Xery high
fre5uency
X.A ? 2@I2@@ 9.z
+@ m I + m
A9" television broadcasts and line4of4sight
ground4to4aircraft and aircraft4to4aircraft
communications. 0and 9obile and 9aritime
9obile communications" amateur radio" weather
74
radio
;ltra high
fre5uency
;.A = 2@@I2@@@ 9.z
+ m I +@@ mm
Television broadcasts" 9icrowave oven"
9icrowave devicesJcommunications" radio
astronomy" mobile phones" wireless 0$:"
%luetooth" Wig%ee" B,S and two4way radios such
as 0and 9obile" A<S and B9<S radios" amateur
radio
Super high
fre5uency
S.A +@ 2I2@ B.z
+@@ mm I +@ mm
<adio astronomy" microwave
devicesJcommunications" wireless 0$:" most
modern radars" communications satellites"
satellite television broadcasting" /%S" amateur
radio
Extremely high
fre5uency
E.A ++ 2@I2@@ B.z
+@ mm I + mm
<adio astronomy" high4fre5uency microwave
radio relay" microwave remote sensing" amateur
radio" directed4energy weapon" millimeter wave
scanner
Terahertz or
Tremendously
high fre5uency
T.z or T.A +- 2@@I2"@@@ B.z
+ mm I +@@ hm
Terahertz imaging I a potential replacement for
U4rays in some medical applications" ultrafast
molecular dynamics" condensed4matter physics"
terahertz time4domain spectroscopy" terahertz
computingJcommunications" sub4mm remote
sensing" amateur radio
ITU
The ITU radio #and! are designations defined in the IT; <adio <egulations. $rticle -" provision :o. -.+ states that the
radio spectrum shall be subdivided into nine fre5uency bands" which shall be designated by progressive whole numbers
in accordance with the following table
N-P
.
The table originated with a recommendation of the IXth 11I< meeting" held in %ucharest in +=28" and was approved by
the International <adio 1onference held at $tlantic 1ity in +=38. The idea to give each band a number" in which the
number is the logarithm of the approximate geometric mean of the upper and lower band limits in .z" originated with
%.1. Aleming4)illiams" who suggested it in a letter to the editor of )ireless Engineer in +=3-. &Aor example" the
approximate geometric mean of %and 8 is +@ 9.z" or +@
8
.z.'
N2P
Table of IT; <adio %ands
/and
N+*#er
Sy*#ol! FreD+ency Ran1e Waelen1th Ran1e
I
3 X0A 2 to 2@ k.z +@ to +@@ km
6 0A 2@ to 2@@ k.z + to +@ km
75
7 9A 2@@ to 2@@@ k.z +@@ to +@@@ m
8 .A 2 to 2@ 9.z +@ to +@@ m
? X.A 2@ to 2@@ 9.z + to +@ m
= ;.A 2@@ to 2@@@ 9.z +@ to +@@ cm
+@ S.A 2 to 2@ B.z + to +@ cm
++ E.A 2@ to 2@@ B.z + to +@ mm
+- T.A 2@@ to 2@@@ B.z @.+ to + mm
IEEE
<adar4fre5uency bands according to IEEE standard
N3P
/and
de!i1nation
FreD+ency
ran1e
Jcitation neededK
.A 2 to 2@ 9.z .igh Are5uency
N6P
X.A 2@ to
2@@ 9.z
Xery .igh
Are5uency
N6P
;.A 2@@ to
+@@@ 9.z
;ltra .igh
Are5uency
N6P
0 + to - B.z 0ong wave
S - to 3 B.z Short wave
1 3 to ? B.z 1ompromise between
S and U
U ? to +- B.z ;sed in )) II for fire
control" U for cross
&as in crosshair'.
Exotic.
N7P
Ou +- to
+? B.z
Ourz4under
O +? to
-8 B.z
Berman Ourz &short'
Oa -8 to
3@ B.z
Ourz4above
X 3@ to
86 B.z
) 86 to ) follows X in the
EU5 NATO5 US E)M
freD+ency de!i1nation!
<adar4fre5uency bands as
defined by :$TO for E19
systems
N8PN7P
/and FreD+ency
ran1e
$ band @ to @.-6 B.z
% band @.-6 to @.6 B.z
1 band @.6 to +.@ B.z
/ band + to - B.z
E band - to 2 B.z
A band 2 to 3 B.z
B band 3 to 7 B.z
. band 7 to ? B.z
I band ? to +@ B.z
G band +@ to -@ B.z
O band -@ to 3@ B.z
0 band 3@ to 7@ B.z
9 band 7@ to +@@ B.z
Wae1+ide freD+ency #and!
See also* )aveguide
&electromagnetism' i
)aveguide in practice
/and FreD+ency
ran1e
J:K
< band +.8@ to
-.7@ B.z
/ band -.-@ to
2.2@ B.z
S band -.7@ to
2.=6 B.z
E band 2.2@ to
3.=@ B.z
B band 2.=6 to
6.?6 B.z
A band 3.=@ to
8.@6 B.z
1 band 6.?6 to
?.-@ B.z
. band 8.@6 to
+@.+@ B.z
U band ?.- to +-.3 B.z
Ou
band
+-.3 to
+?.@ B.z
O band +6.@ to
76
++@ B.z alphabet
mm ++@ to
2@@ B.z
Nnote
+P
9illimeter
N3P
1. The designation mm is also used to
refer to the range from 2@ to 2@@ B.z.
N3P
-7.6 B.z
Oa
band
-7.6 to
3@.@ B.z
K band 22 to 6@ B.z
; band 3@ to 7@ B.z
X band 6@ to 86 B.z
)
band
86 to ++@ B.z
A band =@ to +3@ B.z
/ band ++@ to +8@ B.z
V band 2-6 to 6@@ B.z
)o*"ari!on of radio #and de!i1nation !tandard!
FreD+ency IEEE
J8K
EU5
NATO5
US E)M
ITU
no= a##r=
$ T0A
2 .z + E0A
2@ .z - S0A
2@@ .z 2 ;0A
2 k.z 3 X0A
2@ k.z 6 0A
2@@ k.z 7 9A
2 9.z .A 8 .A
2@ 9.z X.A ? X.A
-6@ 9.z %
2@@ 9.z ;.A = ;.A
6@@ 9.z 1
+ B.z 0 /
- B.z S E
77
2 B.z A +@ S.A
3 B.z 1 B
7 B.z .
? B.z U I
+@ B.z G
+- B.z Ou
+? B.z O
-@ B.z O
-8 B.z Oa
2@ B.z ++ E.A
3@ B.z X 0
7@ B.z 9
86 B.z )
+@@ B.z
++@ B.z mm
2@@ B.z +- T.A
2 T.z
/y a""lication
/roadca!tin1
%roadcast fre5uencies*
0ongwave $9 <adio F +3?.6 k.z I -?2.6 k.z &0A'
9ediumwave $9 <adio F 62@ k.z I +8+@ k.z &9A'
Shortwave $9 <adio F 2 9.z I 2@ 9.z &.A'
/esignations for television and A9 radio broadcast fre5uencies vary between countries" see Television channel
fre5uencies and A9 broadcast band. Since X.A and ;.A fre5uencies are desirable for many uses in urban areas" in
:orth $merica some parts of the former television broadcasting band have been reassigned to cellular phone and various
land mobile communications systems. Even within the allocation still dedicated to television" TX4band devices use
channels without local broadcasters.
78
The $pex band in the ;nited States was a pre4))II allocation for X.A audio broadcasting( it was made obsolete after
the introduction of A9 broadcasting.
Air #and
$irband refers to X.A fre5uencies used for navigation and voice communication with aircraft. Trans4oceanic aircraft
also carry .A radio and satellite transceivers.
Marine #and
The greatest incentive for development of radio was the need to communicate with ships out of visual range of shore.
Arom the very early days of radio" large oceangoing vessels carried powerful long4wave and medium4wave transmitters.
.igh4fre5uency allocations are still designated for ships" although satellite systems have taken over some of the safety
applications previously served by 6@@ k.z and other fre5uencies. -+?- k.z is a medium4wave fre5uency still used for
marine emergency communication.
9arine X.A radio is used in coastal waters and relatively short4range communication between vessels and to shore
stations. <adios are channelized" with different channels used for different purposes( marine 1hannel +7 is used for
calling and emergencies.
A*ate+r radio freD+encie!
$mateur radio fre5uency allocations vary around the world. Several bands are common for amateurs world4wide" usually
in the shortwave part of the spectrum. Other bands are national or regional allocations only due to differing allocations
for other services" especially in the X.A and ;.A parts of the radio spectrum.
)itiBen!L #and and "er!onal radio !erice!
1itizens! band radio is allocated in many countries" using channelized radios in the upper .A part of the spectrum
&around -8 9.z'. It is used for personal" small business and hobby purposes. Other fre5uency allocations are used for
similar services in different #urisdictions" for example ;.A 1% is allocated in $ustralia. $ wide range of personal radio
services exist around the world" usually emphasizing short4range communication between individuals or for small
businesses" simplified or no license re5uirements" and usually A9 transceivers using around + watt or less.
Ind+!trial5 !cientific5 *edical
The IS9 bands were initially reserved for non4communications uses of <A energy" such as microwave ovens" radio4
fre5uency heating" and similar purposes. .owever in recent years the largest use of these bands has been by short4range
low4power communications systems" since users do not have to hold a radio operator!s license. 1ordless telephones"
wireless computer networks" %luetooth devices" and garage door openers all use the IS9 bands. IS9 devices do not have
regulatory protection against interference from other users of the band.
Land *o#ile #and!
79
%ands of fre5uencies" especially in the X.A and ;.A parts of the spectrum" are allocated for communication between
fixed base stations and land mobile vehicle4mounted or portable transceivers. In the ;nited States these services are
informally known as business band radio. See also ,rofessional mobile radio.
,olice radio and other public safety services such as fire departments and ambulances are generally found in the X.A
and ;.A parts of the spectrum. Trunking systems are often used to make most efficient use of the limited number of
fre5uencies available.
The demand for mobile telephone service has led to large blocks of radio spectrum allocated to cellular fre5uencies.
Radio control
<eliable radio control uses bands dedicated to the purpose. <adio4controlled toys may use portions of unlicensed
spectrum in the -8 9.z or 3= 9.z bands" but more costly aircraft" boat" or land vehicle models use dedicated remote
control fre5uencies near 8- 9.z to avoid interference by unlicensed uses. 0icensed amateur radio operators use portions
of the 74meter band in :orth $merica. Industrial remote control of cranes or railway locomotives use assigned
fre5uencies that vary by area.
Radar
<adar applications use relatively high power pulse transmitters and sensitive receivers" so radar is operated on bands not
used for other purposes. 9ost radar bands are in the microwave part of the spectrum" although certain important
applications for meteorology make use of powerful transmitters in the ;.A band.
80
81