EXPERIMENT 1: ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT 1

Abstract
Electrical circuit means a lot to us in our daily lifestyle. Therefore, we are able to gain knowledge
about electrical devices and the way to measure electrical circuits by doing this experiment
about electrical circuit. The tools needed to complete this experiment are the electronic training
kit, digital multimeter, carbon composition resistors, wire, and variable resistor. We also apply
some theorems such as Ohms Law, Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, Kirchhoffs Current Law,
Superposition principle, Thevenin and Nortons Theorem to calculate the currents and the
voltages across the electrical circuits. By using the electrical devices to form an electrical circuit
and apply these theorems, we are able to find the results and come to a conclusion that
currents, voltages and resistance are all related to each others in the electrical circuits which is
very important and useful in our future and daily lifestyles.


Objective
Students should be able to:
1.) Make simple circuit connection correctly.
2.) Use digital multimeter correctly to measure current, voltage, resistance and also
connectivity of the circuit.
3.) Observe and record readings from digital multimeter and examine its error.
4.) Compare measured values to theorical calculations and verify Kirchhoffs voltage law.
5.) Analyze basic DC circuit using superposition, Thevenin and Norton theorem.
6.) Outline the safety precautions when using digital multimeter.







Theoretical Background
We use Ohms Law which states that current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the constant of
proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes
this relationship:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units
of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent
of the current.
We also use Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL), which states that the algebraic sum of all voltages
around a closed path (or loop) is zero, and Kirchhoffs current law (KCL), which states that the
algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero, to calculate the voltage
and the current of the resistors in the circuit.
We also use the superposition principle which states that the voltage across (or current through)
an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum if the voltages across (or current through) that
element due to each independent source acting alone.
We also use the Thevenins theorem which states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source V
th
is the open-circuit voltage at
the terminals and the R
th
is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent source are turned off.

We use the Nortons theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
RTh= Voc / Isc= RN
where R
Th
= the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
V
OC
= the voltage of the open-circuit across the terminals
I
SC
= the current of the short-circuit at the terminals
R
N
= the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals


Equipment Required
The list of the equipment required for this exercise.
1. Electronic training kit
2. Digital multimeter
3. Carbon composition resistors with different values (4.7k, 3.3k, 680)
4. Wire/jumper
5. Variable Resistor



Procedures
Part A: Voltage and Current Measurements in Series and Parallel DC Circuits

1. Refer to the circuit of Figure 1. Total Resistance (R
T
), current (I) and the voltage (V) were
calculated across each resistor.
2. The results in a table form were shown with correct (x axis: current and voltage value, y
axis: resistor value).
3. The resistors as shown in the network of Figure 1 are connected. The digital multimeter
was used to measure the resistance across the open terminals.
4. The results in a table form with correct units are shown. (x axis: current and voltage
value, y axis: resistor value)



Part B: Superposition Theorem

1. Current (I
1,
I
2,
I
3
) and the voltage (V
ab
, V
b
, V
bc
) were calculated for each resistor by using
superposition theorem.
2. The calculation result was shown in a table form (x axis: current and voltage value, y axis:
resistor value).
3. Step 1 and 2 were repeated by reversing the polarity.
4. The circuit of Figure 2 was connected. The voltages (V
ab
, V
b
, V
bc
) and currents (I
1,
I
2,
I
3
)
were measured.
5. The results were shown in table form (x axis: current and voltage value, y axis: resistor
value).
6. Step 4 and 5 were repeated by reversing the polarity.
7. The voltage source E
2
was removed from the circuit of Figure 2 and was replaced with a
short circuit. The voltages V
ab
, V
b
, V
bc
were measured and the currents I
1,
I
2,
I
3
were
calculated due to the voltage source E
1
.
8. The results were shown in table form (x axis: current and voltage value, y axis: resistor
value).
9. The voltage source E
1
was removed from the circuit of Figure 2 and replaced with a
short circuit. The voltages V
ab
, V
b
, V
bc
were measured and the results were used to
calculate the currents I
1,
I
2,
I
3
due to the voltage source E
2
.
10. The results was shown in table form (x axis: current and voltage value, y axis: resistor
value).
11. Step 7, 8, 9 and 10 were repeated by reversing the polarity.





Part C: Thevenin and Norton Theorem

1. The circuit of Figure 3; the load resistor R
L
is excluded. The digital multimeter across
terminals a and b.
2. The open-circuit voltage was measured and recorded. (This is the Thevenin voltage, E
th
)
3. The Digital multimeter between terminals a and b was inserted and the value is
measured. (Note : The ammeter was adjusted to measure the expected Norton current.)
4. The voltage source was removed from the circuit and it is replaced with a short circuit.
5. The resistance value between terminal a and b was measured by using Digital
multimeter. (This is the Thevenin resistance R
Th
)
6. The voltage source was reconnected into the circuit. The variable 10k resistor was
connected as a rheostat and it is inserted as the load resistance R
L
.
7. The variable resistor was adjusted between its minimum and maximum values. The
maximum and minimum output voltage V
L
were measured and recorded.
8. The Digital multimeter was placed in series with the load resistor R
L
. The variable
resistor was adjusted between its minimum and maximum values. The minimum and
maximum load current I
L
was measured and recorded.
9. The Digital multimeteer was connected across the load resistor. The R
L
was adjusted
until the output voltage was exactly half of the Thevenin voltage measured before.
10. When V
L
= E
Th
/2, the load resistor received the maximum amount of power from the
circuit. The R
L
was carefully removed from the circuit, ensuring that the rheostat is not
accidentally readjusted. The DMM ohmmeter was used to measure the value of R
L
. The
measurements were recorded.
11. The measurement result was compared with the calculation. The result is presented in a
table form.




Results and Discussion
Part A: Voltage and Current Measurements in Series and Parallel DC Circuits
Since R
3
is series to R
4
, therefore R
3
+ R
4
= 4.7 x 10
3
+ 680
= 5.38 x 10
3

= 5.38 k
Since R
3
+ R
4
is parallel with R
2
, therefore 1/R = 1/R
2
+ 1/(R
3
+ R
4
)
= 1/680 + 1/(5.38 x 10
3
)
R = 603.7
Since R is series with R
1
, therefore R + R
1
= 603.7 + 3.3 x 10
3

R
T
= 3903.7
R
T
= 3.904 k
V
1
= I
1
R
T

I
1
= V
1
/R
T

= 10 V / 3.904 x 10
3

= 2.56 x 10
-3
A
= 2.56 mA
I
3
= [(R
3
+ R
4
)( I
1
)] / (R
2
+ R
3
+ R
4
)
= (5380 x 2.56 x 10
-3
A) / ( 680 + 4700 + 680 )
= 2.27 x 10
-3
A
= 2.27 mA
I
2
= R
2
I
1
/ (R
2
+ R
3
+ R
4
)
= (680 x 2.56 x 10
-3
A) / ( 680 + 4700 + 680 )
= 2.87 x 10
-4
A
= 0.29 mA
V
R1
= I
1
R
1
V
R2
= I
3
R
2

= (2.56 x 10
-3
) (3.3 x 10
3
) = (2.27 x 10
-3
) (680)
= 8.45 V = 1.54 V

V
R3
= I
2
R
3
V
R4
= I
2
R
4

= (0.29 x 10
-3
) ( 4.7 x 10
3
) = ( 0.29 x 10
-3
) (680)
= 1.35 V = 0.19 V
Calculations
Resistor Current / mA Voltage, V / V
R
1
/ 3.30k I
1
/ 2.56 8.45
R
2
/ 0.68k I
3
/ 2.27 1.54
R
3
/ 4.70k I
2
/ 0.29 1.35
R
4
/ 0.68k I
2
/ 0.29 0.19
Measurements
Resistor Current / mA Voltage, V / V
R
1
/ 3.23k I
1
/ 2.60 8.45
R
2
/ 0.67k I
3
/ 2.31 1.55
R
3
/ 4.60k I
2
/ 0.29 1.35
R
4
/ 0.67k I
2
/ 0.29 0.19
Discussion:-
a. After comparing the calculation and measurements, the difference between the two
values is quite small.
b. Readings from actual measurements defer from calculated values was due to the
inaccurate voltage input from the electronic training kit voltage source, which is 5.11V
instead of the required 5.00V.
c. Internal resistance of the wires was not taken into account when doing the calculations,
therefore results was not as accurate.
d. We must supply the voltage and the current correctly to the positive and negative
terminal; this is to avoid the measurements becoming negative value.



Part B: Superposition Theorem
Calculation
1.) For the circuit with E
1
and E
2
,
I
1

= I
2
+ I
3

Apply KVL at loop LHS clockwise, -V
E1
+ V
R1
+ V
R2
= 0
-10 + I
1
R
1
+ I
3
R
2
= 0
-10 + 3300 I
1
+ 680 I
3
= 0
Apply KVL at loop RHS clockwise, -V
R2
+ V
R3
+ V
E2
= 0
-I
3
R
2
+ I
2
R
3
+ 5 = 0
-680 I
3
+ 4700 I
2
+ 5 = 0
From , I
1
= ( 10 680 I
3
) / 3300
From , I
2
= ( 680 I
3
5 ) / 4700
Substitute and into ,
[ ( 10 680 I
3
) / 3300 ] = I
3
+ [ ( 680 I
3
5 ) / 4700 ]
4700 ( 10 680 I
3
) = 3300 ( 5380 I
3
5 )
20950000 I
3
= 63500
I
3
= 3.03 mA
Substitute I
3
= 3.03 mA into , Substitute I
3
= 3.03 mA into ,
I
1
= [ 10 680 ( 3.03 x 10
-3
) ] / 3300 I
2
= [ 680 (3.03 x 10
-3
)

5 ] / 4700
= 2.41 mA = -0.63 mA
V
AB
= I
1
R
1
V
B
= I
3
R
2
V
BC
= I
2
R
3
= (2.41 x 10
-3
A) (3300 ) = (3.03 x 10
-3
A) (680 ) = (-0.63 x 10
-3
A) (4700 )
= 7.95 V = 2.06 V = -2.96 V

Resistor Current / mA Voltage, V / V
R
1
/ 3.30 k I
1
/ 2.41 7.95
R
2
/ 0.68 k I
3
/ 3.03 2.06
R
3
/ 4.70 k I
2
/ -0.63 -2.96

2.) For the circuit with the reverse polarity of E
1
and E
2
,
I
1

= I
2
+ I
3

Apply KVL at loop LHS clockwise, V
E1
+ V
R1
+ V
R2
= 0
10 + I
1
R
1
+ I
3
R
2
= 0
10 + 3300 I
1
+ 680 I
3
= 0
Apply KVL at loop RHS clockwise, -V
R2
+ V
R3
- V
E2
= 0
-I
3
R
2
+ I
2
R
3
- 5 = 0
-680 I
3
+ 4700 I
2
- 5 = 0
From , I
1
= ( -10 680 I
3
) / 3300
From , I
2
= ( 680 I
3
+ 5 ) / 4700
Substitute and into ,
[ ( -10 680 I
3
) / 3300 ] = I
3
+ [ ( 680 I
3
+ 5 ) / 4700 ]
4700 ( -10 680 I
3
)= 3300 ( 5380 I
3
+ 5 )
20950000 I
3
= -63500
I
3
= -3.03 mA
Substitute I
3
= -3.03 mA into , Substitute I
3
= 3.03 mA into ,
I
1
= [ -10 680 ( -3.03 x 10
-3
) ] / 3300 I
3
= [ 680 ( -3.03 x 10
-3
)

+ 5 ] / 4700
= -2.41 mA = 0.63 mA


V
AB
= I
1
R
1
V
B
= I
3
R
2
V
BC
= I
2
R
3
= (-2.41 x 10
-3
A) (3300 ) = (-3.03 x 10
-3
A) (680 ) = (0.63 x 10
-3
A) (4700 )
= -7.95 V = -2.06 V = 2.96 V

Resistor Current / mA Voltage, V / V
R
1
/ 3.30 k I
1
/ -2.41 -7.95
R
2
/ 0.68 k I
3
/ -3.03 -2.06
R
3
/ 4.70 k I
2
/ 0.63 2.96
Measurements
1.) For the circuit with E
1
and E
2

Resistor Current, I / mA Voltage, V / V
R
1
/ 3.23 k I
1
/ 2.45 7.95
R
2
/ 0.67 k I
3
/ 3.10 2.07
R
3
/ 4.60 k I
2
/ 0.65 3.03
2.) For the circuit with reverse polarity of E
1
and E
2

Resistor Current, I / mA Voltage, V / V
R
1
/ 3.23 k I
1
/ -2.45 -7.95
R
2
/ 0.67 k I
3
/ -3.10 -2.07
R
3
/ 4.60 k I
2
/ -0.65 -3.03
1.) For the measurement of voltages and calculation of currents: -

a.) After removing E
2
= 5 V from the circuit and replace with short circuit, the measurement
of V
AB
= 8.46 V
,
V
B
= 1.52 V and V
BC
= 1.52 V.
Using Ohms Law, V = I R,
V
AB
= I
1
R
1
V
B
= I
3
R
2
V
BC
= I
2
R
3

I
1
= V
AB
/ R
1
I
3
= V
B
/ R
2
I
2
= V
BC
/ R
3


= 8.46 / 3230 = 1.52 / 670 = 1.52 / 4600
= 2.62 mA = 2.27 mA = 0.33 mA


Resistor Current, I / mA Voltage, V / V
R
1
/ 3.23 k I
1
/ 2.62 8.46
R
2
/ 0.67 k I
3
/ 2.27 1.52
R
3
/ 4.60 k I
2
/ 0.33 1.52

b.) After removing E
1
= 10 V from the circuit and replace with short circuit, the
measurement of V
AB
= 0.54 V
,
V
B
= 0.54 V and V
BC
= 4.56 V.
Using Ohms Law, V = I R,
V
AB
= I
1
R
1
V
B
= I
3
R
2
V
BC
= I
2
R
3

I
1
= V
AB
/ R
1
I
3
= V
B
/ R
2
I
2
= V
BC
/ R
3


= 0.54 / 3230 = 0.54 / 670 = 4.56 / 4600
= 0.17 mA = 0.81 mA = 0.99 mA
Resistor Current, I / mA Voltage, V / V
R
1
/ 3.23 k I
1
/ 0.17 0.54
R
2
/ 0.67 k I
3
/ 0.81 0.54
R
3
/ 4.60 k I
2
/ 0.99 4.56
2.) For the measurement of voltages and calculation of currents using reverse polarity of
voltage source: -

a.) After removing E
2
= 5 V from the circuit and replace with short circuit, the measurement
of V
AB
= -8.45 V
,
V
B
= -1.52 V and V
BC
= -1.52 V.
Using Ohms Law, V = I R,
V
AB
= I
1
R
1
V
B
= I
3
R
2
V
BC
= I
2
R
3

I
1
= V
AB
/ R
1
I
3
= V
B
/ R
2
I
2
= V
BC
/ R
3


= -8.45 / 3230 = -1.52 / 670 = -1.52 / 4600
= -2.61 mA = -2.27 mA = -0.33 mA
Resistor Current, I / mA Voltage, V / V
R
1
/ 3.23 k I
1
/ -2.61 -8.45
R
2
/ 0.67 k I
3
/ -2.27 -1.52
R
3
/ 4.60 k I
2
/ -0.33 -1.52

b.) After removing E
1
= 10 V from the circuit and replace with short circuit, the
measurement of V
AB
= -0.54 V
,
V
B
= -0.54 V and V
BC
= -4.56 V.
Using Ohms Law, V = I R,
V
AB
= I
1
R
1
V
B
= I
3
R
2
V
BC
= I
2
R
3

I
1
= V
AB
/ R
1
I
3
= V
B
/ R
2
I
2
= V
BC
/ R
3


= -0.54 / 3230 = -0.54 / 670 = -4.56 / 4600
= -0.17 mA = -0.81 mA = -0.99 mA
Resistor Current, I / mA Voltage, V / V
R
1
/ 3.23 k I
1
/ -0.17 -0.54
R
2
/ 0.67 k I
3
/ -0.81 -0.54
R
3
/ 4.60 k I
2
/ -0.99 -4.56
Discussion:-
a. From the table above, either the calculation or the measurement also show the same
types of value which is the forward polarity and the reverse polarity is just difference by
their signs.
b. This is due to the current entering the resistor in different direction which is the forward
bias and reverses bias.
c. This difference is due to Readings from actual measurements defer from calculated values
was due to the inaccurate voltage input from the electronic training kit voltage source,
which is 5.11V instead of the required 5.00V.
d. Besides, internal resistance of the wires was not taken into account when doing the
calculations, therefore results was not as accurate.
e. We know that the superposition principle states that the voltage across an element
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across the element due to each independent
source acting alone. Thus, the results shown obey the principle of Superposition.






Part C: Thevenin and Norton Theorem
Measurements
Open circuit voltage (Thevenin Voltage)

= 1.71 V
Norton Current

= 0.32 A
Thevenin Resistance

= 5.28 k

Maximum Output Voltage,

= 1.12 V
Minimum Output Voltage,

= 0.27 V
Maximum Load Current,

= 0.28mA
Minimum Load Current,

= 0.10mA
Value of

, when

/2

= 5.30 k
Value of

when measured with DMM Ohmmeter

= 5.34 k

Calculations
-10 + 3300

+ 680(

-

) = 0
-10 + 3980

680

= 0
4700

+ 680(

-

) = 0
4020

+ 680

= 0


= 4020

/680
Substitute into
-10 + 3980(4020

/680) - 680

= 0

= 0.44 mA

= 2.59 mA
Thevenin Voltage:

x (

)
= 1.46 V
Norton Current:

/ (

)
= 1.46 / 5.28k
= 0.28mA

/ (

)

Maximum Output Voltage,

= 1.00 V
Minimum Output Voltage,

= 0.84 V
Maximum Load Current,

= 0.27mA
Minimum Load Current,

= 0.10mA





Graph of Resistance, x10k against Output Voltage,

Discussion:-
a. This can be proved as the measurement is likely to be the same as the calculations. This
small difference is due to the random error.
b. Readings from actual measurements defer from calculated values was due to the
inaccurate voltage input from the electronic training kit voltage source, which is 5.11V
instead of the required 5.00V.
c. Internal resistance of the wires was not taken into account when doing the calculations,
therefore results was not as accurate.
d. From the definition of Thevenin and Nortons Theorem, we can prove that this
experiment does obey the theorems.








0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
,

I

/

m
A

Resistor, R / k
Conclusion
It can be conclude that the objective of this experiment has been achieved as the measurement
of the experiment and the calculation obeys the theorems such as Superposition principle,
Ohms Law, Thevenin and Nortons Theorem. These theorems show the relation of the voltage
(potential difference), current and resistance and this relation can be seen through the
experiment. Although there are some small errors detected, the voltage and current reading are
still not affected very much.
References:
1.) Alexander Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, Fourth Edition. McGraw-Hill
International Edition 2009.
2.) Findings of Theorems, www.wikipedia.com