Sheet metal

Sheets of Nirosta stainless steel cover the Chrysler Building

Microscopic close-up of mild steel sheet metal.
Sheet metal is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental forms used
in metalworking and it can be cut and bent into a variety of shapes. Countless everyday objects are constructed with
sheet metal. Thicknesses can vary significantly; extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker
than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate.
Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or coiled strips. The coils are formed by running a continuous sheet of metal
through a roll slitter.
The thickness of sheet metal is commonly specified by a traditional, non-linear measure known as its gauge. The larger
the gauge number, the thinner the metal. Commonly used steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauge to about 8 gauge.
Gauge differs between ferrous (iron based) metals and a nonferrous metal such as aluminum or copper; copper
thickness, for example is measured in ounces (and represents the thickness of 1 ounce of copper rolled out to an area of
1 square foot).
There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such
as aluminum, brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. For decorative uses, important sheet metals
include silver, gold, and platinum (platinum sheet metal is also utilized as a catalyst.)
Sheet metal is used for car bodies, airplane wings, medical tables, roofs for buildings (architecture) and many other
applications. Sheet metal of iron and other materials with high magnetic permeability, also known as laminated steel
cores, has applications in transformers and electric machines. Historically, an important use of sheet metal was in plate
armor worn by cavalry, and sheet metal continues to have many decorative uses, including inhorse tack. Sheet metal
workers are also known as "tin bashers" (or "tin knockers"), a name derived from the hammering of panel seams when
installing tin roofs.
In 2011, the sheet metal industry was almost $20.5 billion in the United States.
[1]
There were 4,000 firms employing
106,000 sheet metal workers.
Contents
1 Materials
o 1.1 Stainless steel
o 1.2 Aluminium
2 Gauge
o 2.1 Tolerances
3 Forming processes
o 3.1 Bending
o 3.2 Curling
o 3.3 Decambering
o 3.4 Deep drawing
o 3.5 Expanding
o 3.6 Incremental sheet forming
o 3.7 Ironing
o 3.8 Laser cutting
o 3.9 Perforating
o 3.10 Press brake forming
o 3.11 Punching
o 3.12 Roll forming
o 3.13 Rolling
o 3.14 Spinning
o 3.15 Stamping
o 3.16 Water jet cutting
o 3.17 Wheeling
4 Fasteners

Materials
Stainless steel
Usage of steel as a building material is popular as a cost effective, quality material as compared to the alternatives.The
three most common stainless steel grades available in sheet metal are 304, 316, and 410.
Grade 304 is the most common of the three grades. It offers good corrosion resistance while
maintaining formability and weldability. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4. Grade 303 is not available in sheet form.
Grade 316 possesses more corrosion resistance and strength at elevated temperatures than 304. It is commonly used
for pumps, valves, chemical equipment, and marine applications. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4.
Grade 410 is a heat treatable stainless steel, but it has a lower corrosion resistance than the other grades. It is commonly
used in cutlery. The only available finish is dull.
Aluminum
Aluminum is also a popular metal used in sheet metal due to its flexibility, wide range of options, cost effectiveness, and
other properties. The four most common aluminum grades available as sheet metal are 1100-H14, 3003-H14, 5052-H32,
and 6061-T6.
Grade 1100-H14 is commercially pure aluminum, highly chemical and weather resistant. It is ductile enough for deep
drawing and weldable, but has low strength. It is commonly used in chemical processing equipment, light reflectors,
and jewelry.
Grade 3003-H14 is stronger than 1100, while maintaining the same formability and low cost. It is corrosion resistant and
weldable. It is often used in stampings, spun and drawn parts, mail boxes cabinets, tanks, and fan blades.

Grade 5052-H32 is much stronger than 3003 while still maintaining good formability. It maintains high corrosion
resistance and weldability. Common applications include electronic chassis, tanks, and pressure vessels.
Grade 6061-T6 is a common heat-treated structural aluminum alloy. It is weldable, corrosion resistant, and stronger than
5052, but not as formable. It loses some of its strength when welded.
[3]
It is used in modern aircraft structures.
[

Gauge
Use of Gauge to designate sheet metal thickness is discouraged by numerous international standards organizations. For
Example, ASTM states in specification ASTM A480-10a "The use of gage number is discouraged as being an archaic
term of limited usefulness not having general agreement on meaning."

Manufacturers' Standard Gauge for Sheet Steel is based on an average weight of 41.82 lb (18.96 kg) per square foot
per inch thick. Gauge is defined differently for ferrous (iron-based) and non-ferrous metals (e.g., aluminum and brass).
Standard sheet metal gauges
Gauge
U.S. standard
for sheet and plate
iron and steel
decimal inch (mm)
Steel inch
(mm)
Galvanized steel
inch (mm)
Stainless
steel
inch (mm)
Aluminium
inch (mm)
Zinc
inch (mm)
0000000 0.5000 (12.70) ...... ...... ...... ...... ......
000000 0.4688 (11.91) ...... ...... ...... ...... ......
00000 0.4375 (11.11) ...... ...... ...... ...... ......
0000 0.4063 (10.32) ...... ...... ...... ...... ......
000 0.3750 (9.53) ...... ...... ...... ...... ......
00 0.3438 (8.73) ...... ...... ...... ...... ......
0 0.3125 (7.94) ...... ...... ...... ...... ......
1 0.2813 (7.15) ...... ...... ...... ...... ......
2 0.2656 (6.75) ...... ...... ...... ...... ......
3 0.2500 (6.35) 0.2391 (6.07) ...... ...... ...... 0.006 (0.15)
4 0.2344 (5.95) 0.2242 (5.69) ...... ...... ...... 0.008 (0.20)
5 0.2188 (5.56) 0.2092 (5.31) ...... ...... ...... 0.010 (0.25)
6 0.2031 (5.16) 0.1943 (4.94) ...... ...... 0.162 (4.1) 0.012 (0.30)
7 0.1875 (4.76) 0.1793 (4.55) ...... 0.1875 (4.76) 0.1443 (3.67) 0.014 (0.36)
8 0.1719 (4.37) 0.1644 (4.18) 0.1681 (4.27) 0.1719 (4.37) 0.1285 (3.26) 0.016 (0.41)
9 0.1563 (3.97) 0.1495 (3.80) 0.1532 (3.89) 0.1563 (3.97) 0.1144 (2.91) 0.018 (0.46)
10 0.1406 (3.57) 0.1345 (3.42) 0.1382 (3.51) 0.1406 (3.57) 0.1019 (2.59) 0.020 (0.51)
11 0.1250 (3.18) 0.1196 (3.04) 0.1233 (3.13) 0.1250 (3.18) 0.0907 (2.30) 0.024 (0.61)
12 0.1094 (2.78) 0.1046 (2.66) 0.1084 (2.75) 0.1094 (2.78) 0.0808 (2.05) 0.028 (0.71)
13 0.0938 (2.38) 0.0897 (2.28) 0.0934 (2.37) 0.094 (2.4) 0.072 (1.8) 0.032 (0.81)
14 0.0781 (1.98) 0.0747 (1.90) 0.0785 (1.99) 0.0781 (1.98) 0.0641 (1.63) 0.036 (0.91)
15 0.0703 (1.79) 0.0673 (1.71) 0.0710 (1.80) 0.07 (1.8) 0.057 (1.4) 0.040 (1.0)
16 0.0625 (1.59) 0.0598 (1.52) 0.0635 (1.61) 0.0625 (1.59) 0.0508 (1.29) 0.045 (1.1)
17 0.0563 (1.43) 0.0538 (1.37) 0.0575 (1.46) 0.056 (1.4) 0.045 (1.1) 0.050 (1.3)
18 0.0500 (1.27) 0.0478 (1.21) 0.0516 (1.31) 0.0500 (1.27) 0.0403 (1.02) 0.055 (1.4)
19 0.0438 (1.11) 0.0418 (1.06) 0.0456 (1.16) 0.044 (1.1) 0.036 (0.91) 0.060 (1.5)
20 0.0375 (0.95) 0.0359 (0.91) 0.0396 (1.01) 0.0375 (0.95) 0.0320 (0.81) 0.070 (1.8)
21 0.0344 (0.87) 0.0329 (0.84) 0.0366 (0.93) 0.034 (0.86) 0.028 (0.71) 0.080 (2.0)
22 0.0313 (0.80) 0.0299 (0.76) 0.0336 (0.85) 0.031 (0.79) 0.025 (0.64) 0.090 (2.3)
23 0.0281 (0.71) 0.0269 (0.68) 0.0306 (0.78) 0.028 (0.71) 0.023 (0.58) 0.100 (2.5)
24 0.0250 (0.64) 0.0239 (0.61) 0.0276 (0.70) 0.025 (0.64) 0.02 (0.51) 0.125 (3.2)
25 0.0219 (0.56) 0.0209 (0.53) 0.0247 (0.63) 0.022 (0.56) 0.018 (0.46) ......
Tolerances
During the rolling process the rollers bow slightly, which results in the sheets being thinner on the edges.
[3]
The
tolerances in the table and attachments reflect current manufacturing practices and commercial standards and are not
representative of the Manufacturer's Standard Gauge, which has no inherent tolerances.
26 0.0188 (0.48) 0.0179 (0.45) 0.0217 (0.55) 0.019 (0.48) 0.017 (0.43) ......
27 0.0172 (0.44) 0.0164 (0.42) 0.0202 (0.51) 0.017 (0.43) 0.014 (0.36) ......
28 0.0156 (0.40) 0.0149 (0.38) 0.0187 (0.47) 0.016 (0.41) 0.0126 (0.32) ......
29 0.0141 (0.36) 0.0135 (0.34) 0.0172 (0.44) 0.014 (0.36) 0.0113 (0.29) ......
30 0.0125 (0.32) 0.0120 (0.30) 0.0157 (0.40) 0.013 (0.33) 0.0100 (0.25) ......
31 0.0109 (0.28) 0.0105 (0.27) 0.0142 (0.36) 0.011 (0.28) 0.0089 (0.23) ......
32 0.0102 (0.26) 0.0097 (0.25) ...... ...... ...... ......
33 0.0094 (0.24) 0.0090 (0.23) ...... ...... ...... ......
34 0.0086 (0.22) 0.0082 (0.21) ...... ...... ...... ......
35 0.0078 (0.20) 0.0075 (0.19) ...... ...... ...... ......
36 0.0070 (0.18) 0.0067 (0.17) ...... ...... ...... ......
37 0.0066 (0.17) 0.0064 (0.16) ...... ...... ...... ......
38 0.0063 (0.16) 0.0060 (0.15) ...... ...... ...... ......
Steel sheet metal
tolerances
[14][3]

Gauge
Nominal
[in (mm)]
Max
[in (mm)]
Min
[in (mm)]
10 0.1345 (3.42) 0.1405 (3.57) 0.1285 (3.26)
11 0.1196 (3.04) 0.1256 (3.19) 0.1136 (2.89)
12 0.1046 (2.66) 0.1106 (2.81) 0.0986 (2.50)
14 0.0747 (1.90) 0.0797 (2.02) 0.0697 (1.77)
16 0.0598 (1.52) 0.0648 (1.65) 0.0548 (1.39)
18 0.0478 (1.21) 0.0518 (1.32) 0.0438 (1.11)
Forming processes[edit]
Bending[edit]
Main article: Bending
The equation for estimating the maximum bending force is,
,
where k is a factor taking into account several parameters
including friction. T is the ultimate tensile strength of the
metal. L and t are the length and thickness of the sheet metal,
respectively. The variable W is the open width of a V-die or
wiping die.
Curling[edit]
Main article: Curling
Decambering[edit]
Main article: Decambering
Deep drawing[edit]
Main article: Deep drawing


Example of deep drawn part
Drawing is a forming process in which the metal is stretched over a
form. In deep drawing the depth of the part being made is more
than half its diameter. Deep drawing is used for making automotive
fuel tanks, kitchen sinks, two-piece aluminum cans, etc. Deep
drawing is generally done in multiple steps called draw reductions.
The greater the depth the more reductions are required. Deep drawing may also be accomplished with fewer reductions
by heating the workpiece, for example in sink manufacture.
In many cases, material is rolled at the mill in both directions to aid in deep drawing. This leads to a more uniform grain
structure which limits tearing and is referred to as "draw quality" material.
Expanding[edit]
Main article: Expanded sheet metal
Expanding is a process of cutting or stamping slits in alternating pattern much like the stretcher bond in brickwork and
then stretching the sheet open in accordion-like fashion. It is used in applications where air and water flow are desired as
20 0.0359 (0.91) 0.0389 (0.99) 0.0329 (0.84)
22 0.0299 (0.76) 0.0329 (0.84) 0.0269 (0.68)
24 0.0239 (0.61) 0.0269 (0.68) 0.0209 (0.53)
26 0.0179 (0.45) 0.0199 (0.51) 0.0159 (0.40)
28 0.0149 (0.38) 0.0169 (0.43) 0.0129 (0.33)
Aluminium sheet metal tolerances
[3]

Thickness
[in (mm)]
Sheet width
36 (914.4)
[in (mm)]
48 (1,219)
[in (mm)]
0.0180.028 (0.460.71) 0.002 (0.051) 0.0025 (0.064)
0.0290.036 (0.740.91) 0.002 (0.051) 0.0025 (0.064)
0.0370.045 (0.941.14) 0.0025 (0.064) 0.003 (0.076)
0.0460.068 (1.21.7) 0.003 (0.076) 0.004 (0.10)
0.0690.076 (1.81.9) 0.003 (0.076) 0.004 (0.10)
0.0770.096 (2.02.4) 0.0035 (0.089) 0.004 (0.10)
0.0970.108 (2.52.7) 0.004 (0.10) 0.005 (0.13)
0.1090.125 (2.83.2) 0.0045 (0.11) 0.005 (0.13)
0.1260.140 (3.23.6) 0.0045 (0.11) 0.005 (0.13)
0.1410.172 (3.64.4) 0.006 (0.15) 0.008 (0.20)
0.1730.203 (4.45.2) 0.007 (0.18) 0.010 (0.25)
0.2040.249 (5.26.3) 0.009 (0.23) 0.011 (0.28)
Stainless steel sheet metal tolerances
[3]

Thickness
[in (mm)]
Sheet width
36 (914.4)
[in (mm)]
48 (1,219)
[in (mm)]
0.0170.030 (0.430.76) 0.0015 (0.038) 0.002 (0.051)
0.0310.041 (0.791.04) 0.002 (0.051) 0.003 (0.076)
0.0420.059 (1.11.5) 0.003 (0.076) 0.004 (0.10)
0.0600.073 (1.51.9) 0.003 (0.076) 0.0045 (0.11)
0.0740.084 (1.92.1) 0.004 (0.10) 0.0055 (0.14)
0.0850.099 (2.22.5) 0.004 (0.10) 0.006 (0.15)
0.1000.115 (2.52.9) 0.005 (0.13) 0.007 (0.18)
0.1160.131 (2.93.3) 0.005 (0.13) 0.0075 (0.19)
0.1320.146 (3.43.7) 0.006 (0.15) 0.009 (0.23)
0.1470.187 (3.74.7) 0.007 (0.18) 0.0105 (0.27)
well as when light weight is desired at cost of a solid flat surface. A similar process is used in other materials such as
paper to create a low cost packing paper with better supportive properties than flat paper alone.
Incremental sheet forming[edit]
Main article: Incremental sheet forming
Ironing[edit]
Main article: Ironing
Laser cutting[edit]
Main article: Laser cutting
Sheet metal can be cut in various ways, from hand tools called tin snips up to very large powered shears. With the
advances in technology, sheet metal cutting has turned to computers for precise cutting. Many sheet metal cutting
operations are based on computer numerically controlled (CNC) laser cutting or multi-tool CNC punch press.
CNC laser involves moving a lens assembly carrying a beam of laser light over the surface of the metal. Oxygen,
nitrogen or air is fed through the same nozzle from which the laser beam exits. The metal is heated and burnt by the
laser beam, cutting the metal sheet. The quality of the edge can be mirror smooth and a precision of around 0.1 mm
(0.0039 in) can be obtained. Cutting speeds on thin 1.2 mm (0.047 in) sheet can be as high as 25 m (82 ft) a minute.
Most of the laser cutting systems use a CO2 based laser source with a wavelength of around 10 m; some more recent
systems use a YAG based laser with a wavelength of around 1 m.
Perforating[edit]
Main article: Perforating
Perforating is a cutting process that punches multiple small holes close together in a flat workpiece. Perforated sheet
metal is used to make a wide variety of surface cutting tools, such as thesurform.
Press brake forming[edit]


Forming metal on a pressbrake
This is a form of bending used to produce long, thin sheet metal parts. The machine that bends the metal is called
a press brake. The lower part of the press contains a V-shaped groove called the die. The upper part of the press
contains a punch that presses the sheet metal down into the v-shaped die, causing it to bend. There are several
techniques used, but the most common modern method is "air bending". Here, the die has a sharper angle than the
required bend (typically 85 degrees for a 90 degree bend) and the upper tool is precisely controlled in its stroke to push
the metal down the required amount to bend it through 90 degrees. Typically, a general purpose machine has an
available bending force of around 25 tonnes per metre of length. The opening width of the lower die is typically 8 to 10
times the thickness of the metal to be bent (for example, 5 mm material could be bent in a 40 mm die). The inner radius
of the bend formed in the metal is determined not by the radius of the upper tool, but by the lower die width. Typically, the
inner radius is equal to 1/6 of the V-width used in the forming process.
The press usually has some sort of back gauge to position depth of the bend along the workpiece. The backgauge can
be computer controlled to allow the operator to make a series of bends in a component to a high degree of accuracy.
Simple machines control only the backstop, more advanced machines control the position and angle of the stop, its
height and the position of the two reference pegs used to locate the material. The machine can also record the exact
position and pressure required for each bending operation to allow the operator to achieve a perfect 90 degree bend
across a variety of operations on the part.
Punching[edit]
Main article: Punching
Punching is performed by placing the sheet of metal stock between a punch and a die mounted in a press. The punch
and die are made of hardened steel and are the same shape. The punch just barely fits into the die. The press pushes
the punch against and into the die with enough force to cut a hole in the stock. In some cases the punch and die "nest"
together to create a depression in the stock. In progressive stamping a coil of stock is fed into a long die/punch set with
many stages. Multiple simple shaped holes may be produced in one stage, but complex holes are created in multiple
stages. In the final stage, the part is punched free from the "web".
A typical CNC turret punch has a choice of up to 60 tools in a "turret" that can be rotated to bring any tool to the punching
position. A simple shape (e.g., a square, circle, or hexagon) is cut directly from the sheet. A complex shape can be cut
out by making many square or rounded cuts around the perimeter. A punch is less flexible than a laser for cutting
compound shapes, but faster for repetitive shapes (for example, the grille of an air-conditioning unit). A CNC punch can
achieve 600 strokes per minute.
A typical component (such as the side of a computer case) can be cut to high precision from a blank sheet in under 15
seconds by either a press or a laser CNC machine.
Roll forming[edit]
Main article: Roll forming
A continuous bending operation for producing open profiles or welded tubes with long lengths or in large quantities.
Rolling[edit]


Bending sheet metal with rollers
Main article: Rolling
Spinning[edit]
Main article: Metal spinning
Spinning is used to make tubular(axis-symmetric) parts by fixing a piece of sheet stock to a rotating form (mandrel).
Rollers or rigid tools press the stock against the form, stretching it until the stock takes the shape of the form. Spinning is
used to make rocket motor casings, missile nose cones, satellite dishes and metal kitchen funnels.
Stamping[edit]
Main article: Stamping
Stamping includes a variety of operations such as punching, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining; simple
or complex shapes can be formed at high production rates; tooling and equipment costs can be high, but labor costs are
low.
Alternatively, the related techniques repouss and chasing have low tooling and equipment costs, but high labor costs.
Water jet cutting[edit]
Main article: Water jet cutting
A water jet cutter, also known as a waterjet, is a tool capable of a controlled erosion into metal or other materials using a
jet of water at high velocity and pressure, or a mixture of water and an abrasive substance.