ORI GI NAL PAPER

Dynamics of capillary water absorption in natural stone

Ivan Tomasic
Drazen Lukic
Natasa Pecek

Ana Krsinic
Received: 15 September 2010 / Accepted: 6 December 2010
Springer-Verlag 2011
Abstract Two natural carbonate stones from Croatia
(Kirmenjak avorio and Veselje unito) were analyzed to
assess their properties for use in masonry buildings. The
results indicated considerable differences in the water
absorption (expressed in g/m
2
) shown as a function of
elapsed time. The petrographic analyses highlighted dif-
ferent characteristics as important for the absorption of
water in natural stone, including composition, structure,
texture and pore system. The importance of assessing the
movement of water in the stone relative to its bedding and
the construction in which it will be placed is emphasized.
Keywords Water absorption Capillary movement
Limestones Building stone Durability Croatia
Resume Deux roches carbonatees naturelles de Croatie
(Kirmenjak avorio et Veselje unito) ont ete analysees an
devaluer leurs proprietes comme pierres de construction.
Les resultats ont montre des differences tre`s importantes
quant a` la capacite dabsorption deau (exprimee en g/m
2
)
en fonction du temps. Les analyses petrographiques ont mis
en lumie`re differentes caracteristiques jouant un role dans
labsorption deau par les pierres naturelles, en particulier
la composition, la structure, la texture et lespace poreux.
Limportance de levaluation du mouvement de leau dans
la pierre par reference a` son litage et sa position dans la
construction est soulignee.
Mots cles Absorption deau Mouvement capillaire
Calcaires Pierre de construction Durabilite Croatie
Introduction
Capillary water absorption is one of the most signicant
physical properties of natural stone. The negative inu-
ences of water on many physical and mechanical properties
of stone are well known. Water softens it and decreases its
strength, as well as its abrasion and frost resistance. Stone
with increased relative porosity and thus increased
absorption is more sensitive and less durable. The higher
the capillary water absorption and porosity, the worse are
the negative consequences. Structural-petrographic fea-
tures, such as type, size, distribution and position of min-
eral components, homogeneity, and the size, shape and
system of interconnected pores in the natural stone are also
important.
The speed and quantity of capillary water absorption and
its retention in the pores has a signicant impact on the
durability of individual varieties of natural stone. If the
absorbed capillary water is retained for a longer period of
time at temperatures lower than 0C, ice crystallizes. With
the growth of ice crystals and the increased volume of the
ice, the durability is signicantly reduced. This is also true
with salt of varying origins, which can enter the stone in
different ways. If, during the process of construction/
cladding, the system of pores is differently oriented, both
the absorption speed and the quantity of absorbed water as
well as its retention will change, affecting the long term
integrity of the stone.
Capillary water absorption in natural stones may occur
in several ways. Stone constructions may be directly
exposed to the inuence of rainfall or indirectly to the
I. Tomasic (&) D. Lukic A. Krsinic
Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering,
University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
e-mail: ivan.tomasic@rgn.hr
N. Pecek
INSTITUTE IGH d.d., J. Rakuse 1, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
1 3
Bull Eng Geol Environ
DOI 10.1007/s10064-011-0355-x
inuence of capillary water absorption from the ground
through the foundation structures. A wet sub-structure may
also be the source of capillary water absorption. The
amount of water in the stone will also depend on the rel-
ative humidity, air pressure and air temperature. In nature,
capillary water absorption may occur not only in normal
atmospheric pressure conditions, but also if strong winds
push rainwater into the pore system of the natural stone.
In laboratory conditions, stone should be partially
immersed in water; capillary water absorption can take
place under normal air pressure and sub-pressure generated
by a vacuum pump. With capillary water rising from wet
ground or damp concrete foundations into stone, dissolved
soluble salts are also absorbed. After the evaporation of the
water, the pressure of crystallization of the salts in the
pores will cause damage to the stone. Some 50 salts of
different origin have been identied in stone and concrete
constructions. For example, halite may occur in stone
buildings, structures and monuments exposed to sea water;
the origin of natrite and thermonatrite in stone is connected
with cement and the ground while mirabilite and thenardite
could be concentrated in stone from its origin. Gypsum is
considered a particularly important salt in rock disinte-
gration. Its concentration in stone also depends on porosity
and water absorption by capillarity.
Background
Many researchers have contributed to dening the shape
and size of pores and the petrographic and structural tex-
tural characteristics of stone, all of which are important for
capillary water absorption.
Pores with a cross section of 206 lm can allow cap-
illary water to rise by 310 m, while those with a cross
section of 62 lm may result in capillary water absorption
to a height of 1030 m (Mamillan 1981, from Winkler
1997). At the same time, horizontal water ow is twice as
fast as vertical ow.
Fitzner (1988, from Winkler 1997) described and com-
pared pore characteristics of German sandstone quarry
samples with samples of the same stone taken from a
building. He determined that the samples of stone exposed
to weathering processes with a pore cross section of less
than 0.1 lm suffered no damage as there was no water
absorption.
The inuence of structural textural characteristics and
diagenetic processes on the porosity of natural carbonate
stones was researched by Tomasic and Z

enko (1993).
Water absorption and relative porosity or open porosity are
determined by the atmospheric pressure conditions as well
as by sub pressure. These authors determined that the rel-
ative and absolute (closed) porosity change, depending on
the structure of individual varieties of stone. Increased
quantities of absorbed water due to sub pressure could be
understood in terms of the interconnections and cross
sections of the pore system of a certain stone variety.
Choquette and Pray (1970) developed a subdivision of
pores in carbonate rock based on types, using geometrical
shape and mode of origin as the main criteria. They
determined that primary and secondary porosity differ-
ences exist in limestone and dolomite. Primary pores can
be intergranular, intragranular, closed and intercrystalline.
Secondary pores or pores of post sedimentary origin can be
cavernous or vug pores, or pores in the shape of caverns,
channels and faults.
The importance of late diagenetic dolomitization on the
increase of secondary intercrystalline porosity was pointed
out by Gaskell (from Chilingar et al. 1967).
Tisljar (1987) emphasizes the importance of determin-
ing the characteristics of stylolites (thickness, continuity,
amplitude height and density occurrence). Stylolites are
very common in numerous varieties of natural carbonate
stone. They represent a more or less pronounced perpen-
dicular uid barrier, but they are also very good channels
for parallel uid circulation, depending on the inuence of
tectonics as well as the degree of mineral inllings (usually
clay or bitumen).
Leighton and Pendexter (1962) noted four components
which inuence the structural characteristics of limestone:
grain, lime mud (micrite), cement and pores. They drew
attention to the correlation between pore spaces and
packing and sorting characteristics as well as the contact
between the crystalline and granular stone components.
Tomasic et al. (1997) analysed microblocks with elec-
tronic microscopes in andesite and spilitized diabase and
their impact on physical and mechanical properties, espe-
cially porosity. They determined that microblocks are
relatively integral and at the same time still form well-
connected deformed individual crystals and cataclyzed
crystal aggregates with signs of sharply marked intercrystal
porosity. They originate as a consequence of post-diage-
netic, especially tectonic, processes or naturally provoked
strains and deformations in stone.
Davey et al. (1979) wrote about the importance of the
orientation of layered and micro-layered porous stone
varieties on durability in construction. They pointed out that
stone, depending on its sedimentary characteristics, can be
oriented in buildings and in the other stone constructions in
three ways. If bedding planes are horizontal and lie at right
angles to the downward pressures in a wall, then the stone is
naturally bedded. If the bedding planes are exposed in the
walls, or in other stone constructions, perpendicular (ver-
tically or inclined) to the visible surface, then the stone is
edge bedded. Visible bedding plane surfaces at the wall
surface means that the stone is face bedded.
I. Tomasic et al.
1 3
Tomasic et al. (2000) analysed natural stone trachyte-
trachyandesite. They determined weakened intercrystal
links and inhomogeneities in the stone elements, especially
crevices and cracks lled up with secondary iron oxides
and hydroxides.
Sidraba et al. (2004) tested capillarity and drying rela-
tive to the bedding planes of Roman travertine used in the
Baltic Region, particularly in Latvia. Roman travertine
used in monuments in Latvia is very porous with an open
porosity of 8.6% and total porosity of 15.39%, suggesting a
greater deterioration of the material over time than actually
occurs. This travertine has high sedimentary heterogeneity
with respect to the water absorption and evaporation. The
coefcient of capillarity is about two times higher parallel
(4.3 g/m
2
s
0.5
) compared with perpendicular (2.58 g/
m
2
s
0.5
) to the bedding planes. After drying the same
samples, Sidraba et al. (2004) determined that the drying
index is two times lower parallel to the bedding planes
(indicating a slower loss of water) compared with that
measured perpendicular to the bedding planes. They
demonstrated that the changing the orientation of the
bedding planes in masonry building can considerably
modify their resistance to deterioration.
Test procedure
Two Croatian varieties of natural carbonate stone Kir-
menjak avorio and Veselje unito taken from Kirmenjak
quarry in Istria and Punta on the island of Brac were tested
following HRN EN 1925;1999 (Natural stone test meth-
odsdetermination of water absorption coefcient by
capillarity) using a covered plexiglas tank (Fig. 1). As it
was necessary to ensure undisturbed water absorption on
the basal surfaces of the samples, elongated plexiglas
prisms with sharp edges were placed on the bottom of the
tank, on which the stone block samples were placed. A
constant supply of water was provided on the left of the
tank, such that a constant water level of 3 1 mm was
maintained in the covered tank; excess water from the tank
was allowed to decant on the right.
The time intervals used for measuring the mass of
absorbed water depend on the type of stone. For stone with
high water absorption, the elapsed time intervals are t
i
: 1, 3,
5, 10, 30, 60, 480, 1,440 min. For stone with low water
absorption, the elapsed time intervals are t
i
: 30, 60, 180,
480, 1,440, 2,880, 4,320 min. The Veselje unito and Kir-
menjak avorio samples were tested with time intervals
appropriate for stone with both high and low water
absorption. Prior to testing the samples were dried to a
constant mass in a ventilated oven at a temperature of
70 5C and then kept in a desiccator until being weighed
and their basal area in square meters measured. The fun-
damental condition of the standard is that the sides of the
stone should be appropriately prepared (the polished face
should never be the immersed face). For each analysis,
6 prepared stone samples with processed sides of 5 9 5 9
5 cm were immersed in water to a height of 3 1 mm
(Fig. 2). The increase in the mass of absorbed water during
immersion was measured to an accuracy of 0.01 g.
Test specimens
Tests were done on well known and valued varieties of
natural Jurassic and Cretaceous limestone, known under
the commercial name Kirmenjak, variety avorio and Ves-
elje unito.
Kirmenjak is petrographically mostly micritic limestone,
dense and ivory white. Other varieties could be greyish,
brown-greyish and range from green to blue. From the
Middle Ages to the present day, Kirmenjak has been used
in numerous important parts of Venetian buildings (Fig. 3),
usually in areas constantly exposed to tidal wetting and
drying. It has retained its good appearance, demonstrating Fig. 1 Device for the testing of capillary water absorption
Fig. 2 Samples in a plexiglass tank immersed in water to a height of
3 1 mm
Capillary water absorption in natural stone
1 3
its durability even in very unfavorable conditions. It was
also used in the construction of many other famous mon-
uments, including the Basilica in Porec, the Mausoleum of
Theodoric in Ravenna, the Ducal palace, the bridge Ponte
di Rialto in Venice, the bell tower in Ferrara, the bridge in
Rimini, the basilica in Bologna etc. It is still being used for
claddings, the paving of roads and walkways, houses, stairs
and the facades of palaces, hotels and many ofces, reli-
gious and memorial buildings throughout western Istria,
Croatia and Europe.
The most famous variety is a layered ivory colored
calcilutite (avorio-ivory), which is sporadically alternated
with slightly darker intraclastic and oncolitic limestones. In
this study, the ivory variety was analysed. The special
decorative quality of the stone is given by numerous par-
allel stylolites, spaced generally between 5 and 10 mm and
occasionally further apart. This very strong stone can be
polished to a high lustre and its attractiveness is intensied
when it is cut perpendicular to the stylolites.
The Upper Cretaceous Veselje unito is today exploited
in quarries at Punta, Barbakan, Splitska and Kupinovo on
the island of Brac. The unito limestone has a homogeneous
structure and contains a ne-grained fossiliferous debris of
uniform dimensions. Petrographically it is described as a
biomicrite/biosparite.
Soft and easily carved, but still hard and durable, Veselje
unito has been used for centuries in this part of Europe, e.g.
in the building of the Diocletian Palace in Split, the old
Roman Salona, Saint Dujes and S

ibenik

s Cathedral, in the
Vienna and Budapest Parliament and possibly in the
(Presidential) White House in Washington. White Brac
stone has been known as a Croatian brand or Brac

marble all over the world. The old traditional Stonema-

sons School in Pucisca (Fig. 4) on the island of Brac uses
Veselje unito as a main material for manufacturing and
sculpturing.
Today, Veselje unito and Kirmenjak are commonly used
as stone for cladding and in the building of many different
types of construction. Veselje unito is partially limited in its
use due to its porosity and its lesser abrasion resistance.
Results
The results of the testing are presented graphically in
Figs. 5, 6 and 7. The graphs in Figs. 5a, 5b and 7 show the
mass of absorbed water on the ordinate (Eq. 1) while the
abscissa shows the measured intervals of elapsed time of
capillary water absorption in minutes. This method of
presentation is not quoted in the Croatian and European
standard HRN EN 1925 (1999) but is included here as it
facilitates the interpretation of the results.
The graphs in Figs. 5b and 6b show the same values on
the ordinate while the abscissa (Eq. 2) is the square root of
elapsed time. This method of presentation follows the
Croatian and European Standard HRN EN 1925 (1999).
yi
mi md
A

1
xi

ti
p
2
During the testing, the following values were measured,
and the symbols listed below were used:
m
i
successive weights of the specimen during testing, in
grams,
m
d
mass of the dry specimen, in grams,
Fig. 3 Venezia, Ponte di Rialto and Palazzo dei Camerlenghi and
other white elements on houses built of Kirmenjak stone
Fig. 4 Pucisca, island Brac (Croatia), Stonmasons School built of
Veselje unito stone
I. Tomasic et al.
1 3
A area of the side immersed in water, in square meters,
t
i
elapsed time from the beginning of the test until the
time at which the successive masses m
i
were
measured, in seconds or minutes,
y
i
water absorption in g/m
2
,
x
i
square root of time in s
0.5
or time in minutes
It will be noted that, for clarity, the curves with a hor-
izontal axis showing time in minutes are given above those
showing the square root of time (s
0.5
) which was obtained
in accordance with the Standards.
Physical and mechanical properties of test samples
In order to better evaluate their capillary water absorption,
the samples were also tested for water absorption, apparent
density, open and total porosity, real density, abrasion
resistance and compressive strength. The results are shown
in Table 1.
During the petrographic analyses different characteris-
tics important for the absorption of water in natural stone,
Fig. 5 Graphic representation of capillary water absorption for
Kirmenjak avorio, a as a function of time (min), b as a function of
the square root of time (s
0.5
)
Fig. 6 Graphic representation of capillary water absorption for
Veselje unito, a as a function of time (min), b as a function of the
square root of time (s
0.5
)
w
a
t
e
r

a
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n

g
/
m
2
time in min
STONE VARIETY: KIRMENJAK AVORIO
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
sample 1
sample 2
mean value
Fig. 7 Graphic representation of capillary water absorption for
Kirmenjak avorio as a function of time (min)samples oriented
edge or face bedded
Table 1 Physical and mechanical properties of natural stone
Physical properties Tested varieties of natural
stone
Kirmenjak
avorio
Veselje
unito
Water absorption (mass %) 0.233 2.154
Apparent density (g/cm
3
) 2.682 2.480
Real density (g/cm
3
) 2.710 2.710
Open porosity (vol.%) 0.625 5.340
Total porosity (vol.%) 1.039 8.472
Abrasion resistance (cm
3
/50 cm
2
) 12.3 28.332.1
Unconned compressive strength (MPa) 166.3 123.7
Capillary water absorption in natural stone
1 3
were highlighted, especially those which were relevant to
its composition, structure, texture and pore system.
Petrographical characteristics of samples
and results of testing
Kirmenjak avorio is a dense muddy or micritic Upper
Jurassic limestone, white to yellowish in colour (avorio
indicates its colour and structure are similar to ivory). The
fractures are shallow, smooth and conchoidal with a por-
celain-like appearance, intersected slightly by closed
stylolites of varying amplitude and spaced generally
510 mm apart. Stylolitic seams may have some reddish-
brown mineral inll. The layout of the stylolites increases
the anisotropy. Petrographically, it is a very ne grained
micritic limestone with traces of argillaceous material.
The capillary water absorption results over time are
shown in Fig. 5. The analysis established that the capillary
water absorption (mean value) was 215 g/m
2
in 4,320 min
(Fig. 5a) or 509, 1 s
0.5
(Fig. 5b), after which the procedure
was stopped. Table 1 shows that the Kirmenjak avorio is
less water absorbent (0.233 mass%) than the Veselje unito
(2.154 mass%).
As seen in Fig. 5, there is a considerable difference in
the quantity of absorbed water in the six samples, notably
sample 2. Capillary water absorption was very slow in the
beginning (the rst 350 min) because of the density of this
limestone and the position of the stylolites which were
oriented horizontally or parallel to the layering. The
porosity is also affected by the intercrystal porosity and the
sporadic microfractures of differing orientations.
The quantity of water absorbed by the different stones
during the testing varied with signicant discrepancies in
relation to the mean valuefrom 0 at the beginning of
testing to approx. 1045% after 4,000 min (Fig. 5a). It is
considered this is related to the petrographical character-
istics of the stone, especially the type of porosity. As seen
in Table 1, the open porosity of the samples was \1%. In
the new Croatian and European Standard is noted that the
method is not suitable for stones with open porosity \1%.
Nevertheless, during the testing of Kirmenjak avorio it was
considered the results being obtained were helpful in
understanding the dynamic capillary water absorption.
Veselje unito is yellowish-white to brownish-beige
limestone (biomicrite or bioclastic packstone) which con-
sists of crushed fossil debris (0.11 mm, occasionally up to
7 mm), mainly shells (rarely echinoderms) which lie par-
allel to the contemporaneous depositional surface. Inter-
skeletal and intercrystalline porosity are also present. The
shell fragments result in a very rough, uneven fracture
surface while the rock mass may be homogeneous but
anisotropic due to the presence of the shell debris. The
results of the capillary water absorption analysis are shown
in Fig. 6.
The natural Veselje unito has a uniform distribution of
pores. To the naked eye it seems completely homogeneous,
although under the microscope it is possible to see
occasional layers of shell fragments and very ne grained
calcareous muds (micrites) due to sedimentation and post-
sedimentation processes. After 1,440 min (Fig. 6a), or
294 s
0.5
(Fig. 6b), the maximum capillary water absorption
per unit of area of approximately 2,641 g/m
2
was reached.
It can be seen from Fig. 6a that almost 81% of the total
capillary water ([1,500 g/m
2
) was absorbed in the rst
488 min, which is an important characteristic of this vari-
ety of natural stone. After 60 min, water absorption was
just under 925 g/m
2
. The relative porosity of this variety of
natural stone was 5,340 vol.%, while the proportion of
relative in absolute porosity was 63%, which is signi-
cantly less than some other varieties.
Discussion and conclusion
The analyzed samples of two Croatian varieties of natural
limestone show signicant differences in capillary water
absorption. Both are good construction stone but have
different specic properties, hence a decision should be
made as to which is most appropriate for particular build-
ing conditions.
As seen from Table 1, although the density of the two
materials is effectively the same, the open porosity and
total porosity are very different. The proportion of relative
porosity in absolute porosity is 60% for the Kirmenjak
variety avorio and 63% for the Veselje unito variety.
Even though this analysis of capillary water absorption
does not involve completely submerging the samples in
water, the nal quantity of absorbed water in g/m
2
should
be almost proportional to the quantity of water absorbed in
the classic analysis in mass%. The larger the quantity of
capillary absorbed water, the larger the classical absorp-
tion. The results show that the structure of the stone may
increase or decrease the dynamics of capillary water
absorption.
The analysis has shown that the quality of the individual
stone is signicantly inuenced by the distribution and
total volume of the pores. Stone varieties can contain dif-
ferent types of pores and may or may not have similar
values for absolute and relative porosities. Spatial distri-
bution, interconnection, and the size of the pore cross
section are very important and inuence both the quantity
and speed of water absorption.
The pore system, especially when lled with water,
soluble salts or ice, impacts the mechanical properties of
stone, as can be seen today in the extensive damage to
I. Tomasic et al.
1 3
building stones, especially those exposed to weathering,
salt from the sea, etc.
When evaluating stone for use in buildings, it is
important to consider the inuence of various environ-
mental conditions, especially in urban areas. The deter-
mination of capillary absorption in these situations can help
narrow the choices and assist in the choice of both the stone
and the method of using it in a particular construction.
This is not, however, a simple procedure. The impor-
tance of determining the dynamics of capillary water
absorption should be considered along with the dynamics
of climatic change. Such changes can occur over a day,
week, month or years, depending on temperature, humid-
ity, rainfall and frost when the processes of dissolution,
circulation and the re-deposition of soluble salts are most
important. As a consequence, it is important to compare
water absorption time, retention, drainage, and the drying
of stones in construction. For this information, results for
capillary water absorption are better given in minutes.
The dense variety of the Kirmenjak natural stone shows
signicant differences in capillary water absorption in
comparison with the Veselje unito variety. With the Kir-
menjak variety, water absorption testing is undertaken
perpendicular to the bedding planes or stylolites in order to
assess the likely intake of water, as in most stone con-
struction (mainly walls) the blocks are laid with the layers
oriented horizontally. This is particularly important where
the stone is exposed to aggressive conditions above the
damp proof layer.
Near the ground or surface of the concrete, or near the
sea, capillary movement through the stone will transfer
salts to the evaporation front. The salts in a rock can be
concentrated, blossoming on the stone surface as efores-
cence and under the stone surface as sub orescence. They
usually crystallize near the surface although they are
sometimes found deeper in the rock. Where the crystalli-
sation takes place on or near the surface, disintegration
may destroy the aesthetic effect. Salts pulsate between
the surface and the interior of the stone. At the same time
they settle down and crystallize parallel to the surface of
the stone depending on the pore space in the shape of
thinner or thicker dispersed accumulations. These harmful
effects can be observed as surface crumbling, dispersal or
peeling of large areas of stone crust, generally mostly in
the rst metre above ground level.
The Veselje unito samples were analyzed in a position
which is unsuited to the natural bedding, as in the quarry
the individual cross-bedded layers/dip of the strata (16
17) mean that the horizontal and vertical cutting of the
stone is oblique to the geological texture.
Preliminary research (S

imunic Bursic et al. 2007) on a

limited number of important Venetian buildings, con-
structed from the 15th to the 18th centuries, showed that in
the basal zones of the buildings the Kirmenjak (Pietra
dIstria) was laid strictly consistent with horizontal stylo-
lites. This part of the buildings, which is exposed to tidal
wetting and drying, is built of dense micritic limestone.
Even in these highly aggressive conditions, the basal zone
has never been plastered or protected in any way. When
used for other purposes, the orientation of the stylolites in
the stone elements is quite random, although for decorative
reasons, Kirmenjak is quite often laid such that the stylo-
lites are perpendicular to the visible surface.
The inuence of stylolites on the quantity of absorbed
water is very small in the Kirmenjak avorio as the stylolites
are very thin and numerous, inhibiting water ow. The
obtained results are consistent with this and with the
interesting ultrasonic stone characteristics determined by
Geometrante et al. (2000). These authors also used samples
from Pietra dIstria and established the ultrasonic velocity
from six different measurements on both sides of the
specimens. They determined that perpendicular to the
bedding the ultrasonic speed is 6,201 m/s (at 55 kHz) and
6,042 m/s (at 120 kHz) while parallel to bedding it was
6,242 m/s (at 55 kHz) and 6,172 m/s (at 120 kHz). This
demonstrates that although the rock has stylolites, their
presence does not destroy the general homogeneity of the
stone. In view of this, samples should be analyzed per-
pendicular and parallel to the sedimentological layering
and any other elements of anisotropy. In addition, carefully
chosen and representative samples are necessary.
Sudden climatic changes inuence the drainage and
drying of stone; e.g. it is dangerous if the stone freezes
while it is saturated with water. Consequently, for some
varieties future analyses should include measuring the time
involved in drying and drainage.
Clearly it is advantageous if the stone is laid such that
the natural pore water movement is oriented in the direc-
tion of gravitational drainage (Davey et al. 1979).
Depending on climatic conditions, especially freezing, the
effects are more dangerous when the open (relative)
porosity in the stone is totally inlled with water. If lower
quality stone is to be used on ventilated facades, it is
particularly important that the drainage of pore water is
adequately considered.
In this study, the Kirmenjak avorio samples were ori-
ented edge or face bedded during capillary absorption. The
layers i.e. stylolites were oriented perpendicular to the
water surface (Fig. 7). Comparing Fig. 7 with Fig. 5, it can
be concluded that capillary water absorption is approxi-
mately the same, or slightly increased. Such results were
expected and as a consequence the analyses were done on
only two samples.
Differences in capillary water absorption obtained
through the analysis of individual varieties of natural stone
must be carefully considered before they are placed in
Capillary water absorption in natural stone
1 3
buildings. The analysis showed that when using the Veselje
unito, it is necessary to ensure it can dry and drain, par-
ticularly if the construction is exposed to periodical or
frequent dampening.
During the analysis of the Veselje unito samples, it was
not feasible to orient the stone in a manner that made it
possible to conrm its anisotropy, due to its great
homogeneity.
Most of the important stone buildings of the world are
constructed using natural carbonate stone as it is easier to
work (less abrasive) and has a natural beauty. However,
compared with siliceous varieties, the carbonate stone
varieties analysed were considerably more sensitive after
they had been used in buildings. As a consequence, chan-
ges in limestones over time need to be considered. Even
though they are very highly esteemed and traditionally
used, the Kirmenjak avorio and Veselje unito stone differ
considerably in their absorbed water and quality which
affects their suitability for use. Due to its density and high
abrasion resistance (Table 1) Kirmenjak avorio is more
suitable for horizontal pedestrian pavement surfaces while
Veselje unito may be used for less trafcked surfaces.
The study has highlighted that individual varieties of
Croatian natural stone require special care and maintenance
depending on where they are used, the method of con-
struction and their function in the building.
Acknowledgments This work was nancially supported by the
grant of research project No. 195-1953068-2704 of Ministry of
Science, Education and Sports of the Republic of Croatia.
References
Choquette PW, Pray LC (1970) Geologic nomenclature and classi-
cation of porosity in sedimentary carbonates. Am Assoc Petro
Geoll Bull 54:207250
Davey A, Heath B, Hodges D, Milne R, Palmer M (1979) The care
and conservation of Georgian houses (A Maintenance Manual).
Masonry wall constructions, London, pp 6168
Fitzner B (1988) from Winkler EM (1997) Stone in architecture
(properties, durability). Springer, Berlin
Gaskell S from Chilingar GV, Bissell HJ, Wolf KH (1967) The
diagenesis of carbonate rocks. In: Larsen G, Chilingar GV (eds)
Diagenesis in sediments. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Geometrante R, Almesberger D, Tizzo A (2000) Characterization of
the state of compression of Pietra DIstria elements by Non
Destructive Ultrasonic Technique. In: 15th World Conference on
Nondestructive Testing (Conservation and Restoration in Art and
Architecture), Roma
HRN EN 1925 (1999) Natural stones test methods. Determination of
water absorption coefcient by capillarity
Leighton MV, Pendexter C (1962) Carbonate rock types. In: Ham WE
(ed) Classication of carbonate rock. Am Assoc Petrol Geol
1:3361
Mamillan M (1981) from Winkler EM (1997) Stone in architecture
(properties, durability). Springer, Berlin
Sidraba I, Normandin KC, Cultrone G, Schefer MJ (2004) Clima-
tological and regional weathering of Roman travertine. In:
Proceedings of the international conference lux lapis (light and
stone) 2002 architectural and sculptural stone in cultural
landscape. Charles University in Praque, The Karolinum Press,
Praque, pp 211228
S

imunic Bursic M, Aljinovic D, Cancelliere S (2007) Kirmenjak-

Pietra dIstria: a preliminary investigation of its use in Venetian
architectural heritage. In: Prikryl R, Smith BJ (eds) Building
stone decay: from diagnosis to conservation. Geological Society,
London, pp 6368
Tisljar J (1987) Petrology of sedimentary rocks. University of Zagreb
(in Croatian)
Tomasic I, Z

enko T (1993) The inuence of structural-textural and

diagenetic factors on dimension stone porosity. Rudarsko-
geolosko-naftni zbornik (in Croatian) 5:165172
Tomasic I, Fistric M, Vrkljan M (1997) Estimation of resistance of
stone aggregates to recrushing. Rudarsko-geolosko-naftni zbor-
nik 9:4147
Tomasic I, Vrkljan M, Helinger G, Busic M, Tibljas D (2000) The
persistence of trachyte-trachyandesite built into pedestrian-
roadway construction. Rudarsko-geolosko-naftni zbornik (in
Croatian) 12:8998
Winkler EM (1997) Stone in architecture (properties, durability).
Springer, Berlin
I. Tomasic et al.
1 3