Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Steps
1. Determine your topic. Exactly what are you going to write about? Brainstorm for ideas
if you have to. When writing for wikiHow, you may even wish to refer to requested
topics for ideas. It shouldn't matter that the same type of article had been written
before or not, just think what you want to write.
2. Figure out who your audience is. Are you writing for a beginner, an intermediate, or
an advanced audience? For example, if you are writing an article about "Creating
PowerPoint Slides," are your readers new to PowerPoint, or business people looking
for advanced tips?
3. Do your research. How well do you know the topic? Is it something you can write
easily about with little or no preparation, or do you need more information from
experts in the field?
4. Decide on the length of the article. Teachers, magazines, and newspapers will often
give you a limit. wikiHow articles, on the other hand, are often "as long as they need
to be and no longer."
5. Compile a list of possible sources for you to consult. This can include documents,
internet research and people to talk to.
6. Write either an outline or a summary of your article. This will help bring the concept
of the article into sharper focus.
7. Write the rough draft of the article as follows:
o Tell your readers what you are going to tell them. This is your introduction.
For example:
[edit] Tips
• Neither the outline nor the summary for your article has to be in traditional I, II, III
format. The point of formatting is to help you. If you feel you can find your focus by
writing a list of incomplete sentences, then go for it. Later, if your teacher wants a
formal outline, you can create one from the article itself.
• By checking grammar and spelling errors last in the editing process, you won't waste
any time by correcting those on something you may delete.
• If you're writing for a newspaper or magazine and are new to professional writing, it's
customary to introduce yourself and your story in a query or pitch letter. Find the
name of the editor who will be handling your piece (i.e.; if you're writing an article
about cars for a newspaper, find the name of the car-section editor). This information
can be found in the masthead, a box containing the names of the editors, usually found
near the front or comment pages of a publication. Write a catchy but brief outline of
what your story is about and why that publication's readership would be interested in
it. Also include a few lines about your experience as a writer. The tone of this letter
should be professional, but affable and friendly. It is not the place to make demands,
or admit your shortcomings as a professional writer. Discussing wages and freelance
fees should come after the editor has accepted your pitch.
• If you have no experience as a professional writer, do not start off pitching columns
(opinion pieces). Columns are generally reserved for people who have either been
working at a publication for a very long time, or for people who have a particular
expertise in a field. If you're new to writing, start small. Think obituaries, human-
interest stories and simple news articles. It's generally easier to start with newspapers
than with magazines. Try writing for life, fashion, arts, cars or travel sections before
pitching stories to news. These sections tend to be understaffed and therefore have a
greater budget for freelance writers.
• If you're interested in pursuing a career as a writer, be realistic. People who make their
living as writers generally start to build their portfolio of published work as early as
high school. It generally takes even the most dedicated writer several years before he
can make a living off of the trade. In other words, don't quit your day job. Ease into
writing gradually, perhaps doing freelance pieces while maintaining a more stable job
part-time.
• Take some courses in both non-fiction and fiction writing. Not only will they help
with your work, but also you can make contacts in the business by getting to know
your professors and fellow writers. This will help you to be taken seriously when you
start pitching articles for publication. Being a good freelance writer means knowing
how to write and how to network.
• Make sure your article answers five questions: why, where, when, what and how.
[edit] Warnings
• When writing for a newspaper or magazine, do not do so for free. Ask what their
freelance fee is beforehand. Your pay will usually be calculated on a per-word basis.
Your work is valuable. Writing for free demeans the profession and makes making a
living more difficult for those of us who depend on freelance fees to pay the bills. (But
if you're just starting out, volunteering to do some articles for smaller community
papers, student publications and trade magazines is a great way to build your portfolio.
Be warned that these publications rarely have the money to pay freelancers anyway.)
• Make sure to give yourself plenty of time to write the article. If you don't, then you'll
be rushing at the last minute to create something that isn't representative of what you
can truly do.
• Do not be a diva. Your work will go through several editors, copy-editors and fact
checkers before being published. It will be changed. Pulling a temper tantrum is a
surefire way to not be invited to work for that publication again.
• Your reputation as a writer is almost as important as the work you submit; do not
make errors or plagiarize. Copying something without attribution is the quickest way
to get blacklisted as a writer. Keep your notes and source lists handy so that your
editors can verify your work. If you do make a mistake, come clean immediately and
apologize profusely.
• Don't miss deadlines. Generally speaking, a late article is worse than a mediocre one.
• Literary circles are small and gossipy. Don't say anything bad about a fellow writer or
editor, ever. You never know who's married to whom.
10.1 ABILITY
10.1A Present and future
10.1B Past
10.1 ABILITY
We use can to describe an ability and cannot or can’t to describe a lack of ability in the
present:
If the present ability is surprising or involves overcoming some difficulty, we can also
use is/are able to:
To describe a future ability we use will be able to, not can (but see 10.3, 10.4):
x I haven’t been able to drive since I dislocated my wrist. (with the perfect aspect)
We love being able to talk the local language. (with -ing forms and infinitives)
Another form for not be able to is be unable to. It is more common in formal
English:
The lawyer was unable to persuade the jury of her client’s innocence.
We use can (present) and could (past) before sense verbs (1.3C):
10.1B Past
But we can use could in questions, and in sentences with limiting adverbs such as only or
hardly:
‘Could you fix the computer yourself?’ ‘No, I could only back up the key files.’
She was so exhausted she could hardly speak.
She could have paid by credit card but she preferred to use cash. (= She had the ability to pay
by credit card but she didn’t use it.)
I might have gone to university after leaving school but I chose to get a job instead. (= I had
the opportunity to go, but I didn’t take it.)
You might/could have told me about the party! (= You had the chance to tell me but you
didn’t.)
They couldn’t have tried harder to make me feel welcome. (= They tried very hard.)
I couldn’t have been more pleased when I heard about your results – congratulations! (= I was
very pleased.)
10.2A Present
We use can to describe things which are generally possible (we know they sometimes
happen):
To talk about specific possibilities we use may, might and could (but not can). The meaning
is similar to ‘perhaps’ or ‘maybe’:
We use the same forms when we are making a deduction based on evidence or on our
experience:
He always wears smart suits. He could be a businessman.
‘Why isn’t she here yet?’ ‘I don’t know. The train may be running late.’
We can use well after may, might and could if we think the possibility is quite strong. (If we
are very certain of the possibility, we use must 11.5.)
Don’t worry, the contract could well be in the post. (= It is probably in the post.)
To describe possibilities which depend on certain conditions we use could or might (8.4A):
She could learn much more quickly if she paid attention. (= She would be able to learn more
quickly if she paid attention.)
We use can or could (but not may) to talk about specific possibilities in wh- questions or
with adverbs such as only or hardly:
We use can’t or couldn’t for things which we know are impossible and to make negative
deductions:
You can’t get blood out of a stone. (I’m sure about this, it’s impossible.)
He couldn’t be a doctor, he isn’t wearing a white coat. (I’m certain he isn’t ...)
We also use this form to say that something is impossible because we are unwilling to do it:
When we think that something is possibly not the case we use might not or may not:
The shops may not/might not be open today; it’s a bank holiday. (Perhaps they are not open.)
! In spoken English we often contract might not to mightn’t. We don’t usually contract
may not.
10.2B Past
We use could to talk about general possibility in the past (things which sometimes
happened):
Teachers could be very strict at my old school. (Sometimes they were strict.)
She might have done it; she had the opportunity and the motive. (Perhaps she did it …)
John could have posted the letter. (I’m not sure whether he did or not.)
We also use might have for a past opportunity which we know was not taken (10.1B).
I might have gone to drama school, but my parents wouldn’t let me. (I had the opportunity but
I didn’t go.)
We express a negative deduction about the past with can’t have or couldn’t have (11.5):
She can’t have fixed the computer, it’s still not working properly. (I’m sure she didn’t fix it.)
When we are less certain we use may not have or might not have:
We’d better phone them, they might not have heard the news. (Perhaps they haven’t heard the
news yet.)
10.2C Future
If we are certain that something will be possible or impossible in the future we can use
will/won’t be able to:
We’ll be able to travel to the moon, but we won’t be able to travel to Mars.
For predictions which are less certain we use may, might or could. Could usually
describes a weaker possibility than may or might:
The directors may call a stockholders’ meeting. (Perhaps they will call a meeting.)
You never know, she could meet someone suitable tomorrow. (It’s possible, but unlikely.)
10.3A Arrangements
We use can, could or be able to to describe possible arrangements for a time in the future:
The doctor could see you at six; he can’t see you before then as he’s too busy.
I’ll be able to see you after the lesson.
The dentist might be free to see you immediately after lunch; I’ll have to check the diary.
I’m not sure if I’m available; I may be working that weekend.
The choice of modal verb for suggestions, offers and requests depends on the formality of the
situation. May and might tend to be more formal and tentative than can and could:
Now the children have left we might as well sell the house and get something smaller.
PARTICIPLES
9.1A Active and passive participles
There are several participle forms which we can use to make phrases:
simple:
passive participle: (not) repaired
continuous:
active participle: (not) repairing
passive participle: (not) being repaired
perfect:
active participle: (not) having repaired
passive participle: (not) having been repaired
Participle phrases have active and passive forms but they do not have a tense. Their time
reference is usually clear from the verb in the main clause:
In participle phrases, the active participle (-ing form) has an active meaning (see
example above) and the passive participle (-ed form) has a passive meaning:
They haven’t identified the body which was found in the Thames.
They haven’t identified the body found in the Thames. (passive participle phrase)
Verbs which are not normally used in the continuous, e.g. be, own, possess (1.3), can
be used in participle phrases:
Moaning with pain, the victim was examined by a young doctor. (= The victim was
moaning.)
If the participle phrase follows the object of the main clause then either the object or the
subject of the main clause (in bold below) can be the subject of the participle phrase,
depending on the meaning:
We saw her plane coming in to land. (= The plane was coming in to land.)
The company has opened a new factory, creating many new jobs. (= The company has
created many new jobs.)
x Moaning with pain, a young doctor examined the victim. (= A young doctor was moaning,
not the victim.)
We can only use a participle phrase to replace a defining relative clause if the subject of the
main clause and the relative clause is the same. We cannot use a participle phrase if there
is another subject between the relative pronoun and the verb:
Leaving the motorway, we noticed an overturned truck on the verge. (= As/ When we
were leaving the motorway, we noticed …)
Switching off the lights, I turned over and buried my head in the pillow. (= After I switched
off the lights, I turned over …)
In written English an -ing participle phrase often describes the setting or background
situation:
Living in Los Angeles, Brad was one of those ever-optimistic movie wannabes.
Having passed my driving test, I was able to buy my first car. (= After I had passed my
driving test, …)
I was able to buy my first car, having passed my driving test.
The perfect participle can also describe reasons or causes as these usually come before a
result (9.2B above):
Having forgotten to take my keys, I had to borrow a set from my landlord. (= Because I had
forgotten my keys, …)
9.3 INFINITIVE PHRASES – FORM AND USE
simple:
active infinitive: (not) to mend
passive infinitive: (not) to be mended
continuous:
active infinitive: (not) to be mending
passive infinitive: (not) be being mended
perfect:
active infinitive: (not) to have mended
passive infinitive: (not) to have been broken
Infinitive phrases can be active or passive, but they do not show tense. The time reference
is shown by the context or by the tense of the verb in the main clause:
The tax bill will be the first item to be debated in the next parliament. (future)
Their proposal was the first one to be debated at yesterday’s planning meeting. (past)
But we can use the perfect infinitive for an event that happened before the main clause:
Not to have acted sooner is his greatest regret. (= He regrets he didn’t act sooner.)
Her greatest claim to fame is to have been chosen for the last Olympic squad. (= She is
famous now because she was chosen.)
! We use for with an infinitive phrase if the subject of the infinitive is not
the same as the subject of the sentence:
Sentences with an infinitive phrase as their subject can sound rather formal. We usually
prefer impersonal it or an -ing form:
We can often replace a relative clause after a superlative, an ordinal number (e.g. first),
or one, next, last and only, with an infinitive phrase:
The youngest person that entered the programme was just fourteen.
àThe youngest person to enter the programme was just fourteen.
The window seat is usually the first one which is taken.
à The window seat is usually the first one to be taken.
Linda was the only one who stayed for the whole performance.
àLinda was the only one to stay for the whole performance.
Davy took a year out to see the world and broaden his experience of life.