ORIGINAL PAPER

Application of ground-penetrating radar for identification

of groundwater resources in a coastal terrain
Ratnakar Dhakate & B. Amarender & V. Satish Kumar &
S. Sankaran & V. V. S. Gurunadha Rao
Received: 5 June 2013 / Accepted: 23 July 2014
#Saudi Society for Geosciences 2014
Abstract Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) investiga-
tions were carried out in a costal terrain for locating
freshwater pockets at Vizag Steel Plant (VSP),
Vishakapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. The entire area
is underlain by recent alluvial which consists of sand,
clay, and silt with basement as Kondalitic rock forma-
tion. GPR is a surface geophysical method that de-
pends on the emission, transmission, reflection, and
reception of electromagnetic pulses and can produce
continuous high-resolution profiles of the subsurface
rapidly and efficiently at any desired location. The
interpretation of radar records requires little or no
processing. Based on GPR investigations, four loca-
tions were recommended for drilling of bore well at
VSP, Vishakapatnam. The drilled bore well was found
to yield good water to meet the demand of VSP,
Vishakapatnam. Hydrochemical study reveals that the
total dissolved solids (TDS) and chloride concentration
range from 189 to 3,398 and 5 to 1,610 mg/l. The
eastern and northeastern parts of the study area have
elevated concentration of TDS and chloride, indicating
intrusion of saline water. TDS concentration of drilled
bore well was found to range from 200 to 700 mg/l.
The observed yield of drilled bore wells ranges from
1,300 to 4,900 lph.
Keywords Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
.
Total dissolved
solids
.
Vizag Steel Plant (VSP)
Introduction
Groundwater is considered as one of the promising sources for
drinking, agriculture, and industrial use, where inadequate
surface water is not available. Identification of groundwater
sources in hard rock terrain is a difficult task, as the hard rock
is devoid of primary porosity. In a coastal terrain, identifica-
tion and demarcation of freshwater pockets are again a diffi-
cult task, as the clay, silt, and saline water possess similar
geophysical signatures. Several potential and nonpotential
geophysical methods were adopted for identification of
groundwater sources.
In recent years, much sophisticated instruments and
methods are available for identification of groundwater
sources, such instruments and methods were easy to carry
out field investigation at any desired locations where inade-
quate space is not available. There has been always a require-
ment for acquiring high resolution near surface ground anom-
alies rapidly and economically which gives more fruitful
results. However, until recently, there were no methods that
meet the above requirements. Over the past few decades,
ground-penetrating radar (GPR) techniques have been used
to solve many problems where high-resolution mapping of
ground surface is from few centimeters up to 50-m depth.
Applications of GPR techniques are abundant and include
mineral, groundwater exploration, geotechnical, archaeologi-
cal investigations, rock mechanics, and mine development.
Some specific applications are mapping of bedrock depth,
stratigraphic mapping, sedimentology, changes of rock type,
fractures in bedrock, soil strata, soil moisture, environmental
and contamination, hydraulic properties of subsurface, and
water table, etc. (Baker 1991; Beres and Haeni 1991; Beres
et al. 1995; Buynevich and FitzGearald 2003; Conyers and
Goodman 1997; Corbeanu et al. 2001; Davis and Annan
1989; Doolittle et al. 2006; El-Behiry and Hanafy 2013;
Hammon et al. 2002, Hanafy and Al Hagrey 2006; Hubbard
R. Dhakate (*)
:
B. Amarender
:
V. S. Kumar
:
S. Sankaran
:
V. V. S. G. Rao
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR),
National Geophysical Research Institute, Uppal Road,
Hyderabad 500007, India
e-mail: dhakate.ratnakar@gmail.com
Arab J Geosci
DOI 10.1007/s12517-014-1567-8
et al. 1997; Odah et al. 2013; Huisman et al. 2003; Jol et al.
2002; Kowalsky et al. 2005; Knight 2001; Lambot et al. 2004;
Neal and Roberts 2000; Rashed and Al-Garni 2013; Neal et al.
2003; Shukla et al. 2008; Shaaban et al. 2013; Aqeel et al.
2014; de Menezes Travassos and de Tarso Luiz Menezes
2004; Van Overmeeren 1994, 1998; Van Dam and Schlager
2000; Wollschlaeger and Roth 2005; Wollschlaeger et al.
2004).
GPR offers a high-resolution sounding capability with
detection of features of the order of a few tens of millimeter
thickness to several meters. GPR has been demonstrated to
sound depths of 50 m in low conductivity (<1 S/m) mate-
rials such as sand, gravel, rock, and freshwater. The range
decreases to a few meters in conductive materials such as
clays, silts, and soils with saline or contaminated pore water.
Vizag Steel Plant (VSP), Vishakapatnam, Andhra
Pradesh, India, is one of the core steel-producing plant
operating under Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited. VSP is
the main producers of Wire Rods, Rounds, Reinforce-
ment Bars, Angles, Channels, Beams, Blooms, and Bil-
lets, etc. VSP set up the expansion of its plant to
increase its production from 3.6 to 6.3 MT per year
for which water is required. In order to locate the
favorable zones in plant and township premises, GPR
investigations were carried out. VSP is situated on a
mudflat, fluvial plain, and recent alluvial formation and
having saline intrusion problem. Based on GPR investi-
gations, few sites were recommended for drilling of
bore wells and found to be successful; the results of
GPR investigation were discussed in the article.
Study area
The s t udy ar ea i s about 30 km away f r om
Vishakapatnam city. The area falls on Survey of India
Toposheet No. 65 O/2 and O/3 with longitude 83 5 to
83 15 east and latitude 17 35 to 17 40 north. The
total area of VSP is around 11,000 ac, and township
area occupies around 12,000 ac. Presently, VSP is with-
drawing surface water from Kanithi Balancing Reservoir
(KBR) for maintaining their cooling towers. There are
four bore wells in steel plant area and about 50 bore
wells in the township area of which about 30 bore wells
are giving poor yield and/or go dry in summer seasons.
The key map along with the study area is shown in
Fig. 1.
Geology
Geology of Visakhapatnam and its surroundings was
ma p p e d b y Ki n g ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; Ma h a d e v a n a n d
Sathapathi (1949). Harbor area is in marine tidal flat,
and a par t i s cr os s i ng t he f l uvi al pl ai n of
Mehadrigedda. Prithiraju and Vaidyanadhan (1978) re-
ported 18-m thickness of marine clay followed by
weathered rock toward the south. Natarajan et al.
(1979) reported 1017 m of loamy sandy clay or fine
clay near Balacheruvu and 4080-m thickness of ma-
rine clay north of Tummedalametta.
Major geological formations covering the study area
show predominant Khondalite group and metamorphosed
groups of rocks. The rocks of Khondalite group constitute
the dominant component of the Eastern Ghats, form contin-
uous hill ranges in the Eastern Ghats proper and as isolated
ridges, hills and mounds in the midst of migmatites at lower
elevations and in the adjoining coastal plains. Migmatization
of Khondalite, Charnokite, and pyroxene granulites gave rise
to a variety of rock types. The migmatites, predominantly
occurring along the foot hills and coastal plains, are associ-
ated with intrusive granitic rocks. Laterites occur as their
capping on hill tops and high grounds. These are present in
hill tops of Yarada hill and Simhachalam hill and in situ in
nature. Along foot hills, lateritic gravel occurs. At places, it
is cemented to form colluvial laterites or laterized colluvium.
However, the extent of laterites is rather limited and does not
form aquifers. Surficial deposits include colluvium, alluvi-
um, red sediments, and coastal sediments. Colluvium is
debris material along the foot hills essentially derived from
Khondalite hill ranges by fluvial action. It is composed of
sand, silt, clay, and gravel in varying proportions. The
thickness of colluvium varies widely depending on bedrock
configuration.
Alluvium is confined to major stream course of
Boremmagedda only. The alluvium extends as a narrow
strip along the stream course, and thickness is <5 m.
Quaternary sediments are of both fluvial and marine
regimes. The fluvial sediments are restricted to river
courses, in the form of flood plains mostly comprising
brown silty clay. Channel bars and active channels
contain brown silts and coarse sand. The marine sedi-
ments of active beach and tidal flat are seen in the
narrow coastal plain. The steel plant was actually built
on a mudflat area. Alluvial plains are flat and gently
sloping zone formed by deposition of fluvial borne
sediments. It is composed of unconsolidated sediments
of gravel, sand, and clay in varying proportions with
variable depths. Occurrence of thick weathered zone has
been found beneath the sediments. The nature of allu-
vial plain varies from near flat to rolling plain. Mudflats
are a low-lying tidal flat generally barren and is com-
posed of unconsolidated sediment comprising fine silt,
clay, and mud in varying proportions mixed with shells,
kankar, and saline in nature. The geological map of the
Vishakapatnam is shown in Fig. 2 (GSI 2001).
Arab J Geosci
83.12 83.14 83.16 83.18 83.2 83.22 83.24
LONGITUDE (in Degree)
Salt pans
0km 2km 4km
70 75 80 85 90 95
LONGITUDE (in degree)
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30
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INDIA
17.58
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17.62
17.64
17.66
17.68
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VSP Township
VSP Plant
1 Location of Ground
Penetrating Radar &
drilled borewell
Fig. 1 Key map showing the location of study area, ground-penetrating radar investigation location and drilled bore well location at Vizag Steel Plant,
Vishakapatnam
Arab J Geosci
Hydrogeology
Groundwater occurs in all the formations in the area. Howev-
er, nature and occurrence depend on various factors like
rainfall, topography, landform, geology, and structure. Central
Ground Water Board (CGWB) has made an inventory of 203
dug wells. In addition, 325 bore wells fitted with hand pumps
were also examined in Visakhapatnam district. Further, the
lithologs of bore wells drilled by State Groundwater
Department, Vishakapatnam, were also collected to
study subsurface lithology and groundwater yield. With
regard to groundwater, the geological formations of the
area are classified into two types, hard crystalline rocks
and unconsolidated sediments. Crystalline rocks are
Khondalites; Charnokites, gneisses, and granites are
grouped as hard rocks, while red sediments, colluvium,
alluvium, and coastal sands are unconsolidated forma-
tions. The area is characterized by red loamy soil in the
northern part and red sandy soils in the southern part.
Coastal alluvial and sandy soils are seen in the coastal
plain. A patch of lateritic soil occurs in the northeastern
part. The tidal flat (mudflat) is unconsolidated to
semiconsolidated sand, silt, and clay.
Groundwater occurrence in Khondalitic rocks
The hard Khondalite crystalline rocks lack of primary porosity.
The groundwater occurrence and movement are usually limited
to the secondary porosity developed through weathering and
fracturing. As a result, the groundwater prospects are limited
and depend on the degree and depth of fracturing and
weathering. The thickness of weathering varies from place to
place depending on local topography, lithology, and structure.
Similarly, intensity of fracturing also varies widely. These aqui-
fers are anisotropic and nonhomogeneous, as such
hydrogeological conditions vary widely within short distances.
Fig. 2 Geology of the Vishakapatnam
Arab J Geosci
Groundwater occurs under water table conditions under
weathered residual and semiconfined to confined conditions
in deeper fractured zones. The thickness of weathering varies
from 5 to 45 m. The lithologs indicate more weathering in
Khondalite rock. The weathered zone in Khondalites is gen-
erally more porous due to high quartz content. The feldspathic
gneiss gives rise to clayey weathered zone, while charnockites
by virtue of their texture are massive in nature and are more
resistant to weathering. The intensity of fracturing has been
found to be more in Khondalites compared to Charnokite
rocks. Dug wells and bore wells that are in use for groundwa-
ter pumping indicate poor storage nature of the formation. All
dug wells are large diameter wells >8 m. The depths of the dug
wells are varying from 4 to 16 m, while the general depths are
being 812 m. The depths of bore wells are varying from15 to
60 m, the general depth being 30 m.
The main landforms are structural ridges or hogbacks
with intermittent softer migmatic rocks forming low
plains referred to as pediplainpediment complex. In
pedimentpediplain, KhondaliticCharnokite terrain
groundwater occurrence is restricted to 60-m depth.
The aquifers have secondary intergranular porosity, and
aquifers are mostly discontinuous in nature. Northern
and northwestern parts have high elevations with later-
itic capping which form plateaus. The coastal plain is
made of beach ridges, tidal flats, and lagoons. Ground-
water in the major part of the area is controlled by
fracture rocks. The groundwater potential is high along
the fractures and low to moderate away from fractures.
The permeability of the rocks is 0.52 m/day, and
specific yield is 0.0050.025. Occurrence of groundwa-
ter is confined to shallow depths in floodplains. Quality
of groundwater suffers in the coastal plains, but potable
water is tapped from shallow depths in the beach ridges.
Groundwater quality
In order to assess the groundwater quality at VSP and
township premises, 38 groundwater samples from
existing bore well/dug well were collected with in situ
measurements of pH and total dissolved solids (TDS)
(Sankaran et al. 2012). The samples were analyzed for
major ions to understand the groundwater quality. TDS
concentration of these samples ranges from 189 to
3,398 mg/l; the samples show high TDS concentration
along the eastern and northern part of the area. More
than 50 % of samples, the TDS concentration was
higher than the permissible limit of drinking water stan-
dards (WHO 1993) which shows its nonsuitability for
drinking and has saline in nature. Similarly, the chloride
concentration ranges from 5 to 1,610 mg/l; the samples
show high chloride concentration along the eastern and
northern part of the area, which is correlated with the
variation of TDS concentration. This shows that the
water quality along the eastern and northern part of
the area has saline in nature and it is not suitable for
drinking purpose. The spatial distribution of TDS and
chloride concentration is shown in Fig. 3a, b.
Principle of GPR
GPR is also known as ground-penetrating radar; subsurface-
penetrating radar, subsurface radar, geo-radar, or impulse ra-
dar is a nondestructive geophysical technique which detects
electrical discontinuities in the shallow subsurface using a
system setup that can generate, transmit, receive, and record
the discrete pulses of high-frequency (1 to 1,000 MHz) elec-
tromagnetic energy (Neal 2004).
Although the technique has been employed in variety of
sedimentary environments. In geological material, the propa-
gation of electromagnetic waves is controlled by properties
like relative dielectric permittivity (r), relative magnetic per-
meability (r), and electrical conductivity (). Table 1 shows
the dielectric values for common material including water
(Conyers and Goodman 1997). When a propagating electro-
magnetic wave encounters a distinct discontinuity with re-
spect to dielectric permittivity, magnetic permeability, or elec-
trical conductivity, some energy is reflected back which is
proportional to the magnitude of the relative change in these
properties (Reynolds 1997; Van Dam and Schlager 2000).
Very commonly, the water table, sedimentary structures, and
lithological boundaries become visible in radar profiles. A
depositional (bedding) plane in sediments is a product of
changes in sediment composition and changes in size, shape,
orientation, and packing of grains (Collinson and Thompson
1989). A number of studies have successfully shown relation-
ship between the GPR reflections and sedimentary structures
especially with the help of rigorously processed data (Annan
1999; Neal and Roberts 2000; Corbeanu et al. 2001; Jol et al.
2002; Hammon et al. 2002; Buynevich and FitzGearald 2003;
Neal et al. 2003; Neal 2004). The technique has been success-
fully employed using GPR system in India wherein the cor-
relations between the reflections and subsurface reflectors
were established by trenching (Sridhar and Patidar 2005;
Maurya et al. 2006).
GPR data acquisition and interpretation
GPR tool has the advantage of providing high-resolution
images of the subsurface at a scale varying from few centime-
ters to few meters (Annan and Cosway 1994; Knight 2001).
The GPR data acquired using Terra SIRch System-3000 sin-
gle-channel GPR meter (Geophysical Survey System Inc.),
Arab J Geosci
Fig. 3 a, b Spatial distribution of
TDS and chloride concentration
(mg/l) in the VSP area
Arab J Geosci
USA made, and processed by RADAN 6.0v software. The
field photographs of the GPR survey (Fig. 4a, b) carried out in
VSP illustrating the survey was carried out in point mode.
Multiple GPR profiles were carried out in VSP and township
premises in time mode (continuous mode) using setup given
in Table 2. The basic processing operations applied were
stacking and zero correction. Stacking has been applied to
prune the data size; zero correction is applied to correct for the
first arrival. The positions of reflections corresponding to the
change in the dielectric constant and electrical conductivity
are deciphered from the GPR image. The interpreted GPR
image is also called as radargrams. The advanced features in
RADAN 6.0v software like local peaks and Hilbert transform
to extract the configuration of subsurface horizons. The local
peak module is applied on the data to pick the maximum
peaks corresponding to significant reflections. Besides, the
Hilbert transform is applied on the data to map how the
injected energy/radar pulse is captured by the media and
how it is filtered through the media. The magnitude part of
the Hilbert transformindicates the pattern of absorbance of the
incident energy of the GPR, whereas the phase component
indicates how the incident energy is filtered in the subsurface.
The success of Hilbert transform in identifying the edges of
electrical conductivity contrasts in the subsurface. In the pres-
ent exercise, the Hilbert transform is implemented on GPR
data to identify the zones of conductivity contrast.
Result and discussion
In order to assess the groundwater conditions in the VSP and
township premises, few GPR profiles of 1030-mlength were
carried out (Sankaran et al. 2012). GPR investigations were
carried out to arrive at better resolution of subsurface layers
for recommendation of bore wells at VSP and township
premises. Based on GPR investigations, four sites were rec-
ommended for drilling of bore wells. The locations of recom-
mended GPR profiles are shown in Fig. 1.
Table 1 Dielectric values for common material
Material Dielectric value Velocity (mm/nS)
Air 1 300
Water (fresh) 81 33
Water (sea) 81 33
Coastal sand (dry) 10 95
Sand (dry) 36 120170
Sand (wet) 2530 5560
Silt (wet) 10 95
Clay (wet) 815 86110
Clay soil (dry) 3 173
Marsh 12 86
Agricultural land 15 77
Pastoral land 13 83
Average soil 16 75
After Conyers and Goodman (1997)
Fig. 4 a, b Field photographs of the GPR survey carried out in point
mode in VSP area
Table 2 Configuration/specification and ranges used for GPR investiga-
tion at VSP
Configuration/specification Range
Antenna used 40 MHz
Dielectric constant 08
Range 800 nS (nanosecond)
Samples per scan 512
Resolution 16 bits
Number of gain points 05
Vertical high pass filter 10 MHz
Vertical low pass filter 80 MHz
Scan per second 32
Transmit rate 12 KHz
Arab J Geosci
The first bore well was recommended and drilled at
Pump House No. 18 at VSP where GPR profile of 20-m
length was carried out using the configuration (Table 2)
and interpreted as mentioned in data acquisition chapter.
The entire drilling activities were observed, and lithologs
were collected during drilled time, and analysis was made
in situ. The drilled lithologs show sand and coarse to fine
gravel up to 10-m depth followed by fine gravel up to 15-
m depth. From 15- to 40-m depth, a fractured hard rock
was encountered in hard rock formation. The water is
struck at 20-m depth. After 50-m depth, another zone of
fractured rock encountered followed by hard rock. The in
situ yield of this bore well was around 2,000 liter per hour
(lph). The observed drilled lithologs at this location are
shown in Fig. 5a. The observed drilled lithologs very well
correlate with the GPR image (radargam) carried out at
this location (Fig. 6a). The radargram shows that up to 20-
m-high reflections were observed suggesting that the stra-
ta is highly saturated; below this portion, less reflections
were observed after 20-m depth indicating a hard rock
with fractures. The radargram is almost correlated with
the drilled bore well litholog. The radargram is shown in
Fig. 6a.
The second bore well was recommended and drilled at
Pump House No. 21 at VSP where GPR profile of 20-m
length was carried out using the configuration (Table 2).
The drilled litholog was collected, and analysis was made
in situ. The drilled lithologs show clayey sand up to a
depth of 20 m followed by sand layer up to 25-m depth.
After 25 m, quartz gravel was encountered up to 35 m
with water struck at 30-m depth. Again, quartz gravel was
observed up to a depth of 50 m; below this, sand and fine
gravel were noticed up to 70 m followed by a gravel zone
up to 85 m with hard rock as basement. The observed
drilled litholog is shown in Fig. 5b. The observed
drilled litholog when correlated with radargram shows
dark image (less reflection) up to a depth of 5 m due to
presence of clay, as clay absorbs most of the reflected
signals and fewer reflections occurred. After 5-m depth,
the radargram becomes quite bright up to a depth of
20 m as more reflections were received by antenna, this
is because of the presence of sandy layer. After 20 m,
Fig. 5 a, b Observed drilled bore
well lithologs at Pump House
No.18 and Pump House No.21
Arab J Geosci
the moderate reflections were observed in the radargram
due to presence of sand and gravel up to a depth of
30 m; after 30 m, the signals become weak, and poor
reflections were observed in the radargram, indicating
compactness of the subsurface which is well noticed in
the drilling, as at this depth, quartz gravel was encoun-
tered. The radargram is shown in Fig. 6b. The drilled
bore well yields water around 3,200 lph.
Third, bore well was recommended and drilled at Cooling
Tower No.14 and Pump House No.11 where GPR profile of
Fig. 6 a, b Radargram image
after application of filters,
deconvolution, velocity analysis,
and migration interpretation
techniques carried out at a Pump
House No.18 (Bore well No. 1), b
Pump House No. 21 (Bore well
No.2)
Arab J Geosci
20-m length was carried out. The drilled litholog shows
clay formation up to a depth of 5 m; below this zone, a
gravel formation is encountered up to a depth of 10 m;
below this, a sand and gravel formations were noticed
up to a depth of 20 m. The water struck at 20-m depth.
After 20-m depth, a zone of coarse to fine sand forma-
tion was encountered up to a depth of 60 m; below this,
a sand and gravel zone was encountered up to 70-m
depth followed by hard rock formation. The observed
litholog of this bore well is shown in Fig. 7a. The
radargram is perfectly matched with the observed drilled
litholog. The top portion of the radargram shows dark
portion up to a depth of 5 m due to poor reflections
indicating presence of clay, as most of the signals get
absorbed in clay. After this, more reflections were ob-
served up to a depth of 20 m, as this formation contains
gravels, sand, and gravels with highly saturated with
water; after this, moderate reflections were observed
up to a depth of 42 m which indicate a sand formation,
as fine sand absorbs the signals, but due to presence of
moisture, some signals get reflected. The radargram is
shown in Fig. 8a. The drilled bore well yields water
around 1,300 lph.
The fourth bore well was recommended and drilled near
NewTreatment Plant No.7 (Between Old &New) where GPR
profile 20-mlength was carried out. The drilled litholog shows
coarse sand up to a depth of 10 mfollowed by sandy clay up to
a depth of 15 m. After 15-m depth, a quartz gravel was
encountered up to depth of 25 m, and water is stuck at 20-m
depth. After this, a quartz gravel zone continues with fractured
rock up to a depth of 60 m followed by fractured zone up to
70 m with hard rock as basement. The observed litholog of
this bore well is shown in Fig. 7b. The observed drilled
litholog when correlated to radargram is almost matched.
The radargram shows more reflections up to a depth of 20 m
due to the saturation condition of the formation, followed by
moderate reflections due to the presence of quartz gravel
fractured formation up to a depth of 40 m. The radargram is
shown in Fig. 8b. The drilled bore well yields water around
4,000 lph.
TDS concentration zone of 7001,700 mg/l and chlo-
ride concentration zone of 200600 mg/l are indicated
Fig. 7 a, b Observed drilled bore
well lithologs at Pump House
No.11 and Near Treatment Plant
No. 7
Arab J Geosci
in Fig. 3a, b. The drilled bore well lies in the zone of
salinity nature of groundwater. The maximum permissible
limit TDS concentration is 1,000 mg/l, and chloride concentration
is 250 mg/l for drinking purpose (WHO 1993). Accordingly, this
drilled bore well gives rise to high TDS and chloride concentra-
tion. The measured TDS concentration of drilled bore well is
around 200700 mg/l within the permissible limit of drinking
purpose.
Clay
Sand and Gravel
Fine Coarse Sand
Water Struck
Recommended site for
drilling of bore well
a
b
Fig. 8 a, b Radargram image
after application of filters,
deconvolution, velocity analysis,
and migration interpretation
techniques carried out at a
Cooling Tower No. 14 (Bore well
No. 3), b Near Treatment Plant
No. 7 (Bore well No.4)
Arab J Geosci
Conclusion
GPR investigations were carried out in a coastal terrain for
locating freshwater pockets. GPR investigations were found
to be fast, accurate, and can be carried out at any desired
locations with good resolution of the subsurface up to a depth
of few centimeters to few tens of meters. The recommended
sites for drilling of bore wells based on GPR investigations
were found to be good yield wells. In situ measurements of
TDS of drilled bore wells range from 200 to 700 mg/l. The
observed drilling lithologs were well correlated with GPR
images. The yield of the drilled bore well ranges from 1,300
to 4,900 lph.
Acknowledgments Authors express their thanks to Director, NGRI,
Hyderabad for his continuous support for the research activity. Authors
are also grateful to the staff of Water Management Department, VSP,
Vishakapatnam for providing necessary support throughout investiga-
tions. Authors are also thankful to honorable reviewers for giving their
valuable suggestions and comments for the improvement of the scientific
content of the manuscript. Authors are thankful to the Editor of the journal
for his kind support and encouragement.
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