196

The waves we have considered so far in Chapter 15,

Chapter 16 and Chapter 17 have been progressive
waves; they start from a source and travel outwards. A
second important class of waves is stationary waves
(standing waves). These can be observed as follows.
Use a long spring or a slinky spring. A long rope or
piece of rubber tubing will also do. Lay it on the foor
and fx one end frmly. Move the other end from side to
side so that transverse waves travel along the length of
the spring and refect off the fxed end (Figure 18.1). If
you adjust the frequency of the shaking, you should be
able to achieve a stable pattern like one of those shown
in Figure 18.2. Alter the frequency in order to achieve
one of the other patterns.
You should notice that you have to move the end
of the spring with just the right frequency to get one
of these interesting patterns. The pattern disappears
when the frequency of the shaking of the free end of
the spring is slightly increased or decreased.
Stationary waves
Chapter 18
Nodes and antinodes
What you have observed is a stationary wave on the
long spring. There are points along the spring that
remain (almost) motionless while points on either
side are oscillating with the greatest amplitude. The
points that do not move are called the nodes and the
points where the spring oscillates with maximum
amplitude are called the antinodes. At the same time,
it is clear that the wave profle is not travelling along
the length of the spring. Hence we call it a stationary
wave or a standing wave.
fixed
end
free
end
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Distance
Distance
Distance
antinode
node
Figure 18.2 Different stationary wave patterns are possible, depending on the frequency of vibration.
Figure 18.1 A slinky spring is used to generate a
stationary wave pattern.
hyperlink
destination
hyperlink
destination
e-Learning
Objectives
J7007
CUP
0521787185c18_04.eps
resultant
wave moving to right
wave moving to left
wave moving to right
wave moving to left
resultant wave
Key
N N
A A A A A
N N N N
Snapshots
of the
waves
over a
time
of one
period, T.
T = period of wave
Distance
s
s
s
s
t = 0
t = T
Displacement
x
x
t =
profile at t =

and
profile at t =
profile at t = 0 and T
x
x
t =
T
2
T
4
t =
3T
4
3T
4
T
4
T
2

2
We normally represent a stationary wave by
drawing the shape of the spring in its two extreme
positions (Figure 18.3a). The spring appears as a
series of loops, separated by nodes. In this diagram,
point A is moving downwards. At the same time,
point B in the next loop is moving upwards. The
phase difference between points A and B is 180.
Hence the sections of spring in adjacent loops are
always moving in antiphase; they are half a cycle out
of phase with one another.
a

b

B
A
Distance
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Distance

Figure 18.3 The fxed ends of a long spring must be

nodes in the stationary wave pattern.
Formation of stationary waves
Imagine a string stretched between two fxed points,
for example a guitar string. Pulling the middle of
the string and then releasing it produces a stationary
wave. There is a node at each of the fxed ends and an
antinode in the middle. Releasing the string produces
two progressive waves travelling in opposite directions.
These are refected at the fxed ends. The refected
waves combine to produce the stationary wave.
Figure 18.1 shows how a stationary wave can
be set up using a long spring. A stationary wave
is formed whenever two progressive waves of
the same amplitude and wavelength, travelling in
opposite directions, superimpose. Figure 18.4 uses a
displacement s against distance x graph to illustrate
the formation of a stationary wave along a long
spring (or a stretched length of string).

At time t = 0, the progressive waves travelling to
the left and right are in phase. The waves combine
constructively giving amplitude twice that of
each wave.

After a time equal to one quarter of a period
(t =
T
4
), each wave travels a distance of one quarter
of a wavelength to the left or right. Consequently,
the two waves are in antiphase (phase difference
= 180). The waves combine destructively giving
zero displacement.
Figure 18.4 The blue-coloured wave is moving
to the left and the red-coloured wave to the right.
The principle of superposition of waves is used to
determine the resultant displacement. The profle of
the long spring is shown in green.
Chapter 18: Stationary waves
197
hyperlink
destination
hyperlink
destination
Chapter 18: Stationary waves
198

After a time equal to one half of a period (t =
T
2
),
the two waves are back in phase again. They once
again combine constructively.

After a time equal to three quarters of a period
(t =
3T
4
), the waves are in antiphase again. They
combine destructively with the resultant wave
showing zero displacement.

After a time equal to one whole period (t = T), the
waves combine constructively. The profle of the
slinky spring is as it was at t = 0.
This cycle repeats itself, with the long spring showing
nodes and antinodes along its length. The separation
between adjacent nodes or antinodes tells us about the
progressive waves that produce the stationary wave.
A closer inspection of the graphs in Figure 18.4
shows that the separation between adjacent nodes
or antinodes is related to the wavelength of the
progressive wave. The important conclusions are:
separation between two adjacent nodes
(or antinodes) =

2
separation between adjacent node and antinode =

4
The wavelength of any progressive wave can be
determined from the separation between neighbouring
nodes or antinodes of the resulting standing wave
pattern. (This is =

2
.) This can then be used to
determine either the speed v of the progressive wave
or its frequency f by using the wave equation:
v = f
It is worth noting that a stationary wave does not
travel and therefore has no speed. It does not transfer
energy between two points like a progressive wave.
Table 18.1 shows some of the key features of a
progressive wave and its stationary wave.
Progressive
wave
Stationary
wave
wavelength
frequency f f
speed v zero
Table 18.1 A summary of progressive and
stationary waves.
SAQ
1 A stationary (standing) wave is set up on a
vibrating spring. Adjacent nodes are separated by
25 cm. Determine:
a the wavelength of the stationary
wave
b the distance from a node to an
adjacent antinode.
Observing stationary waves
Stretched strings
A string is attached at one end to a vibration
generator, driven by a signal generator (Figure
18.5). The other end hangs over a pulley and
weights maintain the tension in the string. When the
signal generator is switched on, the string vibrates
with small amplitude. However, by adjusting the
frequency, it is possible to produce stationary waves
whose amplitude is much larger.
pulley
vibration
generator
weights
signal
generator
Figure 18.5 Meldes experiment for investigating
stationary waves on a string.
The pulley end of the string is unable to vibrate; this
is a node. Similarly, the end attached to the vibrator
is only able to move a small amount, and this is also
a node. As the frequency is increased, it is possible
to observe one loop (one antinode), two loops, three
loops and more. Figure 18.6 shows a vibrating string
where the frequency of the vibrator has been set to
produce two loops.
hyperlink
destination
hyperlink
destination
Hint
Answer
Chapter 18: Stationary waves
199
A fashing stroboscope is useful to reveal the motion
of the string at these frequencies, which look blurred
to the eye. The frequency of vibration is set so that
there are two loops along the string; the frequency of
the stroboscope is set so that it almost matches that
of the vibrations. Now we can see the string moving
in slow motion, and it is easy to see the opposite
movements of the two adjacent loops.
This experiment is known as Meldes experiment,
and it can be extended to investigate the effect of
changing the length of the string, the tension in the
string and the thickness of the string.
SAQ
2 Look at the stationary (standing) wave on the
string in Figure 18.6. The length of the vibrating
section of the string is 60 cm.
a Determine the wavelength of the stationary
wave and the separation of the two
neighbouring antinodes.
The frequency of vibration is increased until a
stationary wave with three antinodes appears on
the string.
b Sketch a stationary wave
pattern to illustrate the
appearance of the string.
c What is the wavelength of this
stationary wave?
Microwaves
Start by directing the microwave transmitter at a
metal plate, which refects the microwaves back
towards the source (Figure 18.7). Move the probe
Figure 18.6 When a stationary wave is established,
one half of the string moves upwards as the other half
moves downwards. In this photograph, the string is
moving too fast to observe the effect.
receiver around in the space between the transmitter
and the refector and you will observe positions of
high and low intensity. This is because a stationary
wave is set up between the transmitter and the
sheet; the positions of high and low intensity are the
antinodes and nodes respectively.
If the probe is moved along the direct line from
the transmitter to the plate, the wavelength of the
microwaves can be determined from the distance
between the nodes. Knowing that microwaves travel
at the speed of light c (3.0 10
8
m s
1
), we can then
determine their frequency f using the wave equation
c = f .
reflecting
sheet
probe
meter
microwave
transmitter
Figure 18.7 A stationary wave is created when
microwaves are refected from the metal sheet.
SAQ
3 a Draw a stationary wave pattern for the
microwave experiment above. Clearly show
whether there is a node or an antinode at the
refecting sheet.
b The separation of two adjacent
points of high intensity is found
to be 14 mm. Calculate the
wavelength and frequency
of the microwaves.
hyperlink
destination
hyperlink
destination
Hint
Answer
Hint
Answer
Extension
Chapter 18: Stationary waves
200
Sound waves in air columns
A glass tube (open at both ends) is clamped so that
one end dips into a cylinder of water; by adjusting its
height in the clamp, you can change the length of the
column of air in the tube (Figure 18.8). When you hold
a vibrating tuning fork above the open end, the air
column may be forced to vibrate, and the note of the
tuning
fork
air
water

4
Figure 18.8 A stationary wave is created in the air in
the tube when the length of the air column is adjusted
to the correct length.
tuning fork sounds much louder. This is an example
of a phenomenon called resonance. The experiment
described here is known as the resonance tube.
For resonance to occur, the length of the air
column must be just right. The air at the bottom of the
tube is unable to vibrate, so this point must be a node.
The air at the open end of the tube can vibrate most
freely, so this is an antinode. Hence the length of
the air column must be one-quarter of a wavelength
(Figure 18.9a). (Alternatively, the length of the air
column could be set to equal three-quarters of a
wavelength see Figure 18.9b.)
SAQ
4 Explain how two sets of identical but oppositely
travelling waves are established in the
microwave and air column
experiments described above.
Stationary waves and musical instruments
The production of different notes by musical
instruments often depends on the creation of stationary
waves (Figure 18.10). For a stringed instrument
such as a guitar, the two ends of a string are fxed, so
nodes must be established at these points. When the
string is plucked half-way along its length, it vibrates
with an antinode at its midpoint. This is known as
the fundamental mode of vibration of the string. The
fundamental frequency is the minimum frequency of
a standing wave for a given system or arrangement.
antinode
node
antinode
node
a b

4
3

4
Figure 18.9 Stationary wave patterns for air in a tube
with one end closed.
Figure 18.10 When a guitar string is plucked, the
vibrations of the strings continue for some time
afterwards. Here you can clearly see a node close to
the end of each string.
hyperlink
destination
hyperlink
destination
hyperlink
destination
hyperlink
destination
Answer
Chapter 18: Stationary waves
201
Similarly, the air column inside a wind instrument is
caused to vibrate by blowing, and the note that is heard
depends on a stationary wave being established. By
changing the length of the air column, as in a trombone,
the note can be changed. Alternatively, holes can be
uncovered so that the air can vibrate more freely, giving
a different pattern of nodes and antinodes.
In practice, the sounds that are produced are
made up of several different stationary waves
having different patterns of nodes and antinodes.
For example, a guitar string may vibrate with two
antinodes along its length. This gives a note having
twice the frequency of the fundamental, and is
described as a harmonic of the fundamental. The
musicians skill is in stimulating the string or air
column to produce a desired mixture of frequencies.
J7007
CUP
0521787185c18_11.eps
= L

L = length of string
fundamental = 2L f
0
2f
0
= L 3f
0
wavelength frequency
second harmonic
third harmonic
A
A A
A A A
N N
N N N
N N N N
2
3
Figure 18.11 Some of the possible stationary waves for a fxed string of length L.
The frequency of the harmonics is a multiple of the fundamental frequency f
0
.
The frequency of a harmonic is always a multiple
of the fundamental frequency. The diagrams show
some of the modes of vibrations for a fxed length of
string (Figure 18.11) and an air column in a tube of a
given length that is closed at one end (Figure 18.12).
Determining the wavelength and
speed of sound
Since we know that adjacent nodes (or antinodes) of
a stationary wave are separated by half a wavelength,
we can use this fact to determine the wavelength of
a progressive wave. If we also know the frequency
f of the waves, we can fnd their speed v using the
wave equation v = f .
J7007
CUP
0521787185c18_12.eps
L = length
of air
column
fundamental second
harmonic
third
harmonic
= 4L
f
0
=
3f
0
wavelength
frequency
N
A
N
A
N
A
N
A
N
A
N
A
4L
3
=
5f
0
4L
5

Figure 18.12 Some of the possible stationary waves for an air column, closed at one end.
The frequency of each harmonic is an odd multiple of the fundamental frequency f
0
.
hyperlink
destination
hyperlink
destination
Extension
Figure 18.13 Kundts dust tube can be used to
determine the speed of sound.
One approach uses Kundts dust tube (Figure
18.13). A loudspeaker sends sound waves along the
inside of a tube. The sound is refected at the closed
end. When a stationary wave is established, the dust
(fne powder) at the antinodes vibrates violently.
It tends to accumulate at the nodes, where the
movement of the air is zero. Hence the positions of
the nodes and antinodes can be clearly seen.
signal
generator
loudspeaker
glass tube
closed end
dust piles
up at nodes
A
N
A
N
A
N
A
An alternative method is shown in Figure 18.14; this
is the same arrangement as used for microwaves. The
loudspeaker produces sound waves, and these are
refected from the vertical board. The microphone
detects the stationary sound wave in the space
between the speaker and the board, and its output is
displayed on the oscilloscope. It is simplest to turn
off the time base of the oscilloscope, so that the spot
no longer moves across the screen. The spot moves
up and down the screen, and the height of the vertical
trace gives a measure of the intensity of the sound.
By moving the microphone along the line between
the speaker and the board, it is easy to detect nodes
and antinodes. For maximum accuracy, we do not
measure the separation of adjacent nodes; it is better
to measure the distance across several nodes.
The resonance tube experiment (Figure 18.8) can
also be used to determine the wavelength and speed
of sound with a high degree of accuracy. However,
to do this, it is necessary to take account of a
systematic error in the experiment, as discussed in the
Eliminating errors section on page 203.
SAQ
5 a For the arrangement shown in Figure 18.14,
suggest why it is easier to determine accurately
the position of a node rather than an antinode.
b Explain why it is better to measure
the distance across
several nodes.
6 For sound waves of frequency 2500 Hz, it is found
that two nodes are separated by 20 cm, with three
antinodes between them.
a Determine the wavelength of these sound
waves.
b Use the wave equation v = f to determine
the speed of sound
in air.
oscilloscope
loudspeaker
microphone
to signal
generator
(2 kHz)
reflecting
board
Figure 18.14 A stationary sound wave is established
between the loudspeaker and the board.
Chapter 18: Stationary waves
202
hyperlink
destination
hyperlink
destination
Answer
Answer
Chapter 18: Stationary waves
203
The resonance tube experiment illustrates an
interesting way in which one type of experimental
error can be reduced or even eliminated.
Look at the representation of the stationary
waves in the tubes shown in Figure 18.9. In each
case, the antinode at the top of the tube is shown
extending slightly beyond the open end of the
tube. This is because experiment shows that the air
slightly beyond the end of the tube vibrates as part
of the stationary wave. This is shown more clearly
in Figure 18.15.
J7007
CUP
0521787185c18_15.eps
c

4
3
Figure 18.15 The antinode at the open end of a
resonance tube is formed at a distance c beyond the
open end of the tube.
for the shorter tube,

4
= l
1
+ c
for the longer tube,
3
4
= l
2
+ c
Subtracting the frst equation from the second
equation gives:
3
4

4
= (l
2
+ c) (l
1
+ c)
Simplifying gives:

2
= l
2
l
1
and hence = 2(l
2
l
1
)
So, although we do not know the value of c, we can
make two measurements (l
1
and l
2
) and obtain an
accurate value of . (You may be able to see from
Figure 18.15 that the difference in lengths of the
two tubes is indeed equal to half a wavelength.)
The end-correction c is an example of a
systematic error. When we measure the length l
of the tube, we are measuring a length which is
consistently less than the quantity we really need to
know (l + c). However, by understanding how the
systematic error affects the results, we have been
able to remove it from our measurements.
Other examples of systematic errors in physics
include:

meters and other instruments which have been
incorrectly zeroed (so that they give a reading
when the correct value is zero)

meters and other instruments which have been
incorrectly calibrated (so that, for example, all
readings are consistently reduced by a factor of,
say, 1.0%).
Eliminating errors
The antinode is at a distance c beyond the end
of the tube, where c is called the end-correction.
Unfortunately, we do not know the value of c.
It cannot be measured directly. However, we
can write:
SAQ
7 In a resonance tube experiment, resonance is
obtained for sound waves of frequency 630 Hz
when the length of the air column is 12.6 cm and
again when it is 38.8 cm. Determine:
a the wavelength of the sound waves causing
resonance
b the end-correction for this tube
c the speed of sound in air.
hyperlink
destination
Answer
Chapter 18: Stationary waves
204
Summary

Stationary waves are formed when two identical waves travelling in opposite directions meet and
superimpose. This usually happens when one wave is a refection of the other.

A stationary wave has a characteristic pattern of nodes and antinodes.

A node is a point where the amplitude is always zero.

An antinode is a point of maximum amplitude.

Adjacent nodes (or antinodes) are separated by a distance equal to half a wavelength.

We can use the wave equation v = f to determine the speed v or the frequency f of a progressive wave.
The wavelength is found using the nodes or antinodes of the stationary wave pattern.
Questions
1 The diagram shows a stretched wire held
horizontally between supports 0.50 m apart.
When the wire is plucked at its centre, a
standing wave is formed and the wire vibrates
in its fundamental mode (lowest frequency).
a Explain how the standing wave is formed. [2]
b Draw the fundamental mode of vibration of the wire. Label the position of any
nodes with the letter N and any antinodes with the letter A. [2]
c What is the wavelength of this standing wave? [1]
OCR Physics AS (2823) January 2006 [Total 5]
2 The diagram shows an arrangement where
microwaves leave a transmitter T and move
in a direction TP which is perpendicular to
a metal plate P.
a When a microwave detector D is slowly
moved from T towards P the pattern of the
signal strength received by D is high, low, high, low etc.
Explain:

why these maxima and minima of intensity occur

how you would measure the wavelength of the microwaves

how you would determine their frequency. [6]
b Describe how you could test whether the microwaves leaving the transmitter are
plane polarised. [2]
OCR Physics AS (2823) June 2004 [Total 8]
Answer
continued
D
T P
transmitter
0.50 m
Glossary
Hint
Answer
Hint
Answer
Chapter 18: Stationary waves
205
3 a In standing waves, there are nodes and antinodes. Explain what is meant by:
i a node [1]
ii an antinode. [1]
b The diagram shows a long glass tube within
which standing waves can be set up.
A vibrating tuning fork is placed above the
glass tube and the length of the air column is
adjusted, by raising or lowering the tube in
the water, until a sound is heard.
0.50m
tuning fork
0.32 m
water
air column
long glass tube
A B
State how you would set up a standing wave on the string. [1]
b The standing wave vibrates in its fundamental mode, i.e. the lowest frequency at
which a standing wave can be formed. Draw this standing wave. [1]
c Figure 2 shows the appearance of another standing wave formed on the same string.
Figure 1
A B
Figure 2
The distance between A and B is 1.8 m. Use Figure 2 to calculate
i the distance between neighbouring nodes [1]
ii the wavelength of the standing wave. [1]
OCR Physics AS (2823) June 2003 [Total 4]
i The standing wave formed in the air column is the fundamental (the lowest
frequency). Make a copy of the diagram and show on it the position of a node
label as N, and an antinode label as A. [2]
ii When the fundamental wave is heard, the length of the air column is 0.32 m.
Determine the wavelength of the standing wave formed. [1]
iii The speed of sound in air is 330 m s
1
. Calculate the frequency of the
tuning fork. [3]
OCR Physics AS (2823) June 2005 [Total 8]
4 a Figure 1 shows a string stretched between two points A and B.
hyperlink
destination
hyperlink
destination
Hint
Answer
Hint
Hint
Answer