Lesson 43: Alpha, Beta, & Gamma Decay

The late 1800s and early 1900s were a period of intense research into the new nuclear realm of
physics.
In 1896 Henri Becquerel found that a sample of uranium he was doing
experiments with had a special property.
fter he was done with a series of experiments using the uranium!
he put it into a drawer with a photographic plate.
photographic plate is a piece of glass co"ered in chemicals. It
was used as the film in old style cameras.
#ec$uerel was surprised to find out later that the uranium had
caused the plate to %e fogged up! as if it had %een exposed to light.
&e correctly assumed that the uranium was emitting radiation
similar to "isi%le light.
&e was e"en a%le to show that a magnetic field seemed to
change the direction that this in"isi%le radiation tra"eled.
'hortly after this! Marie and Pierre Curie isolated two other
radioacti"e elements! polonium and radium.
(o matter what physical or chemical stresses they placed
on these elements! they continued to emit radiation )ust
li*e the uranium that #ec$uerel had used.
'ince nothing they did could stop the radioacti"ity!
they %elie"ed that the radioacti"ity must come from
deep within the atom! in what we would today call the
nucleus.
+e now *now that radioacti"ity actually results from the decay ,disintegration- of an unsta%le nucleus.
This process fundamentally changes the nucleus of the element itself.
The radiation that we measure is e"idence of e"ents happening inside the nucleus.
In many cases this will actually result in the element changing to a different element! a
process called transmutation.
The reason these decays happen is %ecause they result in more sta%le nuclei.
.rnest /utherford and others started studying the radiation that was emitted %y these elements.
&e found three distinct forms of radiation! originally di"ided up %ased on their a%ility to pass
through certain materials and their deflection in magnetic fields...
Alpha ,-0 could %arely pass through a single sheet of paper. 1eflected as a positi"e
particle in a magnetic field.
Beta ,-0 can pass through a%out 2mm of aluminum. 1eflected as a negati"e particle in a
magnetic field. 3
Gamma ,-0 can pass through se"eral centimetres of 4.15 (ot deflected in a
magnetic field.
671678012 9 studyphysics.ca :age 1 of 8 7 'ection 16.8
Illustration 1: An early
camera with photographic
plates.
Did You Know?
In 1934 Marie Curie died of leukemia
from years of exposure to
radioactive elements. She received
two o!el "ri#es$ in "hysics and
Chemistry. %he element polonium
that she helped discover is named
after her homeland$ "oland.
3 Because of our modern understanding of what can
happen in decays, we will have to examine two
different kinds of beta decay later.
Alpha Decay
The reason the alpha radiation has such a hard time e"en passing through a piece of paper is %ecause it
is not a form of .;/ li*e we might expect. It is actually the nuclei of a helium atom e
8
<
5
1uring an alpha decay! a nucleus is a%le to reach a more sta%le state %e allowing 8 protons and
8 neutrons to lea"e the nucleus.
This will result in a smaller nucleus! which is often the more sta%le arrangement.
#ecause 8 protons and 8 neutrons are really )ust helium=<! the particle that is emitted is really
helium.
#ecause this helium is not )ust regular helium floating around in the air! %ut is %orn from a
nuclear decay! we usually don>t call it a helium atom. Instead we call it an alpha particle.
lpha particles come out of the nucleus as )ust nucleons without any electrons.
'o! each alpha particle has a charge of +2e .
The atom that originally went through the alpha decay has )ust lost some of its nucleons. That must
change the element somehow.
It>s actually pretty easy to figure out what will happen as long as we apply the conser"ation of
nucleons.
The Conservation of Nucleons
The total number of nucleons (protons and neutrons)
must remain the same before and after a
nuclear decay reaction.
671678012 9 studyphysics.ca :age 8 of 8 7 'ection 16.8
Illustration !: "ifferent types of radiation
traveling through a magnetic field.
&lpha$ 'eta$ (
)amma source
inside a lead !ox
* * * * * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * * * *
Ma+netic
,ield
?
@
A
Warning!
The conservation of momentum, energy, and
charge also still apply. The conservation of
nucleons is just the newest conservation law
that applies to the following situations.
+e can write out what %asically loo*s li*e a chemistry reaction to show how what we started with ,the
parent nucleus- transmutates according to a radioacti"e decay into another element ,the daughter
nucleus- and the emitted particle.
It>s not a chemistry e$uation though! since we are showing things that happen in the nucleus!
and we can end up with different elements on each side.
Bust remem%er that we must end up with the same num%er of nucleons as we started with.
Example 10 The iridium=168 isotope is *nown to go through alpha decays. +rite out a decay e$uation
that shows this process.
'tart %y loo*ing up iridium on your periodic ta%le so that you can find out its atomic num%er.
Then write down the most %asic decay reactionC show what you started with ,the iridium is your
parent nucleus-! and how it has decayed %y emitting an alpha particle and some other nuclei.
Ir
66
168

8
<
#
(otice how on the left I ha"e a total of 168 nucleons! of which 66 are protons. 'o far on the
right side I>"e only shown < nucleons and 8 protons... woof5 There>s a %unch missing5 They
must %e ma*ing up my un*nown daughter nucleus! D. +e can figure out the num%ers for the
daughter nucleus %y )ust su%tracting what we ha"e ,on the alpha particle- from what we had on
the parent nucleus ,the iridium-.
(ucleons E "alue E 168 F < E 16<
:rotons E G "alue E 66 F 8 E 6H
There>s only one element on the periodic ta%le that has 6H protons0 rhenium. That means that the
finished alpha decay reaction of iridium=168 should show...
Ir
66
168

8
<
/e
6H
16<
In the process of alpha decay the total mass of the daughter nucleus plus the alpha particle is less than
the mass of the original parent nucleus.
m
parent
m
alpha
m
daughter
The missing mass isnIt really missing. ItIs %een turned into energy following .insteinIs
formula . E mc
8
.
This wor*s out for our new understanding of conser"ation of mass and conser"ation of
energy %eing interchangea%le.
The energy is found ,mostly- in the *inetic energy of the alpha particle and daughter nucleus
mo"ing away from each other.
The alpha particle usually mo"es faster! since the alpha particle is almost always much
lighter than the daughter nucleus.
lso *eep in mind that if the parent nucleus was at rest! the alpha particle and daughter
nucleus will tra"el off in opposite directions so that the conseration o! momentum is
o%eyed.
671678012 9 studyphysics.ca :age 2 of 8 7 'ection 16.8
"arent ucleus
&lpha "article
-au+hter ucleus
Example 20 "etermine how much energy is released when Jranium=828 decays to Thorium= 82< .
This is an alpha decay. The reaction for it would %e...
$
98
828

8
<
%h
90
82<
It is possi%le to loo* up the total masses of these atoms in your text%oo* ,p.881- or on the
internet.

Kor masses we get...
828.0H08u L <.0086u M 82<.0<26u

dd up the stuff on the right side...
828.0H08u N 828.0<68u
If we su%tract them! we find that there is 0.00<6u unaccounted for after the reaction has
occurred. 'ince 1u E 1.66e=86 *g...
. E mc
8
E ,0.00<6u x 1.66e=86*g7u- ,2.00e8m7s-
8
E 6.86e=12 B
+e often state these answers in ;eO ,mega electron "olts-. Kirst we would con"ert it to eO! and
then ;eO...
6.86e=12 &
1.60e=19 & / e'
=<.20e6e' =<.20;eO
Beta Decay
Beta Negative Decay (
-
)
#eta negati"e decay ,A
#
-happens during a process that at first seems
craPy. neutron falls apart and %ecomes a proton and an electron5
This isn>t as craPy as it sounds if you loo* at the facts.
/emem%er earlier when we pointed out that neutrons ha"e )ust a tiny %it more mass than
protonsQ (ow you *now why. In the simplest terms! the neutron is made up of a proton and an
electron stuc* together.
In the %eta negati"e decay! the neutron %ecomes a proton ,which stays in the nucleus- and an
electron that goes flying out ,the $eta particle-.
To ma*e sure that you understand that the %eta particle is not )ust a regular electron! %ut
rather one that came from inside the nucleus! we will use the sym%ol
1
0
.
(otice its "alue is Pero since it is not a nucleon! and its G "alue =1 since it is the opposite
charge of a proton.
Example %0 +rite out the %eta negati"e decay reaction for calcium=<6.
s with the alpha decay in .xample 1! first find your parent nucleus on the periodic ta%le and
write out a %asic decay reaction...
(a
80
<6

1
0
#
Bust li*e %efore! we figure out the and G "alues for our un*nown daughter nucleus %y
su%tracting what the %eta particle has from the parent nucleus...
E <6 F 0 E <6
G E 80 = ,=1- E 81
671678012 9 studyphysics.ca :age < of 8 7 'ection 16.8
'eta decays happen in two
ways$ called !eta ne+ative and
!eta positive. 'eta ne+ative is
the .classic/ !eta decay
0utherford o!served. 1e will
look at !oth.
'o our daughter nucleus must %e scandium! the only element with 81 protons.
(a
80
<6

1
0
)c
81
<6
There is only one other thing we should put in our reactions for %eta negati"e decay.
+hen physicists first examined %eta negati"e decays! they figured that since the electrons that
are the %eta particles are so light! they should )ust go shooting out of the nucleus at tremendous
speeds ,conser"ation of momentum R energy-.
In reality! a lot of them mo"ed really slow.
In order to still ha"e conser"ation laws o%eyed! it was realiPed
that a "ery small! neutral particle must also %e emitted from the
nucleus.
Today we call that particle an antineutrino and gi"e it the
sym%ol

v .
'o! we should really write the answer from .xample 2 as...
(a
80
<6

1
0
)c
81
<6

v
If we wanted to )ust loo* at how the neutron changes into a proton! an electron! and an antineutrino! we
could write it out as...
n
o
L p
M
M
1
0
M

v
Beta Positive Decays (
+
)
The other type of %eta decay we examine is called %eta positi"e.
#eta positi"e is different from %eta negati"e %ecause the particles
emitted are the exact opposite.
Kor example! the %eta positi"e decay emits a positi"e positron.
positron is sometimes called an antielectron! since it is the
antimatter "ersion of an electron. ntimatter is discussed in detail in
4esson <6.
Positrons ha"e the same mass as an electron! %ut their charge is M1e.
+e use the sym%ol
+
to represent positrons! and in decay e$uations we write it as
1
0
.
Kollowing the trend of e"erything is opposite! %eta positi"e decays in"ol"e a proton decaying into a
neutron and a positron! while also releasing a neutrino for conser"ation of momentum to %e followed.
p
M
L n
o
M
1
0
M v
+e can still use the rules for conser"ation of nucleons to figure out the products of a %eta
positi"e decay.
Example &0 :otassium=<0 is *nown to go through %eta positi"e decays. +rite out the decay e$uation
for this decay.
Sou should *now the drill %y now. +e need to gather info on potassium=<0 and then write out
the decay.
*
19
<0

1
0
#
Bust li*e %efore! we figure out the and G "alues for our un*nown daughter nucleus %y
su%tracting what the %eta particle has from the parent nucleus...
E <0 F 0 E <0
671678012 9 studyphysics.ca :age H of 8 7 'ection 16.8
Did You Know?
&n antineutrino is an antimatter
particle. &ntimatter is different
from re+ular matter !ecause
one characteristic 2such as
char+e3 is the exact opposite.
&ntineutrinos have a .spin/ that
is opposite to neutrinos.
Positrons (
+
) have
the exact same mass
as an electron$ !ut they
have a 41e char+e.
"ositrons are the
antimatter version of
electrons.
G E 19 = 1 E 18
'o our daughter nucleus must %e argon! the only
element with 18 protons.
*
19
<0

1
0
Ar
18
<0
v
Gamma Decay ,?-
Tamma radiation can only %e stopped %y stuff li*e a few inches of lead.
This is %ecause unli*e the other two forms of decay! gamma decays emit a form of .;/! not a
particle.
Sou will remem%er that gamma radiation is $uite high up in the fre$uencies of the .;
spectrum.
This allows it to pass through anything %ut the densest of matter.
Tamma decays happen most often after a alpha or %eta decay.
This happens %ecause the nucleus has )ust %een through a lot5 'pitting out other su%atomic
particles! changing to a different element! and all that.
The nucleus is %asically all )iggled up and needs to release some energy somehow.
n easy way to do this is to let off a gamma %urst.
#ecause we are releasing energy ,not particles-! the and G "alues stay the same.
Example '0 The argon=<0 that was produced in .xample < is in an excited state! so it releases a %urst
of gamma radiation. +rite the e$uation for this.
Ar
18
<0
Ar
18
<0
Decay Series
nytime a nucleus decays! the daughter nucleus itself may still %e unsta%le.
In this case! the daughter nucleus is now the parent nucleus and will go through another decay.
#y this process a nucleus may go through se"eral decays %efore reaching a nucleus sta%le
enough to stay the same for a while.
This %unch of decays is called a (eca) series! and can %e written se"eral ways.
Example *0 +rite a decay series for thorium=886 decaying to astatine=81<.
+ithout loo*ing stuff up we ha"e no way of %eing certain which decays will happen! %ut we
can ma*e some guesses and see if we end up in the right spot. +e will lea"e out any gamma
decays here! since they do not change any of the nucleon num%ers.
%h
90
886

8
<
+a
88
888
+a
88
888

1
0
+ Ac
89
888
+v
Ac
89
888

8
<
,r
86
818
,r
86
818

8
<
At
8H
81<
671678012 9 studyphysics.ca :age 6 of 8 7 'ection 16.8
otice the neutrino .v/ 2no !ar over the
top3 added at the end. %his is the
antiparticle of the antineutrino in the !eta
ne+ative decay.
To sa"e room! and since we can figure out what *ind of decay happened from the products! we
sometimes write a decay chain that s*ips the decay particles...
%h
90
886
+a
88
888
Ac
89
888
,r
86
818
At
8H
81<
a!iation is"s
Sou>"e pro%a%ly seen a mo"ie with a Teiger counter clic*ing li*e craPy as the people get near a
radioacti"e source! or &omer 'impson glowing green after falling into the nuclear reactor.
In real life there are radiation sources all around you. There is no %ig pro%lem with this! since
this natural %ac*ground radiation has always %een there. #iologically! life on .arth has always
%een exposed to these low le"els of radiation.
The pro%lem is when people are exposed to large doses of radiation in extraordinary
circumstances.
The le"els a person is exposed to can %e measured in a "ariety of units li*e0
+a(0 rad is the older unit used to descri%e each *ilogram of tissue exposed a%sor%ing
0.01 B of energy.
Gra) ,G)-0 one Tray means each *ilogram of material a%sor%s 1 Boule of energy. 'o!
1 Ty e$uals 100 rad.
,ieert ,,-0 is a modified "ersion of Trays! %ecause it ta*es into account the /elati"e
#iological .ffecti"eness ,/#.- of a particular *ind of radiation. The more dangerous a
particular *ind of radiation is to a person! the more the original Trays are multiplied to
gi"e 'ie"erts.
In normal situations! a person can expect to %e exposed to a%out 0.H m'" in a year. ny
exposure of a%out 6 '" or higher will %e fatal.
/adiation can cause damage to a human in two ways.
+a(iation ,ic-ness
/adiation sic*ness usually refers to a "ery large dose of radiation in a small period of time. The
pro%lem is that the radiation can ioni.e cells. This means that the radiation is *noc*ing
electrons off the cells! usually interfering with cell di"ision.
;any people that sur"i"ed the initial %last of the %om%s used at &iroshima and (agasa*i died
from radiation sic*ness a few days later.
Genetic "ama/e
The radiation can cause damage to the actual 1( of cells. This can result in cancer! which
will usually show up after se"eral years.
'ince the three types of radiation ha"e different a%ilities to penetrate matter! they represent different
le"els of ris* to humans.
Alpha has a high ioniPation rate! %ut can not easily penetrate matter. layer of clothes or e"en
the top layer of s*in ,which is dead anyways- can stop it. The alpha particles can only mo"e
through the air a%out H cm %efore %eing stopped. lpha radiation is really only a danger if you
either %reathe in or swallow the source of the alpha radiation.
Beta does not ioniPe as easily! %ut it can penetrate matter more easily! tra"eling a%out 0.H0 m
through the air and a%out 1 cm into a %ody. This means that although %eta radiation can %e a %it
more of a ris*! it is still most dangerous if the source is ingested.
Gamma can easily penetrate your %ody! since it is .;/ with a high fre$uency. lthough it
doesn>t ioniPe much! it causes the most damage to a person. ."en %eing near an unshielded
source of gamma radiation for a short period of time is "ery dangerous5
671678012 9 studyphysics.ca :age 6 of 8 7 'ection 16.8
#ome$or"
p699 U1=2
p800 U1=2
p801 U1=2
p802 U1
p80H U1
p810 U11
671678012 9 studyphysics.ca :age 8 of 8 7 'ection 16.8