5

Shear Forces and

Bending Moments UNIT 4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING
MOMENTS
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Beams
4.2.1 Types of Support
4.2.2 Types of Beam
4.2.3 Types of Loading
4.3 Shear Force and Bending Moment
4.3.1 Definitions
4.3.2 Sign Conventions
4.3.3 Relation between Loading, Shear Force and Bending Moment
4.3.4 Maximum Value of Bending Moment
4.4 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams
4.5 Beams Subjected to Couples
4.6 Beams Subjected to Oblique Loading
4.7 Summary
4.8 Answers to SAQs


4.1 INTRODUCTION
In practice, all beams are subjected to some type of external loadings. As the beam is
loaded, it deflects from its original position, which develops the moment and shear on the
beam. Shear force (SF) and bending moment (BM) are very important in designing any
type of beam because the beam is designed for maximum bending moment and also the
shear reinforcement is provided for maximum shear force. Strength of the beam is design
criterion for bending moment and shear force, whereas the stiffness of the beam is the
design criterion for deflection of the beam.
In this unit, you will be introduced to various types of beams, supports and loadings.
Thereafter, methods of drawing Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment
Diagram (BMD) for cantilever, simply supported beam and overhanging beam for
different types of loadings have been discussed.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
identify the types of beam and types of support when it appears in building,
structural system, etc.,
describe the shear force and bending moment and the relation between shear
force, bending moment and rate of loading,
draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for any types of beam
subjected to any type of loading system, and
show the position of maximum bending moment and position of zero
bending moment (point of contraflexure).


6
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
4.2 BEAMS
A beam is a structural member of sufficient length compared to lateral dimensions and
supported so as to be in equilibrium and generally, subjected to a system of external
forces to produce bending of the member in an axial plane. Ties, struts, shafts and beams
are all one-dimensional or line-elements where the length is much greater than the depth
or width. These are also known as rod-like or skeletal elements; and have different names
depending upon the main action they are designed to resist. Thus, ties and struts resist
uniaxial tension or compression, shafts resist torque and beams resist bending moments
(and shear forces).
The clear horizontal distance between the supports is called the clear span of the beam.
The horizontal distance between the centers of the end bearings is called the effective
span of the beam. If the intensity of the bearing reaction is not uniform, the effective span
is the horizontal distance between the lines of action of the end reactions.


Beam



Support Support
Clear Span
Effective Span

Figure 4.1 : Clear and Effective Spans in a Beam
Whenever a horizontal beam is loaded, it bends due to the action of loads. The amount
with which a beam bends, depends upon the amount and type of loads, length of the
beam, elasticity properties of the beam material and the type of the beam.
Beams may be concrete, steel or even composite beam, having any type of sections such
as angles, channels, I-section, rectangle, square, hat section etc.
4.2.1 Types of Support
The supports can be classified into following three categories :
(a) A simple or free support or roller support,
(b) Hinged or pinned support, and
(c) A built-in or fixed or encastre support.
A Simple or Free Support or Roller Support
It is a support in which beam rests freely. A roller support is the simplest and gives
only one reaction, either in x direction or y direction (R
x
or R
y
) normal to the
support and offers no resistance against rotation or lateral movements. The
reaction will be taken as acting at a point, though actually it will be distributed
over some length.








Figure 4.2 : Simple or Free Support or Roller Support
Actual
Ry
Ry
V
A
Symbolic
(Line Element)
Symbolic
Hinged or Pinned Support

7

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
In this case, the beam is hinged or pinned to the support. A pinned or hinged
support gives only two reactions, one against vertical movement and another
against horizontal movement (say R
x
or R
y
) but offers no resistance to the angular
rotation of the beam at the hinge. The reaction will pass through the centre of the
hinge or pin.

R
y
Actual Symbolic
Symbolic
(Line Element)
R
x
VA
H
A
A






H
A
Horizontal Reaction at the Support A
V
A
Vertical Reaction at the Support A
Figure 4.3 : Hinged or Pinned Support
A Built-in or Fixed or Encastre Support
It is a support which restrains complete movement of the beam both in position as
well as direction. The support gives all the three relevant reactions (say R
x
, R
y
and
M
z
), i.e. the reactions in x and y directions and fixing moment M
z
. In other words,
the fixed support offers resistance against translation in both the directions and
also against the rotation.

Rx
M
Z
HA
MA
Ry VA Actual
Symbolic Symbolic
A







M
A
Fixing Moment at the Support A
Figure 4.4 : A Built-in or Fixed or Encastre Support
4.2.2 Types of Beam
Depending upon the type and number of supports, the beams are divided into two
categories :
(a) Statically determinate beam, and
(b) Statically indeterminate beam.
Statically Determinate Beam
A beam is said to be statically determinate, when it can be analyzed using three
static equilibrium equations, i.e. H
x
=0, V
x
=0 and M
x
=0, where
H
x
=algebraic sum of horizontal forces at section x,
V
x
=algebraic sum of vertical forces at section x, and
M
x
=algebraic sum of moment of all the forces about the section x.
Examples are as follows :
(a) Cantilevers,
(b) Simply supported beams, and
(c) Overhanging beams.


8
It can also be stated, if the number of unknown reactions or stress components can
be found by means of three equilibrium equations, then the beam is called
statically determinate beam.
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
Statically Indeterminate Beam
When the number of unknown reactions or stress components exceed the number
of static equilibrium equations available, i.e. H
x
=0, V
x
=0 and M
x
=0 then,
the beam is said to be statically indeterminate. This means, the three equilibrium
equations are not adequate to analyse the beam.
Examples are as follows :
(a) Fixed beams,
(b) Propped cantilevers, and
(c) Continuous beams.
Now, we will discuss briefly each type of beam in subsequent paragraphs.
Cantilever Beams
A beam fixed at one end and free at the other end is known as cantilever.





Figure 4.5 : Cantilever Beams
Simply Supported Beam
A beam supported or resting freely on the walls or columns at its both ends is
known as simply supported beam. The support may be hinged or roller support.






Figure 4.6 : Simply Supported Beam
Overhanging Beam
A beam having its end portion (or portions) extended in the form of a cantilever
beyond the support is known as overhanging beam. A beam may be overhanging
on one side or on both sides. The support may be fixed, hinged or roller support.







Figure 4.7 : Overhanging Beam
l
1
, l
2
, l
3
are the lengths of overhanging portions.
Fixed Beam
Span (l)
A
B
A
B A
B
l l
1
l2
l3 l
A
Span (l)
B

9

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
A beam rigidly fixed at its both ends or built-in walls is known as rigidly fixed
beam or a built-in beam.

Span (l)
A B





Figure 4.8 : Fixed Beam
Propped Cantilever
If a cantilever beam is supported by a simple support at the free end or in between,
is called propped cantilever. It may or may not be having overhanging portion.


Span (l)
A B
Span (l)
B A
l1




Propped Cantilever Propped Cantilever with Overhang
Figure 4.9
l
1
=length of overhanging portions.
Continuous Beam
A beam which is provided with more than two supports is called a continuous
beam. It may be noted that a continuous beam may or may not be an overhanging
beam.




l1 l2
l3 l4
A B C D

Figure 4.10 : Continuous Beam
l
1
=length of overhanging portion, and
l
2
=span AB; l
3
=span BC; l
4
=span CD.
4.2.3 Types of Loading
A beam may be subjected to the following types of loads.
(a) Concentrated or point load,
(b) Uniformly distributed load, and
(c) Uniformly varying load.
Concentrated or Point Load
A load acting at a point on a beam is known as concentrated or a point load. In
practice, it is not possible to apply a load at a point, i.e. at a mathematical point as
it will be distributed over a small area. But this very small area, as compared to the
length of the beam, is negligible.


W W
A
B


10



Forces and Stresses
in Beams


Figure 4.11 : Concentrated or Point Load
A beam may be subjected to one or more point loads.
Uniformly Distributed Load
A load which is spread over a beam in such a manner that each unit length is
loaded to the same extent, is known as uniformly distributed load (briefly written
as u.d.l.). Sometimes, the intensity of load may not be uniform and varying from
point to point. For all calculation purposes, the uniformly distributed load is
assumed to act at the centre of gravity of load.




Figure 4.12 : Uniformly Distributed Load
A
B
A
B
Uniformly Varying Load
A load which is spread over a beam in such a manner that its extent varies
uniformly on each unit length is known as uniformly varying load. Sometimes, the
load is zero at one end and increases uniformly to the other end. Such a load is
known as triangular load.
A B
A B
Figure 4.13 : Uniformly Varying Load
A beam may carry anyone of the above load systems or a combination of two or
more systems at a time. Loads may be static or dynamic. Static loads are those
which are applied gradually and do not change their magnitude, direction or point
of application with time. Dynamic loads are those, which vary in time with speed.
4.3 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
4.3.1 Definitions
Shear Force : General
The static equilibrium of a space can be ensured if the algebraic sum of all the
forces acting on the particle in the x, y, z directions are separately zero
[Figure 4.14(a)]. Mathematically, F
x
=0, F
y
=0, and F
z
=0.
where, F
x
=algebraic sum of all the forces acting on the particle in the x direction
=
1 2
x x
F F ,
F
y
=algebraic sum of all the forces acting on the particle in the
y direction = , and
1
y y
F F
2

11

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
F
z
=algebraic sum of all the forces acting on the particle in the
z direction =
1 2
F F
z z
.

x axis
y axis
Fy1
Fz2
Fx2
Fx1
Fy2
Fz1
z axis












Figure 4.14(a) : Equilibrium of a Particle under a System of Forces
These forces are general forces and their positive or negative sign will depend on,
whether the forces are directed away from the origin or towards the origin. Let us
consider a section A-A parallel to y-z plane in the body (Figure 4.14(b)).













Figure 4.14(b) : Equilibrium of a Body under System of Forces
Fy1 Fy2
Fx1
Fx
2
Fz1
Fx3
Fz2
Fy
3
x-axis
z-axis
y-axis
A
A

Fx
Fy
Fz
x-axis
y-axis
z-axis
A A
A A










Figure 4.14(c) : A Section A-A Parallel to y-z Plane Cut and Forces Exposed at A-A


12
The right hand portion is removed and the forces exposed on section A-A in the left
hand portion of the body are shown in Figure 4.14(c). The three resultant forces in
the x, y, z directions, denoted as F
x
, F
y
and F
z
do not create the same type of
stresses on the section. As the area of the section A-A is normal to x axis, F
x
will
create axial stresses or normal stress
x
on the section. However, the remaining two
forces F
y
and F
z
act tangential or along the plane and create shear stresses
xy
and
xz
. Using the common nomenclature of beams and bending, these forces F
y
and F
z

are known as shear forces, whereas F
x
is simply an axial force.
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
F
x
=resultant of all the forces acting on the left portion of the body in the
x direction.
F
y
=resultant of all the forces acting on the left portion of the body in the
y direction.
F
z
=resultant of all the forces acting on the left portion of the body in the
z direction.




P
B
P
C
A
RA=P
S
C
S
C
RA=P









Figure 4.14(d) : Development of Shear Force at Section C
Now let us consider a beam (for example, cantilever beam) subjected to point load
P. Consider a section at C. At this section there is a possibility of failure by shear
as shown in Figure 4.14(d). If such a failure occurs at section C, the cantilever is
liable to be sheared off into two parts. For the equilibrium of the cantilever, the
fixed support at A will provide a vertical reaction vertically upwards, of magnitude
R
A
=P. It is clear that the force acting normal to the centre line of the member on
each part equals S =P. The force acting on the right part on the section C is
downward. The resultant force acting on the left part is upward. The resultant force
acting on anyone on the parts normal to the axis of the member is called shear
force at the section C.
Thus, the shear force (briefly written as SF) at the cross section of a beam may be
defined as the unbalanced vertical force to the right or left of the section.
Bending Moment : General
For a rigid or deformable body, the rotational equilibrium can be ensured if the
algebraic sum of moments of all the forces acting on the body in the x, y, z
directions are separately zero (Figure 4.14(e)).
Mathematically,
M
x
=0, M
y
=0, and M
z
=0.
where M
x
, M
y
, M
z
are the moments of forces taken about x, y, z axes.

13

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments














Figure 4.14(e) : Equilibrium of a Body under a System of Moments
M
x1
Mz1
Fy
3
x-axis
z-axis
y-axis
A
A
My1
My1
M
x2
Mz2
These moments are general moments and their positive or negative sign will
depend on, whether the moments are counter-clockwise or clockwise.
M
x
=Algebraic sum of moments of all the forces about
x axis =
2 1
x x
M M
M
y
=Algebraic sum of moments of all the forces about
y axis =
2 1
y y
M M
M
z
=Algebraic sum of moments of all the forces about
z axis =
2 1
z z
M M
Now, consider a section A-A parallel to y-z plane in the body (Figure 4.14(f)). The
right hand portion is removed and the moments exposed on section in the left hand
portion of the body are shown in Figure 4.14(f). The three moments, M
x
, M
y
, M
z

are shown to be positive for the sake of convenience. A little thought will show
that all of the moments do not create same type of stresses on the section. M
x
,
acting on section x creates a twisting action on the section. M
x
renamed as M
xx
is a
torque and produces torsional shear stresses on the section. The remaining
moments M
y
and M
z
acting on section x, renamed as M
xy
, and M
xz
produce a
bending of the body around y or z axis and create linearly varying tensile and
compressive stresses on the section. These moments are known as bending
moments on a section A-A. Thus, we see that same moments can be twisting or
bending moments, depending on the orientation of the section considered.

Mx
M
y
M
z
x-axis
y-axis
z-axis
A A
A A










Figure 4.14(f) : A Section A-A Parallel to y-z Plane Cut and Moments Exposed at A-A


14
M
x
=Algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces acting on the left portion of
the body, taken about x-axis.
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
M
y
=Algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces acting on the left portion of
the body, taken about y-axis.
M
z
=Algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces acting on the left portion of
the body, taken about z-axis.
Let us now study another effect of load applied on the cantilever. The cantilever is
liable to bend due to the load on it. The cantilever has a tendency to rotate in
clockwise direction about A (Figure 4.14(g)). Hence, the fixed support of A has
to offer a resistance against this rotation.


l1
l
D
P
B
C
l2
A
MA =Pl1
RA =P





Figure 4.14(g)
Moment of the applied load P about A is equal to Pl
1
(clockwise). For the
equilibrium of the cantilever, the fixed support at A will provide a reacting or
resisting anticlockwise moment of Pl
1
.
Now consider, for instance, the section D. Suppose the part DB was free to rotate
about D. Obviously the load on the part DB would cause the part DB to rotate in a
clockwise order about D. Moment of any force is calculated as the product of the
force and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of force and the
section (or point) about which moment is required. Considering the part DB, taking
moments about D, we find that there is a clockwise moment of P (l
1
l
2
) about D.
Hence, for the equilibrium of the part DB it is necessary that the part DA of the
cantilever should provide a reacting or resisting anticlockwise of P (l
1
l
2
) about
D.
Taking moments about D, considering the part DA, we have the following
moments about D.
(a) RA DA =P l
2
(clockwise)
(b) Couple =P l
1
(anticlockwise)
Net moment about D =Pl
1
Pl
2
=P (l
1
l
2
) (anticlockwise).











Figure 4.14(h)
P
B
C
P (l
1
l
2
)
1 l2)
D
D
A
D
P (l
1
l
2
)
P (l P (l1 l2)
RA =P
MA =Pl1

15

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
Hence, for equilibrium of the part DA, the part DB should provide a clockwise
moment of P (l
1
l
2
). Hence, at the section D, the part DB provides a clockwise
moment of P (l
1
l
2
) and the part DA provides an anticlockwise moment of
P (l
1
l
2
). This moment is known as bending moment at D.
Thus, the bending moment (briefly written as BM) at the cross section of a beam
may be defined as the algebraic sum of the moment of the forces, to the right or left
of the section.
While calculating the shear force or bending moment at a section, the end reactions
must also be considered along with other external loads.
4.3.2 Sign Conventions
Sign Convention for Shear Force (SF)
Since the shear force is the unbalanced vertical force, therefore it tends to slide one
portion of the beam, upward or downward, with respect to the other as shown in
Figure 4.15(a).




Left Side
Left Side
Right Side
Right Side
Section
Section



Positive Shear Force Negative Shear Force
Figure 4.15(a) : Sign Convention for Shear Force (SF)
It is said to be positive, at a section, when the left hand portion tends to slide
upwards with respect to the right hand portion. Or, in other words, all the upward
forces to the left of the section will cause positive shear. It is said to be negative, at
a section, when the left hand portion tends to slide downwards with respect to the
right hand portion. Or in other words, all the downward forces to the section will
cause negative shear.
On the other hand, all the upward forces to the right of the section will cause
negative shear and those acting downwards will cause positive shear.
Sign Convention for Bending Moment (BM)
At sections, where the bending moment is such that it tends to bend the beam at
that point to a curvature having concavity at the top as shown in Figure 4.15(b) is
taken as positive, and where the bending moment is such that it tends to bend at
that point to a curvature having convexity at the top as shown in Figure 4.15(b) is
taken as negative.
On the other hand, a loading which causes the beam to hog, will create negative
bending moment, a loading which causes the beam to sag, will create positive
bending moment.

Section Section
Left Side
Left Side Right Side
Right Side
Positive
Bending
Moment
(Sagging)
Negative
Bending
Moment
(Hogging)








Figure 4.15(b) : Sign Convention for Bending Moment (BM)


16
In other words, the BM is said to be positive, at a section when it is acting in an
anticlockwise direction to the left and clockwise direction to the right of the
section. The BM is said to be negative, at a section, when it is acting in clockwise
direction to the left and an anticlockwise direction to the right of the section.
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
4.3.3 Relation between Loading, Shear Force and Bending Moment
Consider a beam subjected to external loading of intensity w per unit length. Consider a
small portion of the beam between sections 1-1 and 2-2, x apart, at a distance x from the
left end support as shown in Figure 4.16. The load acting on the small portion is equal
to w x.
Let F and M be the SF and BM at left end to the element and F + F and M + M be the
SF and BM at right end of the element.
The forces and moments acting on the element of the beam are as follows :
(i) upward force F at section 1-1,
(ii) downward force F + F at section 2-2,
(iii) downward load w x,
(iv) anticlockwise moment M at section 1-1, and
(v) clockwise moment M + M at section 2-2.
Since the element of the beam is in equilibrium, therefore the system of forces and
moments acting on the element, must obey the laws of equilibrium. Now equating the
unbalanced vertical force at section 2-2, we get
F + F =F w x
or w
x
F
. . . (i)
Thus, the rate of change of shear force (or in other words, the slope of shear force curve)
is equal to the intensity of the loading.














Figure 4.16
Taking moments about the section 2-2,
M + M =M +F x
2
) (
2
x w

Ignoring higher powers of small quantities and simplifying the relation, we get
M + M =M +F x
or F
x
M
. . . (ii)
x
x
2
w/unit length
M + M
F + F
1
M
F
x
w/unit length
2
2
2
1
1
1

17

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
Thus, the rate of change of bending moment (or in other words, the slope of the bending
moment curve) is equal to the shear force at the section.
It is clear that SF curve can be obtained by integrating the loading curve and BM curve
can be obtained by integrating the SF curve.
4.3.4 Maximum Value of Bending Moment
If the BM diagram is a continuous curve, where
dx
dM
=0, the SF will be zero, and BM
will be maximum positive or maximum negative.
For maximum value of bending moment,
x
M
=0
In other words, for maximum bending moment, the shear force is zero. But in actual
practice, the bending moment may be maximum where shear force changes sign.
However, the above relation is very important to obtain the maximum value of bending
moment over the beam.
Equating the shear force at a distance of x from the support to zero, we get the point
where the maximum bending moment will occur. Taking the moments at that section,
maximum bending moment can be obtained.
4.4 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
DIAGRAMS
A Shear Force diagram for a structural member is a diagram which shows the values of
shear forces at various sections of the member.
A bending moment diagram for a structural member is a diagram which shows the values
of bending moment at various sections of the member.
The shear force and bending moment, at any section, can be obtained analytically. The
values of shear force and bending moment are plotted as ordinates against the position of
the cross section of the beam as abscissa. Such ordinates are drawn at important points of
the beam and a straight line or a curve is drawn joining the tops of all such ordinates.
These diagrams give the clear picture of the distribution of shear forces and bending
moment along the length of the beam.
Procedure for Drawing the SF Diagram (SFD) and BM Diagram (BMD)
Step 1
Find the reaction of any one of the support, by taking moments about the hinged or
pinned support and equating to zero ( M =0).
Step 2
Find the reactions of other supports by means of static equilibrium equation
( V =0, H =0).
Step 3
Draw a base line of length equal to the length of the beam to some scale.
Step 4
Starting from one end (left end), calculate the shear force at all salient points. If
there is a vertical load (including reaction) at a section, calculate the shear force
just left as well as right of the vertical load (or reaction). The shear force diagram
will increase or decrease suddenly at the point of application of load depending
upon the direction of load, i.e. by a vertical straight line at the section.


18
Step 5
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
Calculate the bending moment at salient points.
Step 6
Plot the positive values of shear force and bending moment above the base line and
negative below it. The shear force diagram and bending moment diagram can be
obtained by joining these ordinates.
The following points should be kept in mind for drawing the shear force and bending
moment diagrams :
(a) If there is no loading on the portion of the beam the shear force diagram will
be horizontal. The bending moment diagram will be inclined. The shear
force diagram will remain unchanged between any two vertical loads
provided there is no loading between the vertical loads.
(b) If there is a uniformly distributed load between two sections, the shear force
diagram will be inclined straight line and the bending moment diagram will
be a curve.
(c) The bending moment will be zero at the free end of the cantilever and at the
two supports of simply supported beam.
(d) The bending moment diagram will consist of either straight lines or smooth
curves.
Cantilevers
Cantilevers with a Point Load at the Free End
Let us consider a cantilevers beam AB of length l subjected to a point load
W at the free end as shown in Figure 4.17.












Figure 4.17
Reaction at the support A, R
A
=W (since, V =0).
Consider a section XX at a distance x from the free end. SF at this section is
equal to the unbalanced vertical force either to the right or to the left of the
section.
Consider right side of the section, F
x
=+W (plus sign indicates right
downward).
The bending moment at this section, M
x
= Wx (minus sign indicates right
anticlockwise).
The SF just on the left side of the point load is +W. Since there is no
loading between A and B, the shear force will remain same over the length
of the beam, i.e. the shear force diagram will be horizontal for the length AB.
We know that M
x
= Wx, then we get
BM at B, when x is zero, M
B
=0 B
A
W
B
W
W l
l
x
x
( )
( )
W.x
x
W
W
SFD
BMD
Base Line

19

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
BM at A, when x is l, M
A
= Wl
Since there is no other load between A and B, the bending moment diagram
will be inclined, and the bending moment equation is straight line equation.
Cantilever with a Uniformly Distributed Load
Consider a cantilever beam AB of length l carrying uniformly distributed
load of w per unit run, over the entire length of the beam as shown in
Figure 4.18.















Figure 4.18
A B
W l
x
x
x
( )
SFD
L
BMD
( )
W.x
w/unit length
2
wl
2

2
w.x
2
Consider a section XX at a distance x from the right end B,
SF at this section, F
x
=+w x (plus sign indicates right downward)
SF at B, F
B
=0 (at x =0)
SF at A, F
A
=+w l (at x =l )
Reaction at the support A, R
A
=wl.
Since the loading is uniformly distributed load, the SF diagram will be
inclined and also, the shear force equation is straight line equation.
BM at section xx, M
x
= w l
2
l
(minus sign indicates right
anticlockwise).
SF at B, M
B
=0 (at x =0)
SF at A, M
A
=
2
2
wl
(at x =l )
The bending moment diagram will be in the form of parabolic curve.
Cantilever with a Gradually Varying Load
Consider a cantilever beam AB of length l, subjected to a gradually varying
load from zero at the free end to w per unit length at the fixed end, as shown
in Figure 4.19.
Reaction at the support A,
Total downward load
A
R


20
Forces and Stresses
in Beams

1
2
l w (area of loading diagram)

2
wl
(plus sign indicates right downward)














Figure 4.19
Consider a section XX at a distance x from the free end.
Shear force at section XX

1
2
x
w
F x x
l
(area of loading between B and xx)

2
2
wx
l

SF at B, F
B
=0, when x =0, B
SF at A,
2
A
wl
F , when x =l.
The shear force diagram is in the form of parabolic curve as the shear force
equation is parabolic equation.
Bending moment at section XX
1 1
2 3
x
w
M x x x
l
(Moment of the area loading between B and XX)

3
6
wx
l
(i.e. area CG of loading diagram about XX)
BM at B, M
B
=0 (when x =0), and B
BM at A,
2
6
A
wl
M (when x =l).



( )
( )
SFD
BMD
L
w.x
l

w/unit length
x
B
2
w
6
l
w
2
l
A
2
w.x
2l

3
w.x
6

x
w
x
l
A B

21

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments






Figure 4.20
The bending moment diagram is in the form of parabolic curve.
Example 4.1
A cantilever beam of 8 m length is subjected to point loads of 10 kN, 15 kN,
25 kN and 20 kN at distances of 2 m, 4 m, 6 m and 8 m, respectively from the
fixed end. Draw the shear force diagram and bending moment diagram.
Solution
Reaction at the support A =R
A
=10 +15 +25 +20 =+70 kN.
Shear Force
SF at A =F
A
=+70 kN
SF just left of C =+70 kN
SF just right of C =+70 10 =+60 kN
SF just left of D =+60 kN
SF just right of D =+60 15 =+45 kN
SF just left of E =+45 kN
SF just right of E =+45 25 =+20 kN
SF just left of B =+20 kN
SF just left of B =+20 kN (considering right side of the section)
A B
C D E
8 m
2 m
2 m 2 m 2 m
10 kN 15 kN 25 kN 20 kN
10
15
25
20
40
130
250
70
390
( )
( )
SFD
BMD
R
A
=70 kN
Figure 4.21
Bending Moment
BM at B, M
B
=0 (since the moment at the free end is equal to zero)
BM at E, M
E
= 20 2 (considering the right side)
= 40 kN m
BM at D, M
D
= (20 4) (25 2)
= 130 kN m
BM at C, M
C
= (20 6) (25 4) (15 2)


22
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
= 250 kN m
BM at A, M
A
= (20 8) (25 6) (15 4) (10 2)
= 390 kN m.
Example 4.2
Draw the shear force diagram (SFD) and bending moment diagram (BMD) for the
beam shown in Figure 4.22.
Solution
Reaction at the support A, R
A
=+4 +(1.5 6) =+13 kN.
Shear Force
SF at A, F
A
=+13 kN (considering right side)
SF at C, F
C
=+13 1.5 6
=+4 kN
SF just left of D =+13 1.5 6
=+4 kN
SF just right of D =+4 4 =0











Figure 4.22
Bending Moment
BM at B, M
B
=0 (since, the moment at the free end is equal to zero)
BM at D, M
D
=0 (considering right side of D, there is no loading
on BD)
BM at C, M
C
= 4 2 = 8 kN m ( ve sign due to right
anticlockwise)
BM at A, M
A
= 4 8 1.5 6
2
6
= 59 kN m.
Example 4.3
A cantilever beam carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 t/m over the entire
length of 6 m and point loads of 5 t, 3 t, 7 t and 2 t at a distance of 2 m, 4 m, 5 m,
and 6 m, respectively from the fixed end. Draw SFD and BMD for the beam.
Solution
Reaction at the support A, R
A
=+5 +3 +7 +2 +(2 6) =29 t
Shear Force : Starting from end A,
SF at A, R
A
=29 t
6 m
RA =13 kN
1.5 kN/m
A
C
2 m 2 m
4 kN
B
D
( )
( )
4
SFD
8
4
13 kN
59

23

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
SF just left of C =+29 2 2 =+25 t
SF just right of C =+25 5 =+20 t
SF just left of D =+20 2 2 =+16 t
SF just right of D =+16 3 =+13 t
SF just left of E =+13 2 1 =+11 t
SF just right of E =+11 7 =+4 t
SF just left of B =+4 2 1 =+2 t
SF just right of B =+2 t (considering right side)

A
C D E
B
2m 2m
1m 1m
5t
3t 7t 2t
2 t/m
6m
29
105
20
13
15
51
3
( )
SFD
( )
4
5
3
7
2
RA =29 t














Figure 4.23
Bending Moment : Starting from B,
BM at B, M
B
=0
BM at E, M
E
= 2 1 2 1
2
1
= 3 t m
BM at D, M
D
= 2 2 7 1 2 2
2
2
= 15 t m
BM at C, M
C
= 2 4 7 3 3 2 2 4
2
4
= 51 t m
BM at A, M
A
= 2 6 7 5 3 4 5 2 2 6
2
6
= 105 t m.
SAQ 1
(a) A cantilever beam of length 8 m carrying a u.d.l. of 3 kN/m over a length of
6 m from free end and 1.5 kN/m on a span of 2 m at a distance of 2 m from
the fixed end and a point load of 6 kN at a distance of 1 m from the fixed
end. Draw the SFD and BMD for the cantilever beam.
(b) A cantilever of 3 m length is loaded with a uniformly varying load of
intensity 2000 N/m at free end to 600 N/m at fixed end. Draw SFD and
BMD for the cantilever.


24
(c) A cantilever beam 5 m long caries point loads of 2 kN, 3 kN, and 3 kN at
1 m, 3 m and 5 m respectively from the fixed end. Construct SFD and BMD
for the beam.
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
(d) Draw SFD and BMD for the cantilever beam of 3 m long which carries a
uniformly distributed load of 2 kN/m over a length of 2 m from the free end.
(e) A cantilever beam 5 m long carries point loads of 3 kN, 3 kN and 3 kN at
distances of 1.5 m, 3 m and 4.5 m respectively from the fixed end. In
addition to this the beam carries an uniformly distributed load of 1 kN/m
over the entire length of the beam. Draw SF and BM diagrams for the beam.






Simply Supported Beams
In case of simply supported beam, the point of contraflexure is very important.
Where the BM changes sign at some point, the bending moment will be zero and
that point is called the point of contraflexure.
Simply Supported Beam with a Point Load at its Mid-span
Let us consider a simply supported beam AB, span l, carries a point load W at its
mid-point C as shown in Figure 4.24.











Figure 4.24
Let us first find the reaction at the support B by taking moments about A, and
equating to zero.
R
B
l W B
2
l
=0
R
B
=+
2
W

R
A
=W R
B
=W B
2
W
=+
2
W

(On the other hand, since the load is at the mid-point of the beam, the reactions at
the supports R
A
=R
B
=W/2.) B
l/2 l/2
l
x
( )
( )
( )
SFD
Wl/4
w/2
1000
w
RA =w/2
x
x
C
A
BMD
B
R
B
=w/2
w/2

25

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
Consider a section XX between B and C at a distance x from the end B. The
shear force equation is
F
x
=
2
W
( sign indicates right upward)
This equation is valid for all values of x from 0 to
2
l
. Since there is no loading
between B and C, the shear force diagram is horizontal, i.e. SF remains unchanged.
Consider a section XX between A and C at a distance x from the end B.
The shear force equation is
F
x
=
2
W
+W =+
2
W

This equation is valid for all values of x from
2
l
to l. The shear force diagram is
horizontal.
Alternatively, the shear force equation can also be written by considering a section
between A and C at a distance x from the end A.
The bending moment at A and B is zero. It increases by a straight line law, and is
maximum at the centre of the beam where shear force changes sign.
The bending moment equation is
M
x
=+
2
W
. x (+ sign indicates right clockwise)
BM at C, M
C
=
4
Wl
when x =
2
l

Simply Supported Beam with an Eccentric Point Load
Consider a simply supported beam AB of length l subjected to eccentric point load
W at C at a distance a from the end A and B from the end B as shown in
Figure 4.25.

a b
l
x
( )
( )
( )
SFD
x
x
w
C
A
B
l
Wa
R =
B
BMD
l
Wb
R =
A

l
Wb

l
Wa
l
Wab











Figure 4.25
To find the reaction at the support B, taking moment about A
R
B
l W a =0 B
R
B
=+
l
Wa



26
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
R
A
=W
l
Wa
=+
l
a l W ) (
=+
l
Wb
(where l a =b)
Consider a section XX between B and C at a distance x from the end B, i.e. x <b.
The shear force equation is as follows :
F
x
=
l
Wa
( sign indicates right upward)
This equation is valid for the portion BC. The shear force diagram is horizontal.
Consider a section XX between A and C at distance x from the end B, i.e. x >a.
The shear force equation is as follows :
F
x
=
l
Wa
+W =
l
a l W ) (
=+
l
Wb
(where l a =b)
This is valid for the portion AC.
Alternatively, the shear force equation for the portion AC may also be obtained by
considering the section between A and C at a distance x from the end A.
The bending moment equation for the portion BC is as follows :
M
x
=+
l
Wa
x (+sign indicates right clockwise)
The bending moment at A and B is zero. It increases by a straight line law, and is
maximum at C where the SF changes sign.
BM at C, M
C
=+
l
Wab
(at x =b)
Simply Supported Beam with a Uniformly Distributed Load
Consider a simply supported beam AB of span l carrying a uniformly distributed
load of w per unit length over the entire length as shown in Figure 4.26.









Figure 4.26
Let us find the reaction at the support B, taking moments about A and equating to
zero,
R
B
l w l
2
l
=0
R
B
=+
2
wl

R
A
=wl R
B
=wl B
2
wl
=+
2
wl

l/2 l/2
l
x
( )
SFD
( )
x
x
C
A
BMD
B
W/Unit Length
l
2
W
8
Fx
Mx
l W
2

l W
2

l W
R
A
2

l W
R
B
2

27

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
Consider a section XX at a distance x from the end B.
The shear force equation,
F
x
=
2
wl
+wx
SF at B, F
B
= B
2
wl
(at x =0)
SF at C, F
C
=
2
wl
+w
2
l
=0 (at x =
2
l
)
SF at A, F
A
=
2
wl
+wl =+
2
wl
(at x =l)
The shear force at B is equal to
2
wl
and increases uniformly by a straight line law
to zero at C and continuous to increase uniformly to +
2
wl
at A.
The bending moment at section xx,
M
x
=
2
wl
x
2
x
x w
=
2
wl
x
2
2
wx

BM at A and B is zero
M
A
=M
B
=0 B
M
C
=
2
wl
2
l

2
wl
2
2
l
=
8 8 4
2 2 2
wl wl wl

Since the shear force is zero at mid point of the beam, the maximum bending
moment occurs at C
M
max
=M
C
=+
8
2
wl

The bending moment diagram in the form of parabolic curve as the bending
moment equation is parabolic equation.
Simply Supported Beam with a Triangular Load Varying Gradually from Zero at
both Ends to w per metre at the Centre
Consider a simply supported beam AB of length l, subjected to a triangular load,
varying gradually from zero at both ends to w per unit length at centre as shown in
Figure 4.27.



l/2 l/2
l
x
C
A
B
2Wx
l
W/m
l W
R
B
4


28

Forces and Stresses
in Beams

l W
R
A
4










Figure 4.27
Since the load is symmetrical, therefore, the reactions R
A
and R
B
will be equal. B

1 1
2 2 4
A B
wl
R R w l
Taking moments about A,

1
0
2 2
B
l
R l w l

4
B
wl
R

1
2 2 4
A B
wl wl wl
R w l R
4

Consider a section XX at a distance x from the end B.
The shear force at XX,

1 2
4 2
x
wl wx
F x
l


2
4
wl wx
l

SF at B,
4
B
wl
F (at x =0)
SF at C,
2
.
4 2
C
wl w l
F
l
at
2
l
x
0
4 4
wl wl

The shear force diagram is in the form of parabolic curve as the shear force
equation is parabolic equation.
The bending moment at XX,

1 2
4 2
x
wl wx x
M x x
l 3


3
4 3
wl wx
x
l


29

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
The BM at A and B is zero. The bending moment will be maximum, where the SF
changes sign. In this case, the maximum bending moment occurs at
1
2
x , i.e.
at C.

3
max
4 2 3 2
C
wl l w l
M M
l


2 2 2
2
8 24 24 1
wl wl wl wl
2
2

Since, the bending moment equation is cubic equation, the bending moment
diagram is in the form of cubic curve.
Simply Supported Beam with a Gradually Varying Load, from Zero at One End to
w per metre at the other End
Consider a simply supported beam AB of span l carries a gradually varying load
from zero at one end to w per unit length at the other end as shown in Figure 4.28.
Taking moments about A and equating to zero,

1
0
2 3
B
l
R l w l

6
B
wl
R

1 1
2 2 6
A B
wl wl
R w l R wl
3


l
x
( )
( )
SFD
x
x
A B
BMD
Fx
Mx
l W
6
l W
3

l W
R
A
3

l W
R
B
6
l
2
W
9 3

Wx
1
0.5771
W/m
C











Figure 4.28
The shear force at any section XX at a distance x from the end B.

2
1
6 2 6 2
x
wl w wl wx
F x x
l l
. . . (i)
SF at B,
6
B
wl
F (at x =0)
SF at A,
6 2 3
A
wl wl wl
F (at x =l)
The bending moment at any section XX at a distance x from the end B.


30
Forces and Stresses
in Beams

1
6 2
x
wl w x
M x x x
l 3


3
6 6
x
wlx wx
M
l
. . . (ii)
The BM at A and B is zero (when x =l and x =0).
To find the maximum bending moment, equate the shear force Eq. (i) to zero.

2
0
6 2
wl wx
l


2
3
wx wl
l


2
2
3
l
x
0.577
3
l
x l

3
max
6 6 3 3
C
wl l w l
M M
l


2 2 2 2
2
2
0.06415
6 3 18 3 18 3 9 3
wl wl wl wl
wl
The shear force diagram is in the form of parabolic curve as given by in Eq. (i).
Since, the power of x in the moment equation is of order 3, the bending moment
diagram is in the form of cubic curve.
Example 4.4
A simply supported beam of 7 m length carries point loads 2 kN, 4 kN and 6 kN at
distances of 1 m, 2 m and 4 m from the fixed end respectively. Draw SFD and
BMD and also calculate the maximum bending moment that will occur.
Solution
Taking moments about A to find R
B
, B
R
B
7 (6 4) (4 2) (2 1) =0
Thus, R
B
=4.857 kN, and
R
A
=12 4.857 =7.143 kN
Shear Force (Starting from left end A)
SF at A, F
A
=+7.143 kN
SF just left of C =+7.143 kN
SF just right of C =+7.143 2 =+5.143 kN
SF just left of D =+5.143 kN
SF just right of D =+5.143 4 =+1.143 kN
SF just left of E =+1.143 kN
SF just right of E =+1.143 6 = 4.857 kN
SF just left of E = 4.857 kN =Reaction at B
Bending Moment (Starting from right end B)
BM at A, M
A
=0
BM at E, M
E
=+4.857 3 =+14.571 kN m
BM at D, M
D
=+(4.857 5) (6 2) =+12.285 kN m

31

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
BM at C, M
C
=+(4.857 6) (6 3) (4 1) =+7.142 kN m
Or M
C
=7.143 1 =+7.143 kN m (considering left side)
BM at A, M
A
=0
1m 1m 2m 3m
A B
C D E
RB =4.857 KN RA =7.143
2kN 4kN 6kN
5.143
1.143
4.587
4.587
SFD
14.571
7m
7.143
2
4
1.143 ( )
( )
12.285
7.143
( )
BMD











Figure 4.29
Maximum Bending Moment
Maximum bending moment will occur at a point where the shear force
changes sign. Here, SF changes from positive to negative at E. The Bending
Moment at E will be maximum bending moment.
Thus, M
max
=+14.571 kN m
Example 4.5
A 12 m span simply supported beam is carrying a uniformly distributed load of
2 kN/m over a length of 6 m from the left end and point loads 6 kN, 3 kN and 4 kN
at distances of 7 m, 8 m and 9 m, respectively. Draw SF diagram and BM diagram
for the beam and find the maximum bending moment.

A
B
C D E F
12m
6m
( )
( )
13.5
11.5
1.5
4.5
7.5
SFD
45
42
34.5
46.5
( )
6 kN 3 kN 4 kN
2 kN/m
1m 1m 1m 3m
BMD
















Figure 4.30


32
Solution
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
Taking moments about A, and equating to zero.
R
B
12 (4 9) (3 8) (6 7) 2 6
2
6
=0
Thus, R
B
=11.5 kN, and
R
A
=(2 6) +6 +3 +4 R
B
=25 11.5 =13.5 kN B
Shear Force (Starting from the left end)
SF at A, F
A
=+13.5 kN
SF at C, F
C
=+13.5 2 6
=+1.5 kN
SF just left of D =+1.5 kN
SF just right of D =+1.5 6
= 4.5 kN
SF just left of E = 4.5 kN
SF just right of E = 4.5 3
= 7.5 kN
SF just left of F = 7.5 kN
SF just right of F = 7.5 4
= 11.5 kN
SF just left of B = 11.5 kN =Reaction at B.
Bending Moment
BM at A, M
A
=0
BM at C, M
C
6
(13.5 6) 2 6 45kNm
2
(considering left side)
BM at D, M
D
=(11.5 5) (4 2) (3 1) =46.5 kN m (considering right
side)
BM at E,
M
E
=(11.5 4) (4 1) =42 kN m
BM at F,
M
F
=(11.5 3) =34.5 kN m
The maximum bending moment occurs at D where the shear force changes
sign.
M
max
=46.5 kN m.
Example 4.6
A simply supported beam of length 8 m is subjected to a uniformly varying load
from zero at centre to 3 t/m at both ends. Draw the SFD and BMD.
Solution

33

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
Taking moment about A,

1 2 1 1
8 4 3 4 4 4 3 4
2 3 2 3
B
R 0
R
B
=6 t B

1
4 3 2 12 6 60
2
A B
R R
Alternatively, since the load is symmetrical, the reaction at the support will
be equal to half of the total downward load.
6
A B
R R t














Figure 4.31
Shear Force
SF at A, F
A
=+6 t
SF at C,
1
6 4 3
2
C
F 0
SF at B,
1
0 4 3
2
B
6 F t =Reaction at B.
To find the form of SFD, consider a section XX at a distance x from the
end B.

1 3
6 3 (4
2 4
x
) F x x

1 12 3(4
6
2 4
) x
x

2
48 24 3
6 (12 12 3 )
8 8
x
x x x
F x
Since, the SF equation is parabolic equation, the SFD is in the form of
parabolic curve.
Bending Moment
4m 4m
8m
x
( )
( )
SFD
x
x
C
A
B
8t.m
Fx
Mx
3t/m
(4 x)
3t/m
4 x
6
6
Parabolic Curve
Cubic Curve


34
BM at A and B, M
A
=M
B
=0
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
B
BM at C,
1 2
(6 4) 4 3 4 24 16 8 m
2 3
C
M t
Maximum bending moment occurs at centre, since, the SF is zero at centre
of the beam.
Bending moment at XX,

3
(4 ) (2 3)
4
6 (24 3 )
3
8 3
(4 ) 3
4
x
x
x x
M x x
x


3(4 ) 24
6 (24 3 )
8 3(4 ) 12 3
x x x
x x
x


2
3(4 ) 24
6 (24 3 )
24 3(4 ) 12
x x
x x
x


2
36 3
6 (24 3 )
24 24 3
x x
x x
x


2
6 (36
24
x
3 ) x x

2 3
3 3
6
24 24
x x
x

2 3
3
6
2 8
x
x x
M x
This equation indicates that the bending moment diagram is in the form of
cubic curve.
Example 4.7
Construct the SFD and BMD for 10 m span simply supported beam subjected to a
system of loads as shown in Figure 4.32.














Figure 4.32
10m
2m 3m
A
C D E
11.6 kN
1 kN
5 kN 4 kN
2m 2m
F
B
15.4 kN
3 kN
2 kN/m
1.2 kN/m
11.6
9.2
6.2
4.6
0.4
0.4
4.4
( )
(
SFD
15.4
8.4
11.4
)
40
39.6
20.8 ( )
26.8
Solution

35

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
Taking moment about A and equating to zero.
4 5
10 2 4 6 3 8 4 6 5 5 1.2 5 1 2 0
2 2
B
R
R
B
=
10
154
=15.4 kN
R
A
=(1.2 5) +1 +5 +4 +3 +(2 4) R
B
R
A
=27 15.4 =11.6 kN.
Shear Force (starting from left end)
SF at A, F
A
=+11.6 kN
SF just left of C, F
C
=+11.6 (1.2 2) =+9.2 kN
SF just right of C, F
C
=+9.2 1 =+8.2 kN
SF just left of D, F
D
=+8.2 (1.2 3) =+4.6 kN
SF just right of D, F
D
=+4.6 5 = 0.4 kN
SF just left of E, F
E
= 0.4 kN
SF just right of E, F
E
= 0.4 4 = 4.4 kN
SF just left of F, F
F
= 4.4 (2 2) = 8.4 kN
SF just right of F, F
F
= 8.4 3 = 11.4 kN
SF just left of B, F
B
= 11.4 (2 2) = 15.4 kN B
Bending Moment
BM at A and B, M
A
=M
B
=0 B
BM at F,
2
(15.4 2) 2 2 26.8kNm=+39.6kNm
2
F
M
BM at E,
2
(15.4 4) (3 2) 2 4 39.6kNm
2
E
M
BM at D,
5
(11.6 5) (1 3) 1.2 5 40kNm
2
D
M
(considering left side)
BM at C,
2
(11.6 2) 1.2 2 20.8kNm
2
C
M
(considering left side)
Since the SF changes sign at D, the maximum bending moment occurs at D.
M
max
=M
D
=+40 kN m
SAQ 2
(a) A beam 6 m long is simply supported at the ends carries a uniformly
distributed load of 2 kN/m over the middle 2 m length and point loads of
1 kN and 4 kN at distances of 1 m and 5 m from the left end respectively.
Draw SFD and BMD and determine the magnitude and position of the
maximum BM.
(b) A beam simply supported at its ends has a span of 6 m. It is loaded with a
gradually varying load of 750 N/m from the left hand support to 1500 N/m


36
to the right hand support. Construct the SF and BM diagrams and find the
magnitude and position of the maximum BM over the beam.
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
(c) A simply supported beam of 6 m span is loaded with a uniformly distributed
load of 1.5 kN/m over the entire span and concentrated load of 4 kN and
5 kN at distances of 2 m and 4 m from the left hand support respectively.
Find the magnitude and position of the maximum BM.
(d) Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for the simply supported
beam shown in figure below. Indicate the numerical values at all salient
points.

1000 N 2000 N 3000 N 1500 N/m




Figure For SAQ 2(d)
Overhanging Beams
An overhanging beam is a beam which overhangs from the support either one side
or both sides. The overhanging portion of the beam will be treated as cantilever.
Point of Contraflexure
For the purpose of shear force and bending moment, the overhanging beam will be
analyzed as a combination of simply supported beam and a cantilever beam. We
have discussed that the BM is negative for the cantilever and positive for the
simply supported beam. It implies that in an overhanging beam, there is a point at
which the BM changes from positive to negative and vice-versa. Such a point
where the BM changes sign is known as contraflexure. There may be one or more
points of contraflexure.
Example 4.8
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the overhanging beam
shown in Figure 4.33.














Figure 4.33
Solution
Taking moments about A and equating to zero,
A
C D 1.5 m 1.5 m E
B
1.5 m 1.5 m
6 m
2m 1m 3m
6m
A
D
2m
C
E B
x
x
5 kN
x
6 kN
0.8 kN/m
6
6 ( )
1.93 1.93
3.07
3.07
( )
SFD
( )
5.47
3.86
0.81
( )
BMD
( )
12

37

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
3
6 (6 8) 0.8 3 3 (5 2) 0
2
B
R
R
B
=11.47 kN and R
A
=5 +(0.8 3) +6 11.47 =25 11.5 =1.93 kN
Shear Force (Starting from the left end A)
SF at A, F
A
=+1.93 kN
SF just left of D, F
D
=+1.93 kN
SF just right of D, F
D
=+1.93 5 = 3.07 kN
SF at E, F
E
= 3.07 kN
SF just left of B, F
B
= 3.07 (0.8 3) = 5.47 kN B
SF just right of B, F
B
= 5.47 +11.47 =+6 kN B
SF just left of C, F
C
=+6 kN =Load at E
Bending Moment
BM at C, M
C
=0
BM at B, M
B
= 6 2 = 12 kN m
BM at E,
3
(11.46 3) (6 5) 0.8 3 0.81kNm
2
E
M
BM at D, M
D
=+1.93 2 =+3.86 kN m
BM at A, M
A
=0
Maximum Bending Moment
Maximum positive bending moment occurs at D and maximum negative
bending moment occurs at B.
M
max
(positive) =+3.86 kN m
M
max
(negative) = 12 kN m
Point of Contraflexure
Since the bending moment changes sign between E and B, consider a section
XX between E and B at a distance x from C.
BM at section XX,
M
x
= 6x +11.47 (x 2) 0.8 (x 2)
2
) 2 (x

= 6x +11.47x 22.94 0.4 (x 2)
2

= 0.4x
2
+7.07x 24.54
By equating this equation to zero, we get the point of contraflexure,
0.4x
2
+7.07x 24.54 =0
x
2
17.67x +61.35 =0
Solving by trial and error,
x =4 Value of (x
2
17.675x +61.35) =6.65
x =4.9 Value of (x
2
17.675x +61.35) = 1.2475
x =4.8 Value of (x
2
17.675x +61.35) = 0.45
x =4.7 Value of (x
2
17.675x +61.35) =0.3675
x =4.75 Value of (x
2
17.675x +61.35) = 0.04375


38
x =4.745 Value of (x
2
17.675x +61.35) = 0.00285
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
Point of contraflexure is at a distance of 4.745 m from the end C.
Example 4.9
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for 10 m span overhanging
beam having overhanging portion of 4 m subjected to a system of loads as shown
in Figure 4.34. Calculate the maximum bending moment and also locate the point
of contraflexure.
Solution
Taking moments about A and equating it to zero,
4
6 (8 10) 3 4 6 (20 4) (10 2) 0
2
B
R
R
B
=46 kN
R
A
=10 +20 +(3 4) +8 R
B
=50 46 =4 kN B

3 kN/m
A
E B D
x
x
20 kN

( )
SFD
( )
x













Figure 4.34
Shear Force (Starting from the end A)
SF at A, F
A
=+4 kN
SF just left of D, F
D
=+4 kN
SF just right of D, F
D
=+4 10 = 6 kN
SF just left of E, F
E
= 6 kN
SF just right of E, F
E
= 6 20 = 26 kN
SF just left of B, F
B
= 26 kN B
SF just right of B, F
B
= 26 +46 =+20 kN B
SF just left of C, F
C
=+20 kN =Load at C
Bending Moment
BM at C, M
C
=0
4 m
8 kN
2 m 2 m 2 m
10 kN
C
40
20
26
26
4
4
6
( )
6
( )
4 ( )
56

39

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments BM at B,
10
(0.3 10) 1 10 47kNm
2
A
M
BM at E, M
E
=+(4 4) (10 2) = 4 kN m
BM at D, M
D
=+(4 2) =+8 kN m
Maximum Bending Moment
Since SF changes sign at D and B, the maximum positive bending moment
will occur at D and maximum negative bending moment will occur at B.
M
max
(positive) =+8 kN m
M
max
(negative) = 56 kN m
Point of Contraflexure
BM changes sign between D and E. Therefore, consider a section XX at a
distance x from the end A.
BM at section XX,
M
x
=+4 x 10 (x 2)
Equating this to zero, we get
4 x 10 (x 2) =0
4 x 10x +20 =0
6x +20 =0
x =3.333 m
The point of contraflexure is at a distance of 3.333 m from the left
end A.
Example 4.10
An overhanging beam of 15 m span is carrying an uniformly distributed load of
1 kN/m over the length of 10 m at a distance 5 m from the left free end and point
loads 7 kN and 4 kN, at free end and at a distance 2 m from the free end,
respectively. Sketch the SFD and BMD for the beam. Locate the point of
contraflexure.
Solution
Taking moments about B and equating to zero,
10
10 (7 15) (4 13) 1 10 0
2
A
R
R
A
=20.7 kN
and R
B
=7 +4 +(1 10) 20.7 =0.3 kN B
Shear Force (Starting from the left end C)
SF just right of C, F
C
= 7 kN
SF just left of D, F
D
= 7 kN
SF just right of D, F
D
= 7 4 = 11 kN
SF just left of A, F
A
= 11 kN
SF just right of A, F
A
= 11 +20.7 =9.7 kN
SF just left of B, F
B
=+9.7 (1 10) = 0.3 kN =Reaction at the
support B.
B
Bending Moment


40
BM at B, M
B
=0
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
BM at A,
10
(0.3 10) 1 10 47kNm
2
A
M
BM at D, M
D
= (7 2) = 14 kN m
BM at C, M
C
=0
Maximum Bending Moment
Consider a section XX at a distance x from the end B as shown in
Figure 4.35.
Shear force at section XX,
F
x
= 0.3 +1(x)
For maximum bending moment, the shear force is zero.
0.3 +x =0
x =0.3 m
We have, M
x
=+0.3(x) 1 (x)
2
x
=0.3x
2
2
x

M
max
=0.3 (0.3)
2
) 3 . 0 (
2
=+0.045 kN m















Figure 4.35
It is seen that the maximum negative bending moment occurs at A and
maximum positive bending moment occurs at a distance 0.3 m from the
right end B.
M
max
(positive) =+0.045 kN m
M
max
(negative) = 47 kN m
Point of Contraflexure
It is observed that the BM changes sign between A and B,
BM at any section XX,
10 m
2 m 3 m
7 kN 4 kN
1 kN/m
x
x
x
B C
D A
9.7
( )
( )
7
11
11
14
( )
47
0.3
( )
0.045

41

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
M
x
=0.3 x
2
2
x

Equating this to zero,
0.3 x
2
2
x
=0
0.6 x x
2
=0
x =0.6 m
So, the point of contraflexure is at a distance of 0.6 m from the right end B.
Example 4.11
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for 15 m span overhanging
beam, which overhangs on both sides. It is subjected to a u.d.l. of 5 kN/m on left
side overhanging portion of length 5 m and a u.d.l. of 4 kN/m on right side
overhanging portion of length 4 m. Indicate the numerical values at all salient
points.
Solution
To Find Reaction at B
Considering right side, the moments about A,
4
6 4 4 6
2
A B
M R
M
A
=6 R
B
128
Considering left side, take moments about A,
5
5 5 62.5
2
A
M
Equating these two values, we get
6 R
B
128 = 62.5
6 R
B
=65.5
R
B
=10.92 kN
R
A
= (5 5) +(4 4) R
B
B
R
A
=41 10.92 =30.08 kN
Shear Force (Starting from the left end C)
SF at C, F
C
=0
SF just left of A, F
A
=0 5 5 = 25 kN
SF just right of A, F
A
= 25 +30.08 =+5.08 kN
SF just left of B, F
B
=+5.08 kN B
SF just right of B, F
B
=+5.08 +10.92 =+16 kN B
SF at D, F
D
=+16 (4 4) =0



5 kN/m
4 kN/m
C
A B
D
5 m 6 m 4 m
5.08
16
( )


42

Forces and Stresses
in Beams









Figure 4.36
Bending Moment
BM at C and D, M
C
=M
D
=0
BM at A, M
A
= 5 5
2
5
= 62.5 kN m
BM at B, M
B
= 4 4
2
4
= 32 kN m
Example 4.12
Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam overhanging on
both sides as shown in Figure 4.37. Find the magnitude of maximum positive and
maximum negative bending moment and also locate the point of contraflexure, if
any.
Solution
Considering right side, take moments about A,
M
A
=R
B
12 2 12 10
M
A
=12 R
B
240
Considering left side, take moments about A,
M
A
= 6 4 = 24 kN m
Equating these two values, we get the reaction at the support B,
12 R
B
240 = 24
R
B
=18 kN
R
A
=6 +(2 12) R
B
= 30 18 = 12 kN
Shear Force (Starting from the left end C)
SF at C, F
C
= 6 kN
SF just left of A, F
A
= 66 kN
SF just right of A, F
A
= 6 +12 =+6 kN
SF at D, F
D
=+6 kN
SF just left of B, F
B
=+6 (2 8) = 10 kN B
SF just right of B, F
B
= 10 +18 =+8 kN B
SF at E, F
E
=+8 (2 4) =0.
x
4 m 4 m 8 m 4 m
C
A
D B
E
6 kN
2 kN/m

43

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments















Figure 4.37
Bending Moment
BM at C and E, M
C
=M
E
=0
BM at B,
4
2 4 16kNm
2
B
M
BM at D,
12
(18 8) 2 12 0
2
D
M
BM at A, M
A
= (6 4) = 24 kN m
Maximum Bending Moment
Consider a section XX at a distance x from the end E.
SF at section XX,
F
x
= 18 +2x
For maximum bending moment, F
x
should be zero.
18 +2x =0
x =9 m
BM at any section XX between D and B,
M
x
=18 (x 4) 2x
2
x

=18 (x 4) x
2
M
max
=18 (9 4) 9
2
=9 kN m
Maximum negative bending moment = 24 kN m
Maximum positive bending moment =+9 kN m
Points of Contraflexure
Let M and D be the points of contraflexure where the BM changes sign.
To find the position of M, equate the moment equation between D and B to
zero.


44
18 (x 4) x
2
=0
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
x
2
+18x 72 =0
or, x
2
18x +72 =0
we get, x =6 m and x =9 m.
There are two points of contraflexure, one at a distance of 6 m and the other
at a distance of 9 m from the end E.
SAQ 3
(a) Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in
figure below. Indicate the numerical values at all salient points.







Figure for SAQ 3(a)
(b) A simply supported beam with overhanging ends carries transverse loads as
shown in figure below.






Figure for SAQ 3(b)
If W =10 w, what is the overhanging length on each side, such that the
bending moment at the middle of the beam is zero? Sketch the shear force
and bending moment diagrams.



Characteristics of the Diagrams
Shear force diagrams (SFDs) and bending moment diagrams (BMDs) are very
useful which give the clear picture of the distribution of shear force and bending
moment along the length of the beam. Some important points regarding these
diagrams are as follows :
(i) Where the rate of loading is zero, the SF curve will have constant ordinates
and BM curve will vary linearly. In other words, if there is no increase or
decreases in SF curve between any two points, i.e. SF line is horizontal and
consists of rectangle, it indicates that there is no loading between the two
points.
(ii) If there is a sudden increase or decrease, i.e. a vertical line of SF diagram, it
indicates that there is either a point load or reaction of the support at that
point or in other words, if there is any point load or reaction, it will cause
sudden increase or decrease in the SF diagram with respect to upward or
downward direction of point load or reaction, and it will not cause any
distinct variation in the BM diagram.
5 m 5 m 5 m 5 m
A
C
D B
E
1000 N/m 4000 N 8000 N
1600 N/m
D
w/m
C
A E
W
l
B
W
l 10 m

45

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
(iii) Where the intensity of load is constant, i.e. uniformly distributed load, the
SF curve will vary linearly and the BM curve will be a parabola. In other
words, if the SF line is an inclined straight line between any two points, and
the BM curve is a parabolic curve between any two points, it indicates that
there is uniformly distributed load between the two points.
(iv) Where the loading curve is varying linearly, i.e. uniformly varying load, the
SF curve will be a parabola and the BM curve will be a cubic parabola. In
other words, if the SF line is a parabolic curve between any two points and
BM curve is a cubic parabola between any two points, it indicates that there
is a uniformly varying load between the points.
(v) SF and BM diagrams can be drawn by successive integration for complex
case of loading.
(vi) The area of loading curve in elementary length will be equal to change in
shear force and area of shear force curve in elementary length will be equal
to change in bending moment.
(vii) The BM will be equal to zero at the free end of the cantilever and at the
simply supported ends.
(viii) At the intermediate supports, the bending moments are always negative.
(ix) The maximum bending moment occurs at the point where the shear force
changes sign and the point of contraflexure is the point where the BM
changes sign.
Sometimes, instead of load diagram, a SF diagram will be given. In such cases, a
loading diagram is drawn first. After drawing the load diagram for the beam, the
BM diagram may be drawn as usual.
Example 4.13
Shear force diagram for a loaded beam is shown in Figure 4.38. Determine the
loading on the beam and hence, draw the bending moment diagram. Locate the
point of contraflexure, if any.
Solution
Let us analyse the shear force diagram given in Figure 4.38.
At A
The shear force diagram increases suddenly from 0 to 6.875 kN in upward
direction, at A. This indicates that there is support at A, having magnitude of
reaction 6.875 kN.
Between A and C
The SF diagram is an inclined straight line between A and C. It indicates that
there is a uniformly distributed load between A and C. The load increases
from 6.875 kN to 3.875 kN (6.875 kN 3.875 kN = 3 kN). Thus, the beam
carries a uniformly distributed load of
3
2kN/m
1.5
between A and C.
At C
The shear force diagram suddenly decreases from 3.875 kN to 1.875 kN. It
indicates that there is a point load of 2 kN (3.875 kN 1.875 kN) acting in
downward direction at C.


1.5 1.5
A
C D
E
B
1.5
6.875
3.875
1.875
1.875
1.125
9.125
( )
( )
1.5


46

Forces and Stresses
in Beams











Figure 4.38
Between C and D
Since the shear force diagram is horizontal between C and D, there is no
load between C and D.
Between D and E
The SF diagram is an inclined straight line between D and E. It indicates
that there is a uniformly distributed load. Load decreases from +1.875 kN to
1.125 kN. Therefore, the beam carries a uniformly distributed load of (+
1.875 +1.125 =3 kN)
3
2kN/m
1.5
between D and E.
At E
The shear force diagram has sudden decrease from 1.125 kN to
6.125 kN. It indicates that there is a point load of 5 kN ( ) at E.
Between E and B
The SFD decreases from 6.125 kN to 9.125 kN by an inclined straight
line, which shows that the beam carries a u.d.l. of
3
2kN/m
1.5
between E
and B.
At B
Since there is a sudden increase from 9.125 kN to 0 at B, there is a support
at B of reaction 9.125 kN.
Bending Moment
BM at A, M
A
=0
BM at C,
1.5
(6.875 1.5) 2 1.5 8.06kN-m
2
C
M
BM at D, (6.875 3) 2 1.5 2.25 ( 2 1.5) 10.875kN-m
D
M

47

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments BM at E,
1.5
(9.125 1.5) 2 1.5 11.44kN-m
2
E
M
Maximum Bending Moment
Consider a section XX between D and E at a distance x from the end B. SF at
section XX,
(for maximum BM) 9.125 5 2 4.125 2 0
x
F x x
2.0625m x

max
2.0625
(9.125 2.0625) 5 (2.0625 1.5) 2 2.0625
2
M
11.75kN-m
Example 4.14
The shear force diagram for the overhanging beam is shown in Figure 4.39. Draw
the loading diagram and bending moment diagram. Find the magnitude of
maximum bending moment and locate the point of contraflexure.

( )
( ) ( )
( )
6 m
3 m
A
B C D
1 m
440 N
400 N
480 N
560 N 520 N
400 N
A
B
C
D




6 m
x
1 m
3 m
2.5
M1
125 N.m
( )
( )
M2
( )
720 N.m
480 N.m
5 m
SFD
BMD
160 N/m












Figure 4.39
Solution
Let us analyse the shear force diagram given in Figure 4.39.
At A
The shear force diagram suddenly decreases from 0 to 400 N. It indicates
that there is a downward point load of 400 N at A.
Between A and B
The shear force diagram is an inclined straight line and decreases from
400 N to 560 N. It indicates that there is a uniformly distributed load of
(560 400 = 160) 160 1 =160 kN/m between A and B.
At B
There is a sudden increase from 560 N to + 440 N at B. It indicates that
there is a support reaction of 1000 N at B.


48
Between B and C
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
Since the shear force diagram varies linearly from + 440 N to 520 N
between B and C. It indicates that a u.d.l. of (440 +520 =960)
6
960
=160 kN/m is acting between B and C.
At C
At C, the shear force diagram increases suddenly from 520 kN to 480 N. It
indicates that there is a support reaction of 1000 N (520 +480) at C.
Between C and D
The shear force diagram is an inclined straight line which indicates that
there is a uniformally distributed load of 480/3 =160 kN/m from C to D.
Bending Moment
BM at A and D, M
A
=M
D
=0.
BM at B,
1
(400 1) 160 1 480Nm
2
B
M
BM at C,
3
160 3 720Nm
2
C
M
Maximum Bending Moment
SF at any section XX between B and C,
F
x
= +1000 400 160x
For maximum bending moment, F
x
should be equal to zero.
600 160x =0
x =3.75 m

max
3.75
(1000 2.75) (400 3.75) 160 3.75
2
M
=+125 N m
Maximum positive bending moment occurs at a distance of 3.75 m from the
end A, where SF changes sign.
Maximum negative bending moment occurs at a support C where SF
changes sign.
M
max
(negative) = 720 N m
Points of Contraflexure
Let M
1
and M
2
be the points of contraflexure, where BM is zero. But at any
section XX between B and C at a distance x from the end A.
1000( 1) 400 160
2
x
x
M x x x
or 1000x 1000 400x 80x
2
=0
80x
2
600x +1000 =0
8x
2
60x +100 =0
2x
2
15x +25 =0
(2x

5) (x 5) = 0
Thus, x =2.5 m and 5 m.

49

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
4.5 BEAMS SUBJECTED TO COUPLES
A beam may be subjected to a clockwise (called positive couple) or anticlockwise couple
(called negative couple) at a section. To calculate the reactions at the support, the
magnitude and the direction of the couple is considered. The bending moment at the
section of the couple changes suddenly in its magnitude. While drawing the bending
moment diagram, the bending moment, just left of the section of the couple and just right
of the section of the couple, should be calculated, with the help of the reactions at both
the ends. Since, the couple does not involve any load, the shear force does not change at
the section of the couple.
Some examples of equivalent couples have been given in Figure 4.40.

P1
P1
P2
d
1
2

d
1
2
d
2
2

d
2
2

M
1
=P
1
.d
1
M
2
=P
2
.d
2
d
2
2

d
2
2

d
1
2

d
1
2

P1
P1
P2
P2
M1 =P1.d1
M
2
=P
2
.d
2
=
=
P1
P1
d
1
2

d
1
2

M
1
=P
1
.d
1



















Figure 4.40
Cantilever Beam Subjected to Couple
Let us consider a cantilever beam AB of length subjected to an anticlockwise
couple at a distance a from the fixed end as shown in Figure 4.41.








a l a
l
A
C B
( )


50

Forces and Stresses
in Beams



Figure 4.41
Since the moment is applied at C, the portion BC is not subjected to any moment.
Bending Moment (Starting from the End B)
BM at B, M
B
=0 B
BM just right of C, M
C
=0 (considering right side)
BM just left of C, M
C
=+ (+ sign indicates right clockwise)
BM at A, M
A
=+ (+ sign indicates right clockwise)
Since there is no load between A and C, the bending moment diagram will be
horizontal line between A and C.
However, the beam is not subjected to any load, the SF on the beam is zero.
Simply Supported Beam Subjected to Couple at Mid-span
Let us consider a simply supported beam AB of length l, subjected to a clockwise
couple ( ) at mid-span. The tendency of the couple will be to uplift the beam from
its support A and to depress the beam at its support B. Therefore, the reaction at A,
will be downward and at B will be upward.














l 2
l
A
C
B
SFD
Figure 4.42
Taking moment about A and equating to zero,
0
B
R l

B
R
l

R
A
=Total downward load 0 0
B B
R R
l l

(Negative sign indicates that the reaction at A is downward)
Shear Force (Starting from the Left End A)
l 2
l
2
2 ( )
( )
( )
BMD
l

51

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments SF at
A
A F
l

SF just left of B,
B
F
l
(Reaction at the support B)
Bending Moment (Starting from Left End A)
BM at A and B, M
A
=M
B
=0 B
BM just left of B,
2 2
B
l
M
l

BM just right of B,
2 2
B
M
BM just right of B,
2 2
B
l
M
l
(considering right side)
Supply Supported Beam Subjected to an Eccentric Couple
Consider a simply supported beam AB of span l, subjected to an anticlockwise
couple at a distance a from the left end A as shown in Figure 4.43.

l
A
C B
SFD
l
l
l
b

( )
( )
BMD
a b
( ) l
a














Figure 4.43
Taking moments about A and equating to zero,
0
B
R l

B
R
l
(Negative sign indicates the reaction at B is downward)
R
A
=Total downward load 0
B
R
l l

Shear Force (Staring from the Left End A)
SF at A,
A
F
l

SF just left of B,
B
F
l
Reaction at the support B.
Since, there is no load between A and B, the shear force diagram is
horizontal.


52
Bending Moment (Starting from the Left End A)
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
BM at A, M
A
=0
BM just left of C,
C
a
M a
l l

MB just right of C,
( ) (
C
a a l l
M
l l l
) a

( )
b
l a b
l
Q
BM just right of C,
C
M b
l
(considering right side)
Example 4.15
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the cantilever beam shown
in Figure 4.44.














Figure 4.44
Solution
Reaction at the support A,
(2 2) 3 4 11kN
A
R
Shear Force (Starting from the Left End A)
SF at A, 11kN
A
F
SF at B, 11 (2 2) 7kN
B
F
SF just left of D, 7kN
D
F
SF just right of D, 7 3 4kN
D
F
SF just left of F, 4kN =
F
F load at F
Bending Moment (Starting from the Right End F)
BM just right of E, 4 2 8kN-m
E
M
BM just left of E, 8 1 9kN-m
E
M
BM at D, 4 4 1 17kN-m
D
M
2 kN/m
4 kN.m
3 kN
A
B C D
2 m 2 m 2 m 2 m
11 kN
1 kN.m
4 kN
E F
2 m
2 m
11
7
7
4
SFD
( )
( )
59
41
27
31
17
BMD
4
9.125
8
9

53

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
BM just right of C, (4 6) 1 (3 2) 31kN-m
C
M
BM just left of C, 31 4 27kN-m
C
M
BM at B, (4 8) 1 (3 4) 4 41kN-m
B
M
BM at A,
2
(4 10) 1 (3 6) 4 2 2 59kN-m
2
A
M
Example 4.16
Draw the SFD and BMD for a simply supported bema of 15 m span loaded as
shown in Figure 4.45

9 kN.m
7.5 kN
A
F
B
6 m
2 m
2.5
( )
17
4
1 m 1 m 1 m 6 m
15 m
E
D C
1.5 kN/m
q
x
=0.5
x
kN/m
Parabolic curve
3.5
3.5
4
13
( )
57
60.5
51.5
55
51
( )















Figure 4.45
Solution
Taking moment about A,
6 1 2
15 1.5 6 9 (7.5 8) 9 6 3 6 0
2 2 3
B
R
13kN
B
R
1
6 3 7.5 (1.5 6) 25.5 13 12.5kN
2
A B
R R
Shear Force (Starting from the Left End A)
SF at A, 12.5kN
A
F
SF at C,
1
12.5 6 3 3.5kN
2
C
F
SF just left of E, 3.5kN
E
F
SF just right of E, 3.5 7.5 4kN
E
F
SF at F, 4kN
F
F
SF just left of B, Reaction at B. 4 (1.5 6) 13kN =
B
F
Bending Moment (Starting from Right End B)


54
BM at B, M
B
=0
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
B
BM at F,
6
(13 6) 1.5 6 51kN-m
2
F
M
BM at E,
6
(13 7) 1.5 6 1 55kN-m
2
E
M
BM just right of D,
6
(13 8) 1.5 6 2 7.5 51.5kN-m
2
D
M
BM just left of D, 51.5 9 60.5kN-m
D
M
BM at C,
1 1
(12.5 6) 3 6 6 57kN-m
2 3
C
M
Example 4.17
Draw a SFD and BMD for the beam shown in Figure 4.46
C
D A
x
x


















Figure 4.46
Solution
Determination of Reaction at the Support B
Considering left side, take moments about A,

3 1 2
12 7.2 3 12 15.6 12 7.2 12
2 2 3
B A
R M
12 621.6
A B
M R
Considering right side, take moments about A,
(15.2 3) 24 21.6kN-m
A
M
B E
F
15.2 kN
24 kN.m
7.2 kN/m
qx =0.6x kN/m
1 m 2 m 12 m
9 kN.m
2 m
1 m
x
14.8
21.6
15.2
15.2
8.8
15.2
M
1
M2
M3 M4
M
SFD
28.4
16.8
( )
( )
(
( )
( )
21.6
( )
47.7
BMD
5
M
6
+12
3.6
)

55

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
Equating these two equations,
12 621.6 21.6
B
R
12 600
B
R
50kN
B
R

1
15.2 12 7.2 (7.2 3) 80 50 30kN
2
A B
R R
Shear Force (Starting from the Left End A)
SF at C, 15.2kN
C
F
SF just left of A, 15.2kN
A
F
SF just right of A, 15.2 30 14.8kN
A
F
SF just left of B,
1
14.8 12 7.2 28.4kN
2
B
F
SF just right of B, 28.4 50 21.6kN
B
F
SF at F, 21.6 (7.2 3) 0
F
F
Bending Moment (Starting from the Right End F)
BM at F, M
F
=0
BM just right of E,
1
7.2 1 3.6kN-m
2
E
M
BM just left of E, 3.6 15.6 12kN-m
E
M
BM at B,
3
7.2 3 15.6 16.8kN-m
2
B
M
BM at A, (considering left side) (15.2 3) 24 21.6kN-m
A
M
BM at C, M
C
=0
BM just left of D, 15.2 1 15.2kN-m
D
M
BM just right of D, 15.2 24 8.8kN-m
D
M
Maximum Bending Moment
The SF changes sign at A, between A and B and at B.
Consider a section XX at a distance x from the end C as shown in
Figure 4.46
SF at section XX,

1
30 15.2 ( 3) 0.6 ( 3)
2
x
F x x
Equating this equation to zero,

2
14.8 0.3( 3) 0 x

2
0.3 1.8 12.1 0 x x
or
2
0.3 1.8 12.1 0 x x


56
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
or
2
6 40.333 0 x x
On solving by trial and error, we get x =10 m.

max
1 1
(30 7) 24 (15.2 10) 7 7 7 0.6
2 3
M
47.7kN-m
Maximum positive bending moment =+47.7 kN-m
Maximum negative bending moment = 21.6 kN-m
Points of Contraflexure
Let M
1
, M
2
, . . . and M
6
be the points of contraflexure, where the
bending moment changes sign.
To find the position of M
2
, consider a section XX at a distance x from
the end C.
15.2 24
x
M x
15.2 24 0 x

2
1.579m x
To find the position of M
3
and M
4
, consider a section XX at a distance
x from the end E.
1 (
15.2 24 30( 3) ( 3) 0.6 ( 3)
2 3
x
x
M x x x x
3)
3

3
15.2 24 30 90 0.1( 3)
x
M x x x

3
14.8 66 0.1( 3) x x

3 2
14.8 66 0.1[ (3 3) (3 9) 3 ] x x x

3 2
14.8 66 0.1( 9 27 27) x x x x

3 2
0.1 0.9 12.1 63.3 x x x
On changing the sign and equating it to zero, we get

3 2
0.1 0.9 12.1 63.3 0 x x x
Solving by trial and error, we get

1
4.4814m x

2
14.357m x
and
3
9.84m x
Since, the value of x
3
is negative, it should be ignored.
To find the position of M
3
, consider a section XX at a distance x from
the end E.
7.2 15.6
2
x
x
M x
On equating it to zero, we get

2
3.6 15.6 0 x
2.082m x

57

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
The points of contraflexure are at distance of 1 m, 1.579 m, 4.4814 m
and 14.357 m from the left end X and at distances of 1 m and 2.082 m
from the right end F.
SAQ 4
(a) Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for the overhanging
beam shown in Figure for SAQ 4(a) given below.

A
B E C
D
6 k N.m
2 m 1 m 6 m
3 kN/m
6 kN/m




Figure for SAQ 4(a)
(b) Draw the SFD and BMD for the beam shown in Figure for SAQ 4(b).

3 kN/m
A
B
2 m 1 m 1.5 m 2.5 m
C D
4 kN/m
3 kN/m
7.5 kN
2 kN/m
6 kN
E




Figure for SAQ 4(b)
(c) A simply supported beam, 16 m length, is subjected to a system of loads and
couples as shown in Figure for SAQ 4(c) given below. Draw SFD and BMD
and find the magnitude of maximum bending moment. Take the distances
between the points of application of loads and couples as equal.

A
B C D E F G H
J
20 k N m 80 k N m
60 k N m
40 k N m
20 kN 24 kN 6 kN




Figure for SAQ 4(c)




4.6 BEAMS SUBJECTED TO OBLIQUE LOADING
So far, we have been discussing the shear force and bending moments for beams
subjected to an external load system at right angles to the axis of the beam. Whenever a
beam is subjected to inclined loads, these inclined loads are resolved in horizontal and
vertical direction. The vertical components (at right angles to the axis of the beam) of the
loads on the beam will introduce shear force and bending moment in the member. The
horizontal components (along the axis of the beam) of the loads on the beam will
introduce axial force of thrust, i.e. pulls or pushes in the beam depending upon its end
position.


58
Thrust Diagrams
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
If one end of the beam is hinged, whereas the other end is simply supported on
rollers, the hinged end will be subjected to horizontal thrust equal to the
unbalanced horizontal force due to inclined loads. An axial force diagram, which
represents horizontal thrust in the beam, is drawn like shear force diagram. Sign
convention used to draw the thrust diagram is tensile force (i.e. force acting
towards left) as positive and compressive force (i.e. force acting towards right)
as negative.
Example 4.18
Draw the shear force, bending moment and thrust diagrams for the beam shown in
Figure 4.47.


















Figure 4.47
Solution
Vertical component of 4 kN at C,
o
4 sin 45 2.828kN ( )
Horizontal component of 4 kN at C,
o
4 cos 45 2.828kN ( )
Vertical component of 3 kN at D,
o
3 sin60 2.598kN ( )
Horizontal component of 3 kN at D,
o
3 cos 60 1.5kN ( )
Taking moments about B,
10 5 7.5 2.598 6 2.828 2 0
B
R
5.8744kN
B
R
2.828 2.598 5 10.426 5.8744
A B
R R
4.5516kN
A
R
2 m 4 m 1.5 m 2.5 m
2 m 4 m 1.5 m
2.828 kN
2.828 kN
2.598 kN
1.5 m
A
A
C
C
D
D
2.5 m
5 kN
E
B
B
E
45
o
60
o
4 kN
3 kN 5 kN
4.516
1.7236
1.7236
0.8744
( )
SFD
( )
5.8744
5.8744
( )
15.9976
9.1032
BMD
14.686
1.328 1.328
1.5 1.5
( )
( )
Trust Diagram

59

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
Shear Force (Starting from the Left End A)
SF at A, 4.5516kN
A
F
SF just left of C, 4.5516kN
C
F
SF just right of C, 4.5516 2.828 1.7236kN
C
F
SF just left of D, 1.7236kN
D
F
SF just right of D, 1.7236 2.598 0.7844kN
D
F
SF just left of E, 0.8744kN
E
F
SF just right of E, Reaction at B. 0.8744 5 5.8447kN =
E
F
Bending Moment (Starting from the Right End B)
BM at A and B, M
A
=M
B
=0 B
BM at E, (5.8744 2.5) 14.686kN-m
E
M
BM at D, 5.8744 4 5 1.5 15.9976kN-m
D
M
BM at C, (4.5516 2) 9.1032kN-m
C
M (considering left side)
Maximum Bending Moment
It will occur at D where SF changes sign.
Thus,
max
15.9976kN-m M
Thrust Diagram
Let us determine the horizontal reaction at A (being a hinged end).
0 H
2.828 1.5 0
A
H
1.328kN
A
H
The section AC is subjected to 1.328 kN (tensile force).
The section CD is subjected to 1.5 kN (compressive force).
(2.828 1.328 1.5)
The beam from D and B is not subjected to any axial force. The axial force
diagram is shown in Figure 4.47.
Example 4.19
Analyse the beam shown in Figure 4.48 and draw the SFD, BND and thrust
diagram. Locate the point of contraflexure, if any.






2 m 4 m 2 m 1 m 1 m
A
C D E B
F
60
o
30
o
4t 2t
2t / m
3t
2t / m
A
C D E B
F
3.464
2 464
2t
1t
1.732t x


60

Forces and Stresses
in Beams













Figure 4.48
Solution
Vertical component of 4 kN at C,
o
4 cos60 2kN ( )
Horizontal component of 4 kN at C,
o
4 sin60 3.464kN ( )
Vertical component of 2 kN at D,
o
2 cos30 1.732kN ( )
Horizontal component of 2 kN at D,
o
2 sin30 1kN ( )
Taking moment about A,
4
8 (3 10) 2 4 4 (1.732 3) (2 1) 0
2
B
R
10.6495kN
B
R
2 1.732 (2 4) 3 14.732 10.6495 4.0825kN
A B
R R
Shear Force (Starting from the Left End A)
SF at A, 4.0825kN
A
F
SF just left of C, 4.0825kN
C
F
SF just right of C, 4.0825 2 2.0825kN
C
F
SF just left of D, 2.0825kN
D
F
SF just right of D, 2.0825 1.732 0.3505kN
D
F
SF at E, 0.3505kN
E
F
SF just left of B, 0.3505 (2 4) 7.6495kN
B
F
SF just right of B, 7.6495 10.6495 3kN
B
F
SF just left of F, 3kN =
F
F load at the end F.
Bending Moment (Starting from the F)

61

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
BM at F, M
F
=0
BM at B, (3 2) 6kN-m
B
M
BM at E,
4
(10.4695 4) (3 6) 2 4 8.599kN-m
2
E
M
BM at D, (4.0825 3) (2 2) 8.2475kN-m
D
M
BM at C, (4.0825 1) 4.0825kN-m
C
M
BM at A, M
A
=0
Maximum Bending Moment
Maximum bending moment will occur at B and between B and E.
Consider a section XX at a distance x from the end F.
10.6495 3 2( 2)
x
F x
For maximum bending moment, F
x
should be equal to zero.
10.6495 3 2 4 0 x
5.82475m 5.825m x
BM at section XX,

( 2
10.6495( 2) 3 2( 2)
2
x
x
M x x x
)


2
10.6495( 2) 3 ( 2) x x x

2
max
10.6495(5.825 2) 3(5.825) (5.825 2) M
8.629kN-m
Maximum positive bending moment =+8.629 kN-m
Maximum negative bending moment = 6 kN-m.
Point of Contraflexure
Equating the BM at section XX, to zero.

2
10.6495( 2) 3 ( 2) 0 x x x
or
2
10.6495 21.299 3 4 4 0 x x x x
or
2
11.6495 25.299 0 x x
or
2
11.6495 25.299 0 x x
Solving by trial and error, we get x =2.9 m.
Point of contraflexure is at a distance of 2.9 m from the end F.
Thrust Diagram
Horizontal reaction at A,
3.464 1 0
A
H
2.464 0
A
H
( indicates that the reaction is towards right) 2.464kN
A
H
The portion AC is subjected to a compressive force of 2.464 kN. The portion
CD is subjected to a tensile force of 1 kN (i.e. 3.464 2.464 = 1).


62
SAQ 5
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
Analyse the beam as shown in Figure 4.49 is given below.







Figure 4.49


4.7 SUMMARY
A beam is a structural member, subjected to a system of external forces (including
inclined load) to produce the bending of the member in an axial plane.
The shear force at the cross-section of the beam is defined as the unbalanced
vertical force either to the right or to the left of the section.
The bending moment at the cross section of the beam is defined as the algebraic
sum of moments of all the forces acting on the beam either to the right or to the left
of the section.
All the upward forces to the left of the section and all the downward forces to the
right of the section cause positive shear force. All the downward forces to the left
of the section and all the upward forces to the right of the section cause negative
shear force.
The BM is said to be positive, when it is acting in an anticlockwise direction to the
left of the section and clockwise direction to the right of the section. The BM is
said to be negative, when it is acting in clockwise direction to the left of the
section and an anticlockwise direction to the right of the section.
While drawing SF and BM diagrams, all the positive values are plotted above the
base line and the negative values below it.
The maximum BM occurs, where the SF is zero or changes sign.
If the SF diagram line is horizontal between two points, the BM diagram is
inclined. It indicates there is no load between two points. If the SF diagram is
inclined between two points, the BM diagram is a parabola of second degree. It
indicates that there is a uniformly distributed load between the two points. If the
SF diagram is in the form of parabola of second degree between two points, the
BM diagram is in the form of parabola of third degree (cubic parabola). It indicates
that there is a uniformly varying load between the two points.
The point of contraflexure is a point where the BM is zero or changes sign.
If a beam is subjected to a couple, the SF does not change. But the bending
moment suddenly changes in magnitude equal to that of the couple.
If there is a point load or reaction, the BM does not change at that point. But the
SF suddenly changes (either decreases or increases) in magnitude equal to that of
point load or support reaction.
1 m 1.5 m 2 m
A
C
D E
30
o
45
o
60
o
4 kN
6 kN
8 kN
2 m
1.5 m

63

Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
If a beam is subjected to inclined loads, their components at right angles to the axis
of components (vertical components) will cause shear force and bending moment
and their components along the axis of the beam (horizontal components) will
cause axial force or thrust in the beam.
While drawing axial forces diagram, tensile forces are taken as positive and
compressive forces are taken as negative.
4.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs
SAQ 1
(a) Shear Force Diagram Ordinates
SF at A, F
A
=+27 kN
SF just left of C, F
C
=+27 kN
SF just right of C, F
C
=+21 kN
SF at D, F
D
=+21 kN
SF at E, F
E
=+12 kN
SF at B, F
B
=0 B
Bending Moment Diagram Ordinates
BM at B, M
B
=0
BM at E, M
E
= 24 kN m
BM at D, M
D
= 57 kN m
BM at C, M
C
= 78 kN m
BM at A, M
A
= 105 kN m
(b) Maximum Shear Force =10500 N
Maximum Bending Moment =13500 N m
(c) Maximum Shear Force =+8 N
Maximum Bending Moment = 26 kN m
(d) Maximum Shear Force =+4 N
Maximum Bending Moment = 8 kN m
(e) Maximum Shear Force =+14 N
Maximum Bending Moment = 39.5 kN m
SAQ 2
(a) Maximum Bending Moment =+7.6 kN m at 3.25 m from the left hand
support
(b) Maximum Bending Moment =+5077.5 kN m at 3.165 m from the left hand
support.
(c) Maximum Bending Moment =+15.70 kN m at 3.22 m from left the hand
support
(d) Maximum Bending Moment =+12750 N m at D
SAQ 3
(a) Maximum Positive Bending Moment =+37500 N m at C
Maximum Negative Bending Moment = 5000 N m at B
(b) l =1.25 m
SAQ 4


64
(a) Maximum bending moment =+7.5 kN m at E.
Points of contraflexure are at (3 5) mand(3 5) m for B.
Forces and Stresses
in Beams
(b) Maximum shear force = 35 kN.
Maximum bending moment = 96.965 kN m at E.
(c) Maximum bending moment =+204 kN m at E.
SAQ 5
Maximum bending moment =+11.675 kN m at D
3.222kN ( )
A
H
AC =Tension
CD =Compression
DE =Tension.