Radio Network Planning

Section 1 - Module 1 - Page 1
3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - J uly 2005

All rights reserved 2006, Alcatel
- RADIO NETWORK PLANNING
1.1 Introduction to Network Planning
Network Planning
Network Planning - Introduction to Network Planning
All rights reserved2006, Alcatel - RADIO NETWORK PLANNING
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Objectives
To be able to describe concepts such as:
Polarization
Frequency plans
Antenna parameters
Free space loss
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Table of Contents
Switch to notes view!
Page
1 Electromagnetic waves 7
Electromagnetic waves 8
Exercise 9
Blank Page 10
2 Polarization 11
Polarization 12
Exercise 13
Blank Page 14
3 Electromagnetic spectrum 15
Electromagnetic spectrum 16
4 Radio spectrum 17
Radio spectrum 18
5 Use of the spectrum 19
Use of the spectrum 21
Blank Page 22
6 General characteristics on the ITU-R recommended frequency plans 23
General characteristics on the ITU-R recommended frequency plans 26
7 Antenna System 27
Antenna System 36
Exercise 37
Blank Page 38
8 Field strength and related parameters 39
Field strength and related parameters 41
Blank Page 42
9 Free space loss 43
Free space loss 44
Exercise 45
Blank Page 46
10 Radio Network Design procedure 47
Radio Network Design procedure 48
Radio Network Design procedure 49
End of Module 50
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Table of Contents [cont.]
All rights reserved 2006, Alcatel - RADIO NETWORK PLANNING
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1 Electromagnetic waves
1 - 1 - 8
TEM Wave
Electromagnetic waves
f =1/T
c =f
Electromagnetic Waves
An electromagnetic wave is a simultaneous interaction between an electrostatic (E) field and a magnetic (H)
field.
Radiated energy from an antenna, once a distance from the source, forms E and H fields, which are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation and are hence referred to as Transverse
Electro-Magnetic (TEM) waves.
Frequency, Wavelength and Velocity
Wavelength is the distance in meters between any two similar points on the wave. This portion of the
wave is referred to as one complete cycle.
Wavelength is given symbol .
Frequency fis the number of complete cycles passing a fixed point in one second.
If one cycle passes a fixed point in one second this corresponds to a frequency of 1 Hertz (Hz).
In free space the velocity of an EM wave is approximately 3 x 108 ms-1. This is the speed of light
(since light is an EM wave) and is usually given symbol c.
The relationship between c (velocity), f (frequency) and (wavelength) of an EM wave is given by
the equation:
c = f
where c = velocity of propagation in ms-1 (3 x 108 ms-1)
f = Frequency in Hertz (Hz)
= Wavelength in meters (m)
1 - 1 - 9
Exercise
Exercise - Wavelenght
Calculate the wavelength of a 10 GHz signal.
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1 - 1 - 11
2 Polarization
1 - 1 - 12
E
H
EARTH
Vertical Polarization
H
E
EARTH
Horizontal Polarization
2 Polarization
Polarization
The plane of polarization is defined in terms of the orientation of the E field with respect to the earth. Vertical
polarization and horizontal polarization are common forms of plane polarization.
1 - 1 - 13
2 Polarization
Exercise
In the vertical polarization is:
field E vertical to the ground?
field Mvertical to the ground?
1 - 1 - 14
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3 Electromagnetic spectrum
1 - 1 - 16
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
10
15
10
18
Radio Systems Infra-red Ultra-violet
X-rays
Visible
Light
300 000km 300km 300m 0.3m 300pm 300m 0.3 m
c =f x
Where c =3 x 10
8
ms
3 Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum
The Figure illustrates the electromagnetic spectrum and indicates the portion occupied by radio systems.
Radio systems are identified by their frequency or wavelength of operation.
The Figure shows the relationship between frequency and wavelength
(Example: f =10 GHz =3 cm.)
1 - 1 - 17
4 Radio spectrum
1 - 1 - 18
Band Frequency Typical Use
VLF up to 30 kHz Navigation systems
LF 30 300 kHz Long-range broadcast, navigation systems
MF 300 3000 kHz Medium wave broadcast and communications
HF 3 30 MHz Long-range commercial and military communications
VHF 30 300 MHz Mobile communications
UHF 300 3000 MHz Mobile communications
SHF 3 30 GHz Point-to-point microwave links, including satellite
communications
EHF >30 GHz Point-to-point microwave links (and other applications)
4 Radio spectrum
Radio spectrum- nomenclature
The radio spectrum is sub-divided into a number of bands. The Figure lists these bands and the typical use of
each band.
Factors influencing the use of a particular frequency band for a given application include:
Propagation mechanism - choice of Surface, Sky or Space wave depending on desired range.
Antenna size - consideration of particular antenna construction for given applications.
Capacity - ability of a small carrier deviation to deliver the required bandwidth and hence bit rate.
1 - 1 - 19
4 Radio spectrum
Radio spectrum- letter designation for MWbands
56.0 - 100 - W
46.0 56.0 a, b, c, d, e V
36.00 46.0 a, b, c, d, e Q
10.90 36.00 p, s, e, c, u, t, q, r, m, n, l, a K
5.20 10.90 a, q, y, d, b, r, c, l, s, x, f, k X
1.550 5.20 e, f, t, c, q, y, g, s, a, w, h, z, d S
0.390 1.550 p, c, l, y, t, s, x, k, f, z L
0.225 0.390 - P
f (GHz) Sub-band Band
The radio spectrum is sub-divided into a number of bands. The Figure lists these bands and the typical use of
each band.
Factors influencing the use of a particular frequency band for a given application include:
Propagation mechanism - choice of Surface, Sky or Space wave depending on desired range.
Antenna size - consideration of particular antenna construction for given applications.
Capacity - ability of a small carrier deviation to deliver the required bandwidth and hence bit rate.
1 - 1 - 20
5 Use of the spectrum
1 - 1 - 21
Radio frequency channel arrangements for radio-relay systems in frequency bands below about 17 GHz
Band
(GHz)
Frequency range
(GHz)
Rec. ITU-R
F-Series
Channel spacing
(MHz)
Band
(GHz)
Frequency range
(GHz)
Rec. ITU-R
F-Series
Channel spacing
(MHz)
1.4 1.35 1.53 Rec. [Doc. 9/12] 0.25; 0.5; 1; 2; 3.5 8 8.2 8.5
7.725 8.275
7.725 8.275
8.275 8.5
386
386, Annex 1
386, Annex 2
386, Annex 3
11.662
29.65
40.74
14; 7
2 1.427 2.69
1.7 2.1; 1.9 2.3
1.7 2.3
701
382
283
0.5 (pattern)
29
14
10 10.3 10.68
10.5 10.68
10.55 10.68
746, Annex 3
747, Annex 1
747, Annex 2
20; 5; 2
7; 3.5 (patterns)
5; 2.5; 1.25 (pattern)
1.9 2.3
1.9 2.3
1.9 2.3
2.3 2.5
1098
1098, Annexes 1 and 2
1098, Annex 3
746, Annex 1
3.5; 2.5 (patterns)
14
10
1; 2; 4; 14; 28
11 10.7 11.7
10.7 11.7
10.7 11.7
10.7 11.7
387, Annex 1 and 2
387, Annex 3
387, Annex 4
387, Annex 5
40
67
60
80
2.29 2.26
2.5 2.7
Rec. [Doc. 9/13]
283
0.25; 0.5; 1; 1.75; 2; 3.5;
7; 14; 2.5 (pattern)
14
12 11.7 - 12.5
12.2 12.7
746, Annex 4, 3
746, Annex 4, 2
19.18
20 (pattern)
4 3.8 4.2
3.6 4.2
3.6 4.2
382
635
635, Annex 1
29
10 (pattern)
90; 80; 60; 40
13 12.75 13.25
12.75 13.25
12.7 13.25
497
497, Annex 1
746, Annex 4, 1
28; 7; 3.5
35
25; 12.5
5 4.4 5.0
4.4 5.0
4.4 5.0
4.54 4.9
746, Annex 2
1099
1099, Annex 1
1099, Annex 2
28
10 (pattern)
40; 60; 80
40; 20
14 14.25 14.5
14.25 14.5
746, Annex 5
746, Annex 6
28; 14; 7; 3.5
20
6L 5.925 6.425
5.85 6.425
383
383, Annex 1
29.65
90; 80; 60
15 14.4 15.35
14.5 15.35
14.5 15.35
636
636, Annex 1
636, Annex 2
28; 14; 7; 3.5
2.5 (pattern)
2.5
6U 6.425 7.11
6.425 7.11
384
384, Annex 1
40; 20
80
7 7.425 7.725
7.425 7.725
7.435 7.75
7.11 7.75
385
385, Annex 1
385, Annex 2
385, Annex 3
7
28
5
28
Use of the spectrum[cont.]
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Radio frequency channel arrangements for radio-relay systems in frequency bands
above about 17 GHz
Band
(GHz)
Frequency range
(GHz)
Rec. ITU-R
F-Seri es
Channel spacing
(MHz)
18 17.7 19.7
17.7 21.2
17.7 19.7
17.7 19.7
17.7 19.7
595
595, Annex 1
595, Annex 2
595, Annex 3
595, Annex 4
220; 110; 55: 27.5
160
220; 80; 40; 20; 10; 6
3.5
13.75; 27.5
23 21.2 23.6
21.2 23.6
21.2 23.6
21.2 23.6
21.2 23.6
21.2 23.6
22.0 23.6
637
637, Annex 1
637, Annex 2
637, Annex 3
637, Annex 4
637, Annex 5
637, Annex 1
3.5; 2.5 (patterns)
112 to 3.5
28; 3.5
28; 14; 7; 3.5
50
112 to 3.5
112 to 3.5
27 24.25 25.25
24.25 25.25
25.25 27.5
25.25 27.5
27.5 29.5
27.5 29.5
27.5 29.5
748
748, Annex 3
748
748, Annex 1
748
748, Annex 2
748, Annex 3
3.5; 2.5 (patterns)
56; 28
3.5; 2.5 (patterns)
112 to 3.5
3.5; 2.5 (patterns)
112 to 3.5
112; 56; 28
31 31.0 31.3 746, Annex 7 25; 50
38 36.0 40.5
36.0 37.0
749
749, Annex 3
3.5; 2.5 (patterns)
112 to 3.5
55 54.25 58.2
54.25 57.2
57.2 58.2
1100
1100, Annex 1
1100, Annex 2
3.5; 2.5 (patterns)
140; 56; 28; 14
100
Use of the spectrum
1 - 1 - 23
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6 General characteristics on the ITU-R recommended
frequency plans
1 - 1 - 25
6 General characteristics on the ITU-R recommended frequency plans
General characteristics on the ITU-R recommended frequency plans [cont.]
Separate sub-bands for Tx and Rx channels, with a central guard
band.
Constant channel spacing between co-polarized channels.
Two types of channel arrangements: Interleaved
Co-Channel
Criteria followed by ITU- R:
Below 12 GHz: Compatibility of channel arrangements in the transition
from Analog to Digital systems.
Above 12 GHz: Channel arrangements optimized for Digital systems.
1 - 1 - 26
INTERLEAVED CHANNEL ARRANGEMENT
...
z
x
1
Pol.
H(V)
V(H)
2
3
4
y
1
2
3
4 N
...
z
F
GO CHANNELS RETURN CHANNELS
N-1 N-1
x/2 x/2
N
General characteristics on the ITU-R recommended frequency plans [cont.]
x =Co-polar channel spacing
y =Central guard band
z =Edge guard band
1 - 1 - 27
CO-CHANNEL ARRANGEMENT
...
1
Pol.
H(V)
V(H)
2
3
4
y
1
2
3
4 N
...
z
F
GO CHANNELS RETURN CHANNELS
z x
N
General characteristics on the ITU-R recommended frequency plans
x =Co-polar channel spacing
y =Central guard band
z =Edge guard band
1 - 1 - 28
7 Antenna System
1 - 1 - 29
RX
Antenna Gain
Ideal
Isotropic
Radiator
Theoretical
Half-Wave
Dipole
Pratical
Antenna
Main Lobe
2.15 dBi
Antenna Gain dBi
Boresight
Practical
Antenna
Side Lobes
0 dBi
7 Antenna System
Antenna System [cont.]
Isotropic radiator
An isotropic radiator radiates the energy evenly in all directions. Its radiation diagram is thus circular in both
vertical and horizontal planes. Though a truly isotropic source is unrealizable it is easy to describe mathematically
and is a useful reference.
Antenna gain
Antenna gain is the result of the focusing action of a practical antenna, radiating more energy in one direction and
less in others. The axis along which maximum energy or field strength is radiated is termed the boresight and
may be readily identified from a polar diagram of field strength in a given plane (see the next figure).
The antenna gain is the ratio of the field strength along the boresight compared to that which be produced by an
isotropic radiator radiating the same total power.
Gain =10 log (F antenna /F iso) dBi
Note: dBi means the use of the isotropic antenna as reference
The dipole is only loosely directional perpendicular to the plane containing its axis and, due to symmetry, not
directional in the other plane (this property is called omni-directional).
The dipole is also easy to analyze mathematically. Its gain compared to an isotropic source is 2.15 dBi.
EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power)
EIRP of an antenna is:
Input power to the transmission line feed feeder losses +antenna gain in dBi
1 - 1 - 30
Beamwidth
Antenna lobe
(Main)
Max. gain
-3 dB
Boresight
(Max. gain)
Max. gain
-3 dB
Antenna
Beamwidth
to half
Power point 3dB
7 Antenna System
Antenna beamwidth
Antenna beamwidth is the angular distance between the half power (-3 dB points) on the polar diagram (see the
next Figure).
Though this is the angle normally used to asses what an antenna will see, radiation and reception does occur
outside of the beamwidth in the mean beam and in the sidelobes, when present as this a potential source of
interference.
Antenna bandwidth
Most antennas are designed at some center frequency. As the operating frequency is moved away from this the
dimensions of the antenna in terms of wavelength will vary and will be consequential changes in radiation pattern
(gain and beamwidth), antenna impedance and hence VSWR in the antenna feed, etc. Any of this parameters
could be a practical limit on the range of frequencies used for a given antenna.
Front to Back ratio
The Front to Back ratio is a measure of how well the antenna discriminates from a signal entering along the
boresight compared to the reverse direction and is a factor in reducing interference
Cross-Polar Discrimination
Antennas (or their feed arrangements) are designed to operate in one plane of polarization. This is useful for
frequency re-use as it is possible to have two links operating at the same frequency, but with different
polarization. To prevent mutual interference between the two systems their antennas should not receive the
incorrect polarization.
Cross-polar discrimination is the measure of how successful this is and the ratio of the wanted to unwanted
signals received in dB.
1 - 1 - 31
3
1
2
3
2
1
1
2
3
1
2
3
7 Antenna System
Examples of Radiation Patterns
Radiation Patterns determine an antennas ability to perform under conditions of radio congestion and also limit
the route capacity. Radiation patterns are dependent on antenna series and size. An RPE comparison of various
antenna series is illustrated below.
1 - 1 - 32
HH
VV
VH
HV
7 Antenna System
Radiation patterns of a
dual pol. Antenna
Measured versus
Guaranted Pattern
Parallel and cross-polar response are represented for both horizontal an vertical polarizations. The curves are
identified as follows:
HH - Response of a horizontally polarized port to a horizontally polarized signal
HV - Response of a horizontally polarized port to a vertically polarized signal
VV - Response of a vertically polarized port to a vertically polarized signal
VH - Response of a vertically polarized port to a horizontally polarized signal
1 - 1 - 33
A
Antenna
X
Parabolic antenna
B
X
Z
Wavefront
The Parabolic antenna surface focuses the
arriving plane on the antenna.
ie RAX =RBX
7 Antenna System
Parabolic antenna
This antenna consists of a large reflecting surface (geometry is parabolic), this creates a focal point from which
energy can be fed to illuminate the dish: when receiving signals the parabolic dish concentrates the energy onto
the focal point.
The next figure illustrates the importance of the antenna geometry, energy illuminating the reflector from the focal
point will create a parallel wavefront in front of the dish.
The parabolic antenna is highly directional with a gain typically of 40-50 dBi. The gain is related to the dimensions
of the reflector relative to the signal wavelength.
The antenna concentrates most radiation into the main lobe, which typically has a 3 dB beamwidthof a few
degrees.
The antenna does produce a number of undesired side lobes which are in the order of 25 dB down on the main
lobe.
1 - 1 - 34
Antenna gain
The gain of a parabolic antenna is:
where: D = antenna diameter (m)
= signal wavelength (m)
= antenna efficiency (usually is from 0.55 to 0.65)
The efficiency is related to the irregularities in the antenna and illumination.
Another approximation of gain is:
G (dBi) =20 log F +20 log D +18.2 +0.5 (depending on )
where: F =signal frequency (GHz)
D =antenna diameter (m)
2
D
G
7 Antenna System
The parabolic antenna gain can be mathematically calculated starting from a flat wavefront of area A, where all
the transmitted power is uniformly distributed as:
G =A (4/
2
)
Because in the reality the power distribution cant be uniform, we can take account of this by introducing the
efficient area
Aeff = A
Then the gain can be written G = A (4/
2
) = ( D
2
/4) (4/
2
) = ( D/)
2
(as in the main slide)
It is important to use this relationship reversely to derive the efficient area Aeff of a generic antenna (parabolic or
any other shape) as:
Aeff =G (
2
/4)
Because by definition the gain of an isotropic radiator is 1 , it is possible now to derive its efficient area as:
Aei =
2
/4
(this will be necessary for the definition of free space attenuation)
1 - 1 - 35
Antenna beamwidth
The 3 dB beamwidth of a parabolic antenna is:
where: =wavelength (m)
D =antenna diameter (m)
degrees) (
D
70
dB) (3 Beamwidth =
7 Antenna System
May be interesting to consider that in the hypothesis that radiation is constant value inside a certain angle a and
zero outside, by definition of gain we can write:
G =4/
2
Where 4 is the isotropic (full sphere) radiation angle and
2
is the solid angle representing the radiation of the
antenna.
With these assumptions we can derive the radiation lobe angular size (in radiants) as:
=SQRT [4/G] =SQRT [4
2
/ (
2
D
2
)] =/ D x SQRT (4 / ) 50 / D
But the formula in the main slide is empirically corrected and takes into account of the typical shape of the main
radiation lobe.
1 - 1 - 36
(a) Parabolic Dish (b) Offset Horn
Typical Microwave Antennas
7 Antenna System
Feeder
The parabolic antenna can be fed in different ways, as shown in the Figure.
Center fed antennas can cause blocking of the aperture and reduced efficiency. This may be overcome by
offsetting the feed, but the feed point needs rigid support and such antennas, although more efficient, are bulkier.
A single feed point may be orientated to produce the desired polarization.
Twin feeds may be used to produce a dual polarization from a single dish.
Note: With circular waveguide it is possible to have V and H polarization in same feeder.
With elliptical waveguide it is possible only one polarization (Elliptical cross section is really
rectangular).
1 - 1 - 37
a) f/D ratio
Focal Point
D
Overspill Radiation
f
b) Antenna Shrouds
Antenna
Shroud
c) Tapered Illumination
Parabolic
Reflector
Illumination Intensity
Controlling Front-to-back Ratio
7 Antenna System
Antenna System
Front to Back ratio
The parabolic antenna has a relatively high front to back ratio (typically more than 50 dB). However some energy
from the focal point feed overspills the reflector (as shown in Figure a). With diffraction effects the overspill can
produce significant radiation at the rear side of the antenna.
This is especially true of antennas with a small aperture diameter (D) compared to focal length (f), i.e. a large f/D
ratio.
Decreasing f/D ratio by making the dish deeper reduces spillover, but degrades the radiation pattern, as the
illumination is more uneven. The antenna is also larger and heavier.
If front-to-back ratio is critical, another option is to use a conducting shroud (as shown in Figure b) attached to the
front of the antenna to eliminate the overspill, but this again may have an adverse effect on the gain and radiation
pattern.
Very often shrouds can be confused with antenna radomes.
A radome offers physical protection to the antenna from the effects of the environment and is made from material
transparent to microwaves.
An alternative techniques is to concentrate the illumination of energy at the center of the reflector and decrease
the illumination at the periphery. This tapered illumination is shown in Figure c. Amplitude tapering reduces the
efficiency and increase the beamwidth, as the full aperture is not being fully used.
1 - 1 - 38
7 Antenna System
Exercise
Exercise 1 - Front to back ratio
What is the front to back ratio in a parabolic antenna?
Exercise 2 - Antenna gain
Calculate the gain of a 1 m parabolic antenna at 6 GHz.
Exercise 3 - Antenna gain
Calculate the gain of a 1 m parabolic antenna at 24 GHz.
Exercise 4 - Antenna beamwidth
Calculate the 3 dB beamwidth of a 2 m parabolic antenna at 10 GHz.
1 - 1 - 39
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1 - 1 - 40
8 Field strength and related parameters
A model which can be used to approximate the propagation loss between two points is the Free Space model.
As its name implies here should be no significant obstructions or surfaces adjacent to the path. It also assumes
isotropic characteristics at the transmitter and receiver and that propagation is through a vacuum.
Isotropic Radiation
If a transmit power, Pt (Watts), is fed into an isotropic source, then the power will radiate evenly in all directions
causing an even Power Flux, Fiso, measured in Wm-2.
As the power is evenly distributed over the surface of an expanding sphere the power flux is given by:
where Pt = Power transmitted in Watts
d = range of measurement in metres
as shown in next Figure power Flux thus falls according to the square of distance - the inverse square law.
1 - 1 - 41
Isotropic
Radiator
Power
Flux
per square
meter
at distance d
Pt
1m
1m
d
Isotropic Radiator
2
iso
d 4
Pt
F =
Field strength and related parameters [cont.]
( )
2
2
4
= Wm
d
Pt
F
iso

ISOTROPIC RECEIVER
The ability of a receiving antenna to receive power from an incident power flux is determined by its apparent or
effective aperture, (Ae) in m2. This is a function of the antennas construction and for an isotropic antenna is
given by:
where =wavelength in meters
Power Received
Power received may be expressed by:
Free-space Propagation Loss
Free-space Propagation loss may be expressed as:
(Watts)
4
x
d 4
Pt
Pr
2
2
=
2 2
fsl
c
f d 4
d 4
Pr
Pt
A
= =
1 - 1 - 42
4
x
d 4
P
A x
d 4
P
P
2
2
t
e
2
t
r
= =
Isotropic
Radiator
Effective
Aperture
in m
2
Pt
Pr
d
Isotropic Receiver
Ae
Field strength and related parameters
by remembering that
effective area of the isotropic
radiator is
Aei =
2
/ 4
1 - 1 - 43
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1 - 1 - 44
9 Free space loss
1 - 1 - 45
The free space loss, expressed in dB, is a function of distance and frequency.
The free space loss equation may then be expressed as:
i.e. A
fsl
(dB) =92.4 +20 log F (GHz) + 20 log d (km)
where F =frequency in GHz
d =distance in km
( )
2
8
9 3
fsl
10 x 3
10 x (GHz) F x 10 x (km) d 4
log 10 dB A
=
9 Free space loss
Free space loss
1 - 1 - 46
9 Free space loss
Exercise
Exercise - Free-space loss attenuation
Calculate the free-space loss attenuation of a
50 km link operating at 8 GHz.
1 - 1 - 47
Blank Page
1 - 1 - 48
10 Radio Network Design procedure
1 - 1 - 49
Radio Network Design procedure
Step 1: By starting with the simplest (low cost) configuration (1+0),
calculate the P
Rx nom
level by using the Power link budget
formula (Section 1, Module 2, Chapter 1)
Step 2: Calculate the clearance of the hop (Section 1, Module 2,
Chapter 2 & 3)
Step 3: Calculate the P
Rx
threshold (Section 1, Module 2, Chapter 4)
Step 4: Calculate the FM=P
Rx nom
P
Rx threshold
Step 5: By using the FM of Step 4 calculate the outage probability
due to the rain (Section 1, Module 2, Chapter 5)
Step 6: Calculate the outage probability due to the fading (Section 1,
Module 2, Chapter 6)
Step 7: Calculate the objectives according to the ITU-T and ITU-R
reccomandations (Section 1, Module 2, Chapter 7)
1 - 1 - 50
Radio Network Design procedure
Step 8: If the outages of the link (calculated in Chapter 5 & 6) meet
the objective, go to Step 10
Step 9: Change the P
Rx nom
level or use the Fading
countermeasures (Section 1, Module 2, Chapter 8) in order
to meet the objective
Step 10: Consider all the possible interferences (Section 1, Module
2, Chapter 9, 10 & 11) and calculate the new FM
Step 11: If, with the new FM, the objectives are always met, the radio
planning procedure is over. Otherwise go back to Step 9.
1 - 1 - 51
End of Module
3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - July 2005
1.2 Network Planning Method
Network Planning
Network Planning - Network Planning Method
1 - 2 - 2
Blank Page
1 - 2 - 3
Objectives
Power budget: to be able to calculate the power budget
of a radio hop.
Effects of atmosphere: to be able to understand the
effects of the atmosphere on a radio hop, to calculate
the attenuation introduced by the atmosphere gases.
Diffraction: to be able to calculate the Fresnel zone radius and to
satisfy the clearance rules.
Equipment parameters related to propagation: to be able to
understand the modulation concepts and to calculate the Rx power
threshold.
Propagation during rain: to be able to calculate the rain
unavailability.
Propagation model: to be able to calculate the outage due to a flat
fading and to a selective fading.
1 - 2 - 4
Objectives
Quality objectives of Digital Radio Links: to be able to
calculate the objectives set by the Recommendations.
Fading countermeasures: to be able to calculate the
improvement due to the diversity configurations.
Reflections from ground: to be able to understand the
problems due to the reflections from ground.
Frequency re-use: to be able to understand the
frequency re-use configuration.
Interferences: to be able to calculate the degradation introduced by
the interference signals.
1 - 2 - 5
Table of Contents
Page
1 Power budget 7
L.O.S. (Line Of Sight) Radio Links 8
Main Propagation Phenomema 9
Radio Link Equation 11
Free Space Loss 12
Antenna Gain 13
Losses 15
Exercise 16
Exercise 17
Blank Page 18
2 Effects of atmosphere 19
Fixed terrestrial microwave link propagation 20
Refraction through the atmosphere 24
Anomalous propagation 29
Exercise 30
K-factor 32
Variability of the K-factor 35
Attenuation by atmosphere gases 37
Exercise 38
3 Diffraction 39
Diffraction 41
Exercise 42
Fresnel zones 43
First Fresnel zone radius 45
Exercise 46
Obstruction loss 47
Clearance rules 48
4 Equipment parameters related to propagation 49
PRx Threshold General Formula 54
Exercise 55
Exercise 56
Signature measurement 59
Blank Page 60
5 Propagation during rain 61
Propagation during rain 63
Attenuation by rain 69
Rain Unavailability Prediction 70
6 Propagation model 71
Fade margin 73
Fading definitions 74
Exercise 75
Flat fading outage 78
Exercise 79
Selective fading outage 84
Exercise 85
Single channel global outage 86
7 Quality objectives of Digital Radio Links 87
Introduction 88
ITU-T recommendations 89
Error Performance Events 90
Impact of propagation on performance objectives 91
ITU-T G.821 100
Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828 110
Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828 - ITU-R F.1092 112
1 - 2 - 6
Page
Exercise 122
8 Fading countermeasures 123
Adopted techniques 124
Diversity Improvement 131
Frequency diversity 132
Exercise 133
Space diversity 134
Exercise 135
Space and frequency diversity 137
Angle diversity 138
9 Reflections from ground 139
Reflections from ground 140
Geometrical model 141
Rx signal with reflection 142
Rx signal level 143
Exercise 144
Space diversity in reflection paths 145
Exercise 146
10 Frequency re-use 147
Introduction 149
Terminology 150
Exercise 151
Concepts 152
Interferences 153
Interference types 154
Frequency reuse system block diagram 155
Same frequency re-used channel (cross-polar) 156
Exercise 157
Adjacent frequency re-used channel (co-polar) 158
Prediction of outage due to multipath propagation 161
Prediction of outage due to rain effects 164
11 Interferences 165
Introduction 166
Modem performances 167
Local sources 169
Signals belonging to the same system at a common location 171
Signals belonging to the same system from other locations 172
Signals belonging to the same system from other locations through an
overreach condition 173
Exercise 174
Blank Page 175
End of Module 176
1 - 2 - 7
1 Power budget
1 - 2 - 8
1 Power budget
L.O.S. (Line Of Sight) Radio Links
The electromagnetic wave propagation of L.O.S. RADIO systems is in the lower part of
atmosphere, near the ground.
The presence of the atmosphere and of the ground can affect the RF propagation.
PROPAGATION depends on:
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
RF FREQUENCY BAND
RADIO HOP LENGTH
GROUND CHARACTERISTICS
Propagation
Site A Site B
1 - 2 - 9
1 Power budget
Main Propagation Phenomema
Atmosphere:
Atmospheric Absorption
Refraction through the atmosphere: Ray Curvature
Refraction through the atmosphere: Multipath Propagation.
Rain:
Raindrop Absorption
Raindrop Scattering
RF Signal Depolarization.
Ground:
Diffraction through Obstacles
Reflections.
1 - 2 - 10
1 Power budget
Radio Link Equation [cont.]
G
Tx
G
Rx
A
fsl
A
a
A
BRTx
A
fTx
P
Tx
A
BRRx
A
fRx
P
Rx
1 - 2 - 11
1 Power budget
Radio Link Equation
P
Rx
= P
Tx
+ G
Tx
+ G
Rx
- A
fsl
-A
a
- A
f,Rx
- A
f,Tx
- A
BR
- A - M
P
Rx
: received power [dBm]
P
Tx
: transmitted power [dBm]
A
fsl
: propagation free-space loss [dB]
A
a
: atmospheric absorption loss [dB]
G
Tx
: transmit antenna gain [dB]
G
Rx
: receive antenna gain [dB]
A
f,Tx
: loss in the transmit feeder [dB]
A
f,Rx
: loss in the receive feeder [dB]
A
BR
: loss in the RF branching (filters) system [dB]
A : other attenuations (mirrors, back-to-back antennas, attenuators) [dB]
M : Margin (tolerance) [dB]
1 - 2 - 12
1 Power budget
Free Space Loss
A
fsl
is the propagation free-space loss and depends on the operating frequency F [GHz] and the hop
length "L" [km]:
A
fsl
(dB) = 92.4 + 20 log (F) + 20 log (L) FSL increase 6 dB if:
the hop length is doubled
or
the frequency is doubled.
Att.
[dB]
4
110
120
130
140
150
Distance [km]
8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
2 GHz
4 GHz
6 GHz
7 GHz
10 GHz
15 GHz
1 - 2 - 13
1 Power budget
Antenna Gain
Antenna gain depends on its diameter D [m] and on the operating frequency "F [GHz]:
In dB units: (depending on )
Antenna gain is 6 dB higher if:
- antenna diameter is doubled,
for a given frequency
- frequency is doubled, for a given
diameter.
2
D
G
5 . 0 2 . 18 ) log( 20 ) log( 20 + + = F D G
Antenna
Gain
[dB]
0
30
Frequency [GHz]
5 10 15 20
34
38
42
46
50
0.5m
1m
2m
3m
4m
65 . 0 55 . 0 = = efficiency Antenna
1 - 2 - 14
Feeder loss (A
f
)
Feeder systems loss depends on its specific attenuation (dB/100m) and its length.
Branching loss (A
BR
)
A
BR
is the branching system loss: it may be evaluated by the characteristics of the radio
equipment.
In this term it is necessary to insert the total branching loss depending on the system
configuration (i.e. total number of RF circulators and point of measurements of Tx and Rx power).
Other losses (A)
We may consider every kind of other losses like passive repeater systems, carried out by passive
repeaters or back-to-back antennas, attenuators, radomes, obstructions, etc.
Margin (M)
At the end, a value of tolerance may be added (normally 1 dB).
1 Power budget
Losses [cont.]
1 - 2 - 15
1 Power budget
Losses
Waveguide Attenuation
EW = Elliptical Waveguide
WC = Waveguide Circular
WR = Waveguide Rectangular
1 - 2 - 16
In practice a terrestrial fixed link is not propagating through a vacuum, but rather the various
gases that make up the Earths atmosphere.
At frequencies above 10 GHz the attenuation experienced by a radio wave is due to these
gases.
Water vapour (H
2
O) and oxygen (O
2
) molecules in particular, interact with electromagnetic
wave energy of specific frequencies to produce oscillation or molecular resonance within
their structure.
This excitation of the molecules draws power from the electromagnetic wave causing strong
attenuation, as shown in next Figure.
Some other gases exhibit the same property, but only have a low density in the
atmosphere.
The loss in the Figure is expressed as a specific loss in dB/km and is measured under
clear sky conditions (i.e. no rain or fog).
The overall attenuation on a link at a given frequency may be simply calculated from:
Specific Attenuation x Path Length (dB)
2 Effects of atmosphere
Attenuation by atmosphere gases (ITU-R P.676)
1 - 2 - 17
Attenuation by atmosphere gases (ITU-R P.676)
1 - 2 - 18
Exercise
Exercise 1 - Atmosphere gas attenuation
Calculate the attenuation due to the atmosphere
gases in a 20 km link at 20 GHz.
1 - 2 - 19
1 Power budget
Exercise
Exercise 2 - Power budget
Calculate the power budget of the following link
operating at 6 GHz (Margin = 1 dB).
2 m
36 km
A
a
= negligible
A
BRTx
= 0.5 dB
(EW64)
50 m
P
Tx
= +30 dBm
2 m
(EW64)
50 m
A
BRRx
= 0.5 dB
P
Rx
= ?
1 - 2 - 20
1 Power budget
Exercise
Exercise 3 - Antenna gain calculation
Calculate the gains of the antennas to be used in
the following link:
PTx : +30 dBm
PRx : -36 dBm
Frequency : 6 GHz
Distance : 48 km
Losses of branching filters and
feeder in station 1 : 1.5 dB
Losses of branching filters and
feeder in station 2 : 2.5 dB
1 - 2 - 21
Blank Page
1 - 2 - 22
1 - 2 - 23
Fixed terrestrial microwave link propagation
A fixed terrestrial microwave link propagate through the lower
portion of the earths atmosphere, referred to as the
troposphere.
The troposphere contains all the weather and parameters such
as temperature, water vapour and atmospheric pressure change
between different locations and with time.
The problem is that at microwave frequencies the path an
electromagnetic ray path takes depends greatly on the value of
these parameters so as they vary so will the radio links path
profile.
A need obviously exists to be able to quantify the make up to the
atmosphere and to be able to predict its effect on the ray path.
1 - 2 - 24
Refraction through the atmosphere [cont.]
Under normal conditions (the so-called standard atmosphere)
temperature, water vapour and atmosphere pressure will fall with
height.
The fall in these values also represents a fall in the refractive
index (n) seen by the electromagnetic wave and Snells law
dictates that the ray will be bent away from the normal and back
towards the earths surface, a process referred to as refraction.
Although refractive index normally falls continuously with height
we could consider a layered structure shown in the next Figure.
For a standard atmosphere the resulting curvature is less than
the earths.
1 - 2 - 25
Snells Law
where: c = velocity of light (vacuum)
v = velocity of light (medium)
The index of refraction (n) is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light through
some medium.
n ranges from 1.0 to 1.00045 (typ. 1.0003)
Snells Law states that a ray passing from a medium of higher refractive index into (n
1
) a medium of
lesser refractive index (n
2
) is bent away from the normal.
1 1 2 2
2 1
cos n cos n
n n
=
>
v
c
n =

1
v =
n
1
1
n
2
2
1 - 2 - 26
Atmosphere layered structure
Earth
n
1
n
2
n
3
n
4
n
5
E
t
c
.
1 - 2 - 27
Refraction through the atmosphere
As n differs only slightly from unity, it is usually convenient to work with the following quantity:
N is termed "refractivity" (Refer to Rac. ITU-R P.453-6 for the values of N in the world).
(A refractivity of 350 N-units corresponds to a value 1.000350 of the index of refraction n).
where: P = atmospheric pressure (mb)
T = temperature (K)
e = partial pressure of water vapor (mb)
In general the axis of a microwave beam lies within a hundred meters from ground.
It is known that at these elevations and in a well-mixed atmosphere the refractivity decreases uniformly with
the height h and therefore its gradient
is constant with h.
This does not mean that G remains constant in time.
On the contrary it greatly varies with metereological conditions.
The median value of G (temperate climate) is -40 N-units/Km
( )
6
10 1 = n N
term wet term dry
T
e
10 3.73
T
P
77.6 N
2
5
+ =
=
dh
dN
G =
1 - 2 - 28
Anomalous propagation [cont.]
Standard Conditions
Standard Conditions
The standard atmosphere has a linear fall of around 40 N units per kilometer of height. This may be expressed as
a dN/dh of -40 units/km.
The daily and seasonal changes in the meteorological conditions produce changes in the refractivity of the
atmosphere. A well designed microwave link will allow the link to operate for all but the most extreme of these
changes.
Broadly there are three abnormal conditions that will give tise to anomalous propagation.
1 - 2 - 29
Sub-refraction
(a) N profile
h
N
Standard
N
negative
dh
positive
dh
dh
= 0
negative
positive
0
(b) Off boresight path profile and reduced clearance
N
N
Standard
Sub-refractive Conditions
When the refractivity decreases more slowly than normal, or even increases with height, then the atmosphere is
said to be sub-refractive. Under these conditions dN/dh is greater than -40 units/km (and K is less than 4/3). The
N profile is shown in next Figure.
Note that the ray path for mild sub-refractive conditions has different launch and arrival angles compared to
standard refraction and this will cause a reduction in received signal level due to the reduced gain of the antennas
off bore sight. Sub refraction tends to reduce path clearance as the reduced K makes the Earth bulge effectively
larger, increasing the diffraction loss. If the sub-refraction is extreme then the terrain between the two sites will
block the ray path causing obstruction fading.
All of these effects will cause a loss in Received Signal Level (RSL) across the whole of the systems bandwidth,
i.e. flat fading.
1 - 2 - 30
(a) N profile
Super-refraction
Standard
Super -Standard
(b) path profile
Super-refractive Conditions
When the refractivity increases more rapidly than normal (dN/dh less than -40 units/km) the atmosphere is said to
be super-refractive (and K will be greater than 4/3).
The N profile is shown in next Figure.
Note again that the ray moves off bore sight as the refractivity changes and that the ray path becomes closer to
being parallel to the earths surface. The first effect will give rise to a loss of signal strength at the receiver, whilst
the second could enable propagation over long distances which could give rise to interference problems.
1 - 2 - 31
Exercise
Why does not the electromagnetic wave travel in a
straight line?
due to the gravity of the earth
due to the refractive gradient of the atmosphere
due to the magnetic field of the earth
What does it mean standard atmosphere?
1 - 2 - 32
K-factor [cont.]
EQUIVALENT EARTH RADIUS AND FLAT EARTH
In ray tracing problems it is often convenient to use a geometrical transformation to produce diagrams
where either straight rays propagate above an equivalent earth of effective radius KR
o
or alternatively,
rays of effective radius KR
o
propagate above a flat earth.
In either case the value of K (called effective earth radius factor) is such that the ray elevation E(x)
above the terrain has the same functional relationship to the distance x as in the original diagram.
where G is expressed in N - units/km
dh
dN
G where G 10
dh
dn
1
6
= = =

1
R
1
R
1
o eq
=
G 10
R
1
1
R
1
KR
1
6
o o o
+ = =
R
o
G 157
157
K 1 G 10
R
1
KR
6
o
o
+
= =
= = =

6
o
o o eq
10 157
R
1
; km 6370 R KR R
1 - 2 - 33
K-factor
FLAT EARTH
B (x)
E (x)
x' d-x
T
h
1
T'
R
h
2
R'
RAY
KR
0
EQUIVALENT
EARTH
E (x)
x d-x
T
h
T'
R
h
R'
RAY
H (x)
B (x)
KR
E (x)
x d-x
T
h
1
T'
R
h
2
R'
RAY
H (x)
B
E
(x)
R
0
B
R
(x)
REAL CASE

1 - 2 - 34
Variability of the K-factor [cont.]
The Vertical Refractivity Gradient G and the K-factor are time varying parameters,
depending on daily and seasonal cycles and on meteorological conditions. Their range of
variation is more or less wide, depending on the climatic region.
In cold and temperate regions the range is rather narrow, while in tropical regions it is very
wide. Experimental observations show for example that the probability of K< 0.6 in
temperate climates is generally well below 1%. In tropical climates the same probability may
be in the range 5% - 10%.
This means that, in tropical regions, there is the highest probability of observing
propagation anomalies due to extreme K-factor values.
In a well planned link, tower-heights are designed in such a way that visibility between
terminals is still assured for the lowest ray to be expected on the path.
In practice such a minimum is taken as that value, say K (0.01%), which is not exceed for
0.01% of the time.
( ) ( ) 0.01% G 157
157
K
e
min
+
=
1 - 2 - 35
Variability of the K-factor [cont.]
Figure shows K(0.01%) as a function of path length d for the three distributions of G given:
a temperate climate
b northern climate
c tropical climate
Considerable differences may be observed between the curves. As expected, however, all
increase as the hop get longer.
It is important to determine the minimum k-factor, because in this case the radio ray is
closer to the ground (maximum obstruction probability).
1 - 2 - 36
Variability of the K-factor
0.2
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
10 20 40 60 80 100 200
a
b
c
PATH LENGTH, Km
K

N
O
T

E
X
C
E
E
D
E
D

F
O
R

0
.
0
1
%

O
F

T
I
M
E
1 - 2 - 37
Anomalous propagation
Causes of anomalous propagation (ducting)
The sensitivity of the refractivity of the earths atmosphere is such that changes of a few
degrees in temperature and a few millibars in water vapour pressure, which can exist
between adjacent masses in certain meteorological conditions, can lead to the refractivity
changing by 10s of units over a height of a several 10s of metres. The resulting ducts, when
they form, can trap radio energy giving rise to both holes in coverage and extended
ranges.
Ducts may be caused by:
Evaporation
A shallow surface based duct will normally exist over a sea or other large body of water. It is
formed due to the rapid decrease of water vapour pressure in the first few metres above the
waters surface and its thickness depends on the geographic region varying from 5m over
the North Sea to 20m in the Gulf.
1 - 2 - 38
Nocturnal Radiation
The Earth tends to loose its daytime heat quickly at night and under calm windless
conditions can cause a temperature inversion. If there is a lot of water vapour present fog
can occur, causing an increase in water vapour pressure with height and cause
subrefraction. However if there is little water vapour, then the temperature inversion will
cause super-refraction and even ducting. This form of duct disappears shortly after sunrise
as the sunsheat breaks down the inversion layer.
Subsidence Inversion
Under high pressure conditions large, dense and cool air masses are heated by
compression as they descend, and so form a strong temperature inversion with respect to
the cooler air nearer the surface, creating an elevated duct.
Advection
In coastal regions a relatively warm air flow across a cooler sea will cause a temperature
inversion and form a surface based duct.
Weather Fronts
Cool dense air may force less dense warmer air above it, causing a temperature inversion
and a raised duct.
1 - 2 - 39
Ducts
For represent ducts we must introduce the parameter M = N + 157x h
(With this parameter in a M versus heigth diagram, G= dN/dh = -157 is represented by a vertical line)
h
M
G < -157
G ~ standard
a) Ground based duct
h
M
G < -157
G ~ standard
a) Elevated duct
G ~ standard
1 - 2 - 40
3 Diffraction
1 - 2 - 41
3 Diffraction
Diffraction [cont.]
Diffraction is the bending of the electromagnetic waves
around an obstacle depending on the wavelength and
the obstacle itself according to Huygens' theory.
Every point belonging to a wave front has the property
of generating secondary waves.
Wave front is the locus of points with the same phase.
Line-of-sight conditions is not necessary because
reception is possible through high order waves.
The relevance of diffraction is that obstacles near
the microwave beam can affect propagation
introducing additional losses.
A B
a
1
t
0
t
0
+ dt
a
2
a
3
a
4
a
5
b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
b
5
1 - 2 - 42
3 Diffraction
Diffraction
Tx Rx
Activated
fictitious
sources
Non-activated
fictitious
sources
1 - 2 - 43
3 Diffraction
Fresnel zones
For each point in the plane the phase shifts between P and all the other sources depend ONLY on the
path difference: the locus of points having a path difference between the two antennas = n/2 and phase
shift of n is an ellipsoid with radius F
1
.
2.... 1, n where
2
n TxRx PRx TxP = + = +

Tx Rx
D
a) Side View
b) Cross Section
1st Fresnel (D + /2)
2nd Fresnel (D + )
3rd Fresnel (D + 3/2)
1st Fresnel (D + /2)
2nd Fresnel (D + )
3rd Fresnel (D + 3/2)
P
+
-
+
1 - 2 - 44
3 Diffraction
First Fresnel zone radius [cont.]
The first Fresnel Ellipsoid Radius at a distance D1 (km) from one hop terminal is:
F = Frequency (GHz) D = Hop length (km)
The equation shows that F1 depends both on the operating frequency (F) and the distance
from terminals.
F1 is maximum for D1 = D/2.
( )
( )
( ) m
D F
D D D
F
1 1 300
1

=
1 - 2 - 45
First Fresnel Ellipsoid Radius at the middle of the path (D1=0.5D).
Fresnel
Radius [m]
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
D=Hop Length [km]
12 GHz
7 GHz
4 GHz
2 GHz
3 Diffraction
First Fresnel zone radius
1 - 2 - 46
3 Diffraction
Exercise
Exercise 1 - First Fresnel ellipsoid radius
Calculate the radius of the first Fresnel ellipsoid at
10 km distance from one hop terminal
(Frequency: 7 GHz; Hop length: 40 km).
1 - 2 - 47
3 Diffraction
Exercise
Exercise 2 - Antenna heigths
Calculate the heights of the antennas in a 60 km
link at 7 GHz.
The path is flat with a 20 m knife-edge obstacle in
the middle (clearance: 100%).
For the purpose of this exercise we can take, to simplify, the earth flat (it will be like to take G=-157).
Otherwise we can put into account the bulge B of the earth at a certain distance X from one terminal of a link
with length L, that is:
1
B(X) =
2KRo
X (L X)
1 - 2 - 48
3 Diffraction
Obstruction loss
Diffraction
loss relative
to free space
(dB)
Normalized clearance h/F1
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
40
30
20
10
0
-10
B
Ad
D
Diffraction loss for obstructed line-of-sight microwave radio paths
B : theoretical knife-edge loss curve
D : theoretical smooth spherical Earth loss curve at 6.5 GHz and k=4/3
A
d
: empirical diffraction loss for intermediate terrain
h : amount by which the radio path clears the Earths surface (m)
F
1
: radius of the first Fresnel zone (m)
1 - 2 - 49
3 Diffraction
Clearance rules
The practical problem in microwave radio path engineering consists in
choosing antenna towers in such a way that they are not higher than
necessary to meet the following objectives:
1. negligibly small probability than visibility is lost under anomalous
propagation conditions
2. acceptable diffraction losses under normal propagation
conditions.
There are several criteria currently in use.
For example, a popular rule recommends that:
1. clearance be unity or greater at K = 4/3
2. clearance be 0.6 or greater at the minimum K related to the
climatic region and the path length considered
1 - 2 - 50
4 Equipment parameters related to propagation
1 - 2 - 51
PRx Threshold General Formula [cont.]
F =
Low Noise Error
Detector
Demodulator
P
RX(Th)
NF
R
X
S
N
10
-6
=
P
RX (Th)
N
F
10
-3
P
RX(Th)
NF
S
N
10
-6
F = 1
F > 1
Theoretical
Pratical
N
S
input
N
S
output
Equipment parameters related to propagation
1 - 2 - 52
S
N
+ 10 log F + 10 log N
10
-6
P
Rx (Th)
=
K = Boltzman constant
T =Temperature
B = Bandwidth
N = KTB
10 log N =10 log KT + 10 log B
if T = +25C
10 log KT= - 114 dB
10 log N =10 log B - 114 dB
DEPENDS ON THE
S
N
+ 10 log F + 10 log B - 114 dB
10
-6
P
Rx (Th)
=
RF
Amplifier
Modulation
Type
Modulation
Type
In dB
1 - 2 - 53
Example 1: Calculation of P
RX
threshold using different modulation types
fb = 140 Mbit/s
RF = 6 GHz
T =+25C
4 PSK +13.5 + 4 + 10 log 140 - 114 = -78.1 dBm P
Rx (Th)
=
2
(2
2
= 4)
18.7
16 QAM +20.5 + 4 + 10 log 140 - 114 = -74.1 dBm P
Rx (Th)
=
4
(2
4
= 16)
15.5
64 QAM +26.5 + 4 + 10 log 140 - 114 = -70.2 dBm P
Rx (Th)
=
6
(2
6
= 64)
13.3
10 log F = 4 dB
P
Rx (Th)
= ?
Modulation
Type
4 PSK
16 QAM
64 QAM
1 - 2 - 54
Example 2: 10
-3
receiver threshold calculation

Input data
F (dB) 2.50
BIT RATE (Mbit/s) 155.52
MOD. (nQAM) 128 7 levels
REDUNDANCY 1.06
S/N MODEM (dB) 26.00
SYMB. RATE (MHz) 23.5

THRESHOLD (dBm) = KTB (symbol) + F + S/N modem

THRESHOLD -71.78
memo
KTB -100.53 KT (dB) -114

KTBF -98.03 THERMAL NOISE

1 - 2 - 55
PRx Threshold General Formula
FM = P
RX(NOM)
- P
RX(Th)
FM = Fading Margin
hop (Km)
P
TX
P
RX(NOM)
P
RX(NOM)
= P
RX(Th)
+ FM
1 - 2 - 56
Exercise
Exercise 1 - P
Rx
threshold
Calculate the 10
-6
BER P
Rx
threshold in the following
system:
Digital signal : STM1
Modulation type : 128 QAM (S/N at 10
-6
=26.7 dB)
Redundancy : 6.7%
Noise figure : 4 dB
Note: Use the Nyquist bandwidth.
1 - 2 - 57
Signature measurement [cont.]
The sensitivity of a digital radio equipment to multipath distortions can be estimated by
laboratory measurements (Equipment Signature").
The Tx signal passes through a simulated multipath channel, modelled by a direct path plus
echo. This produces a frequency selective response:
Notch Depth = maximum Fade Depth within the signal bandwidth;
Notch Frequency = notch position, relative to the signal carrier.
Notch
depth
[dB]
Relative Notch Position [MHz]
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15
BER < 10
-3
BER > 10
-3
The Notch Depth and Frequency are varied (adjusting amplitude and phase of direct and echo signals). In each
condition the Bit Error Ratio (BER) is measured. In the Notch Depth / Notch Frequency plane, the Signature gives
the region (Notch parameters) with BER > 10-3 (or any other threshold). The area below the Signature gives a
measure of the receiver sensitivity to multipath distortions.
1 - 2 - 58
Signature measurement [cont.]
In order to simulate in the laboratory the distortions produced during multipath fading events
a two-ray channel model is usually adopted.
Signature test bench:
= echo signal delay
= echo signal
phase shift (relative
to the direct signal)
b = echo signal amplitude
MOD
Tx
Y
+
Delay
Phase Att
b
Pattern
generator
Rx
DEM
Error
detector

Amplitude = 1
1 - 2 - 59
Signature measurement
Measurement Procedure:
The Bit Error Rate (BER) is measured by comparing the bit stream at the Tx input with the one
estimated at the receiver. The following steps must be performed:
a) Set the echo delay to a positive value t (to get a minimum phase signature).
b) Set the echo phase to the value corresponding to Notch Frequency f
o
= F
c
- F
(Fc = carrier frequency, 2 D F = bandwidth to be explored).
c) Starting with b= 0, increase the Notch Depth B; stop when the BER reaches a given
threshold (usually 10
-3
). This is the Critical Notch Depth B c for that BER value.
d) The point [B
c
,f
o
] is a Signature point, to be plotted in the Notch Depth vs. Notch
Frequency plane.
e) Move the Notch Frequency f
o
of a given frequency step. Repeat steps c), and d) until
f
o
= F
c
+ F (the band to be explored is completed).
f) Repeat steps b) to e) with a negative delay (to get a non- minimum phase signature).
1 - 2 - 60
Blank Page
1 - 2 - 61
5 Propagation during rain
1 - 2 - 62
Propagation during rain [cont.]
Main phenomena associated to Radio Propagation in the presence of Rain:
Scattering: part of the EM energy is re-irradiated by the raindrops in every
directions.
Absorption: part of the EM energy is transferred to the water molecules in the
raindrops.
De-polarization: the polarization plane (e. g. Vertical) of the incident radio signal
is rotated, thus producing a cross- polarized (e. g. Horizontal) component in the
signal at the receiver.
These phenomena depend on:
Signal Frequency (wavelength compared to the drop size)
Signal Polarization (due to the non-spherical drop)
Rain Intensity.
1 - 2 - 63
Propagation during rain
Effect of Scattering: The scattering of radio wave energy produced by rain drops
may cause interference to other radio systems. This effect is particularly
significant with high Tx power (e. g. interference from satellite earth stations to
radio- relay links).
The procedures for the evaluation of the Co-ordination Area around Earth
Stations (ITU- R Rec. 615) include an estimate of this effect.
Effect of Absorption: The absorption of the radio wave energy causes an
attenuation on the Rx power.
Effect of De-polarization: In radio links using the co-channel plan (two cross-
polar radio channels at the same frequency) the C/ I ratio is guaranteed by the
isolation between H and V polarizations.
In the absence of rain, the antenna XPD can provide a C/ I ratio well above 25dB.
The Rain de-polarization reduces the C/ I ratio at the receiver.
A statistical model is proposed by ITU- R Rec. 530.
Example: In a 13 GHz link, with 40 dB rain attenuation, the XPD is reduced to
about 16 dB (according to the ITU model).
1 - 2 - 64
Attenuation by rain [cont.]
Attenuation can also occur as a result of rain for frequencies higher than 5 GHz.
A technique for estimating long-term statistic of rain attenuation is reported in ITU 530-7.
The following technique is used for estimating the long-term statistics of rain attenuation:
Step 1: Obtain the rain rate R
0.01
exceeded for 0.01% of the time (with an
integration time of 1 min). If this information is not available from local
sources of long-term measurements it is possible to refer to the
following table (Rec. ITU-R P.837).
1 - 2 - 65
Rain intensity exceeded for 0.01% of the time (R
0.01
)
Percentage
of time (%)
A B C D E F G H J K L M N P Q
1
.3
.1
.03
.01
.003
.001
<0.1
<0.8
<2
<5
<8
14
22
0.5
2
3
6
12
21
32
0.7
2.8
5
9
15
26
42
2.1
4.5
8
13
19
29
42
0.6
2.4
6
12
22
41
70
1.7
4.5
8
15
28
54
78
3
7
12
20
30
45
65
2
4
10
18
32
55
83
8
13
20
28
35
45
55
1.5
4.2
12
23
42
70
100
2
7
15
33
60
105
150
4
11
22
40
63
95
120
5
15
35
65
95
140
180
12
34
65
105
145
200
250
24
49
72
96
115
142
170
1 - 2 - 66
Rainfall Regions - Europe, Africa and Asia
1 - 2 - 67
Step 2: Compute the specific attenuation,
R
(dB/km) for the frequency,
polarization and rain rate according to the relationship
and the data (depending on frequency and polarization) enclosed in the following table.
0.01 R
R k =
1 - 2 - 68
FREQ. K (H) K (V) (H) (V)
4 0.000650 0.000591 1.121014 1.075118
5 0.001108 0.001019 1.223217 1.158436
6 0.001777 0.001582 1.307902 1.226152
7 0.002897 0.002529 1.334564 1.311525
8 0.004625 0.004021 1.326024 1.312673
11 0.014191 0.012619 1.243525 1.229707
12 0.018810 0.016875 1.217389 1.200131
13 0.024051 0.021738 1.194580 1.173875
15 0.036160 0.033010 1.158202 1.131863
17 0.050182 0.045996 1.131039 1.101352
18 0.057868 0.053060 1.119748 1.089204
20 0.074602 0.068293 1.099966 1.069047
23 0.103276 0.094005 1.073910 1.044816
25 0.124923 0.113187 1.057440 1.030525
27 0.148673 0.134098 1.041143 1.016802
30 0.188249 0.168788 1.016736 0.996539
35 0.264023 0.235197 0.976517 0.962965
38 0.314429 0.279615 0.953212 0.943165
40 0.349597 0.310786 0.938230 0.930273
1 - 2 - 69
Attenuation by rain
Step 3: Compute the effective path length d
eff
of the link by multiplying the
actual path length d by a distance factor r. An estimate of this factor
is given by:
Step 4: An estimate of the path attenuation exceed for 0.01% of the time is
given by:
Step 5: Attenuation exceed for other percentages of time p in the range
0.001% to 1% may be deduced from the following power law:
p) 0.043log (0.546
0.01
10
p 0.12 A A(dB)
+
=
dr d A
R eff R 0.01
= =
0
d
d
1
1
r
+
=
,100) R 0.015xmin(
0
0.01,
35e d

=

= =
0.12
A
Log 0.5769566 - 1 - 1 6.348837 -
0.01
R
R
10
10 p
A
FM
A setting By
(result is in %)
1 - 2 - 70
Rain Unavailability Prediction

From the Time % vs. Rain Attenuation curve,
the Unavailability is computed as the time percentage
with attenuation greater than Fade Margin.

In the Figure the Fade Margin is 30dB.
Then the Rain Unavailability is about 0.005%.

0 10 20 30 40 50
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
FM
%

o
f

T
i
m
e
Attenuation [dB]
The above curve is valid for Region L, 50 km, 11 GHz and polarization H.
1 - 2 - 71
Exercise
Exercise 1 - Rain unavailability
Calculate the rain unavailability in the following link:
Region : L
Distance : 50 km
Frequency : 11 GHz
Polarization : H
Fade Margin : 30 dB
1 - 2 - 72
6 Propagation model
1 - 2 - 73
6 Propagation model
Fade margin [cont.]
PERFORMANCES ARE RELATED TO RADIO LINK FADE MARGIN
In a well designed Radio Relay Link the Rx Power is close to the designed level for most of
the time.
The Radio Link is usually designed in such a way that the Received Power pRx (normal
propagation conditions) is much greater than the Receiver Threshold pRx Th.
Fade Margin FM is defined as : FM (dB) = pRx (dBm) - pRx Th (dBm)
A Fade Margin is required to compensate for the reduction in Rx power caused by Fading
Activity.
The Fade Margin guarantees that the link will operate with expected quality, even if
anomalous propagation condition causes Fading Activity FA, as long as the Fading Activity
is lower than the Fade Margin:
FA < FM
1 - 2 - 74
The Outage condition is present when the Rx power is below the Rx Threshold
Outage probability: P(Outage)= P [pRx < pRx Th]
6 Propagation model
Fade margin
pRx
TIME
FADE MARGIN
NORMAL PROPAGATION
pRx Th THRESHOLD
OUTAGE ZONE
FADING
ACTIVITY
1 - 2 - 75
6 Propagation model
Fading definitions
ATMOSFERIC
MULTIPATH
FLAT
FADING
DIGITAL ANALOG
THERMAL
NOISE
THERMAL
NOISE
FADING EXCEEDS
MARGIN OVER
THRESHOLD
SELECTIVE
FADING
DIGITAL ANALOG
INTERMODULATION
INTERSYMBOL
INTERFERENCE
DISTORSION PRODUCES
EYE CLOSURE AND
LOSS OF SYNC.
1 - 2 - 76
6 Propagation model
Exercise
Which is the cause of the multipath fading?
Rain
Layers in the atmosphere
1 - 2 - 77
6 Propagation model
Flat fading outage [cont.]
The Probabilty of having a fade depth A (dB) greater than FM (Fade Margin) is
(Rayleigh formula):
P
0
= Multipath Occurrence Factor.
It is a measure of the multipath
activity in a radio hop.
{ }
10
FM
0 f
10 P FM A Prob P

= > =
0 10 20 30 40 50
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
FM [dB]
P
r
o
b
A

>

F
M
Curve for P
0
= 1
10 dB/dec
1 - 2 - 78
6 Propagation model
Flat fading outage [cont.]
Occurence Factor P
0
- Alcatel Method
P
0
may be measured and directly used or evaluated.
where:
a is the climatic coefficient
b is the roughness factor
Typical values of "a" are:
a = 2.4 for maritime hops
a = 1 for flat hops
a = 0.7 for hill hops
a = 0.3 for mountain hops
km) in d GHz; in (f d f b a 10 4
50
d
4
f
b a 0.2 P
3 7 -
3
0
=
=
1 - 2 - 79
6 Propagation model
Flat fading outage
According to the path profile the roughness factor is: flat irregular
(S is defined in ITU-R Rep. 338-5 Table III).
Typical values of b" are:
b = 0.25 irregular terrain
b = 1 medium terrain
b = 4 flat terrain
( ) m 42 S 6
1.3 -
15
S
b < <
=
1 - 2 - 80
6 Propagation model
Exercise
Exercise - Flat fading outage probability
Calculate the outage probability due to the flat
fading in the following link:
Flat Fading Margin : 40 dB
Hop length : 50 km
Type of hop : flat
Frequency : 8 GHz
Roughness (S) : 15
1 - 2 - 81
6 Propagation model
Selective fading outage [cont.]
The reflected ray is characterized by:
amplitude
delay
phase shift
SELECTIVE FADING
reflected rays
direct ray
refracting layer
a2
a1
1
Three-ray and two-ray models
The three-ray model is a model in which the signal at the input of the Rx antenna is the sum of three signals with
amplitude:
1 a1 a2
The second and third rays are delayed respect to the first by
1
and
2
seconds.
The channel transfer function is:
Supposing that is very small (at the
1
and
2
ends of the band the phase of the reflected ray a
1
will not
change
1

1
=
2

2
) and by setting a
2
= ab and
2
= , the three-ray model becomes a two-ray model with
The amplitude of the sum vector depends on and varies between a(1-b) and a(1+b).
The minimum of |H(w)| (notch) is reached when:
+ = n with n = 0, 1 . N
and the minimum points are frequency-spaced by
If f
o
is the frequency of the notch closest frequency f
c
of the carrier
2 1
2 1
1 ) (
j j
e a e a w H

+ + =
) 1 ( ) (

j
j
e be a w H

1
2
1

c o
f f
1 - 2 - 82
6 Propagation model
2 ray amplitude response
f
f
0
f
c
a(1-b)
a(1+b)
channel
bandwidth
f
20 lg a
-20 lg
30
25
20
15
20 lg (1-b) 20 lg
(1+b)
(1-b)
1/
1/
H() H()
1 - 2 - 83
6 Propagation model
2-Ray Group Delay for Fades of 5 dB and 20 dB
1 - 2 - 84
6 Propagation model
The Alcatel method to evaluate the selective fading outage is the signature method
Selective fading outage
where:
f
o
= signature bandwidth [GHz]
B
c
= notch producting a given BER [dB]
T
s
= symbol time depending on capacity and modulation [ns]
m
= echo delay mean value [ns]
d = hop length [km]
r
= reference delay [6.3 ns]
( )
2
m 2
s
n
T
K
4.3 Ps
=
( )
75 . 0
0
2 . 0 exp 1 P =
20
10
c
B
r
s
o s n
T
f T K

=
[ ] ns
d
m
3 . 1
50
7 . 0
=
1 - 2 - 85
6 Propagation model
Selective fading outage
Signature
B
c
1 - 2 - 86
6 Propagation model
Exercise
Exercise - Selective fading outage probability
Calculate the outage probability due to the selective
fading in the link of example 1 with the following
data:
Digital signal : STM1
Modulation type : 128 QAM
Redundancy : 10%
K
n
: 0.25
1 - 2 - 87
6 Propagation model
Single channel global outage
The outage time can be expressed, in the most general form, as the weighted
sum of two different contributions concerning flat and selective fading.
Where a is in the range 1.5 to 2: in the case of single channel, for both ITU and
ALCATEL a=2.
a
2
2
a
s
2
a
f
P P P

+ =
1 - 2 - 88
7 Quality objectives of Digital Radio Links
1 - 2 - 89
Introduction
The link reference objectives and dimensioning criteria are:
AVAILABILITY OBJECTIVES based on:
Definition of Availability
Max. Unavailable Time Percentage
ERROR PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES based on:
Quality Parameters
Max. Time Percentages for each quality parameter below given
thresholds.
Note: Error Performance Objectives are checked only during Available Time.
1 - 2 - 90
ITU-T recommendations
Rec. G.821 Rec. G.826 Rec. G.828
First Issue 1980 1992 2000
Ref. Connection 27,500 km 27,500 km 27,500 km
Radio link PDH PDH and SDH SDH
Bit Rate Below Primary Rate At or Above Primary At or Above Primary
Rate Rate
(64 kbit/s) (> 2 Mbit/s) (> 2 Mbit/s)
Performance criteria Errored Bits Errored Blocks Errored Blocks
(Media independent Recommendations)
1 - 2 - 91
Error Performance Events
Example of unavailability determination
Time
10 sec
sec
< 10 10 sec
Unavailability detected Availability detected
Unavailable period Available period
Severely Errored Second
Errored Second (non-SES)
Error-free Second
Note: Within brackets is explained the event for G.821.
ES - Errored Second
If one or more errored block (or bit) events occur within one second, an errored second event is generated.
SES - Severely Errored Second
A one-second period which contains 30% of errored blocks (or BER 10
-3
). SES is a subset of ES.
BBE - Background Block/Bit Errors
An errored block (or bit) not occuring as part of an SES.
UAS - UnAvailable Second
Consecutive Severely Errored Seconds may be precursors to periods of unavailability. A period of
unavailable time begins at the onset of ten consecutive SES events. These ten seconds are considered to
be part of unavailable time.
The period of unavailable time ends at the onset of ten consecutive non-SES events.
These ten seconds are considered to be part of available time.
1 - 2 - 92
Impact of propagation on performance objectives
Performance Impairment Degradation Period Performance Objective
Rain >10 seconds Availability
Multipath Fading < 10 seconds Error Performance (SES)
1 - 2 - 93
ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
ITU starting from an HRDP (Hypotetical Reference Digital Path) refers to three different
applicable levels of acceptable connection quality of the transmission digital circuits,
belonging to an ISDN environment.
They are representative of a practical national transmission network structure so that each
digital radio link can be assigned to one of the following reference circuits, depending on its
location within the network.
High Grade
This will encompass long haul national and international connections operating
mainly at high bit rates. These connections will naturally be high grade equipment.
Medium Grade
Systems operating between local exchanges in the national network.
Local Grade
Systems operating between customers premises and local exchanges and typically
operating equal to, or lower, than 2 Mbit/s.
1 - 2 - 94
ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
Error performance parameters
Error performance should only be evaluated during connections availability periods
measuring:
Errored Second Ratio (ESR)
The ratio of ES (one-second period with at least one errored bit) to total seconds in
available time during a fixed measurement interval.
Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR)
The ratio of SES (one-second period with a BER > 10
-3
) to total seconds in available time
during a fixed measurement interval.
1 - 2 - 95
ESR 0.012 0.012 0.032 0.012 0.08 0.012
SESR 0.00015 0.00015 0.0004 0.00015 0.001 0.00015
Objectives
allocation
15% 15% 40% 15% 15%
Local
grade
Medium
grade
Local
grade
High
grade
Medium
grade
T-reference
point
T-reference
point
25000 Km 1250 Km 1250 Km
27500 Km
ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
G.821 Basic apportionment principles
1 - 2 - 96
ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
High grade Medium grade Local grade
HDRP Rec. F.594
Performance
Objectives Rec. F.697
Real link Rec.F.634
Rec. F.696
HDRP Rec. F.557
Availability
Objectives Rec. F.1053
Real link Rec. F.695
ITU-R Recommendations (radio specific) G.821 related
1 - 2 - 97
ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
ITU-R Rec. 557
Unavailability objective for HDRP (2500 km) high grade link:
Unavailability < 0.3 %
1 - 2 - 98
ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
ITU-R Rec. 695
Unavailability objective for high grade real link:
Unavailability
( ) 2500km L %
2500
L
x 0.3 <
1 - 2 - 99
ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
ITU-R Rec. F.594
Quality performance for the HDRP (2500 km) should not exceed the
following values.
SES< 0.054% = 0.004% + 0.05%
ES < 0.32%
1 - 2 - 100
ITU-R Rec. 634
High grade real link
Quality performance should not exceed the following values scaled
depending on the link length
( ) 2500km L 0.054% x
2500
L
SES <
( ) 2500km L 0.32% x
2500
L
ES <
ITU-T G.821 [cont.]
1 - 2 - 101
ITU-T G.821
ITU-R Rec. 696
Medium grade real links are divided in 4 quality classes with different objectives:
Performance Percentage of any month
Parameters
M.G. M.G. M.G. M.G.
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
280 km 280 km 50 km 50 km
Unavailability 0.033 0.05 0.05 0.1
SES 0.006 0.0075 0.002 0.005
ES 0.036 0.16 0.16 0.4
1 - 2 - 102
Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828 [cont.]
G.826 - Error performance parameters and objectives for
international, constant bit rate digital paths (PDH and SDH) at or
above the primary rate over a 27500 km HRP.
G.828 - Error performance parameters and objectives for
international, constant bit rate synchronous digital paths (SDH)
over a 27500 km HRP.
They are:
Media Independent
Fix Quality Obj. (Availability Obj. by G.827)
Basd upon error performance measurements of blocks
1 - 2 - 103
Definition of block
A block is a set of consecutive bits.
The blocks are defined for:
path by G.826 and G.828 for path based on SDH
MS and RS by G.829 (that gives only definitions, not objectives)
1 - 2 - 104
G.826-G.828 Error Performance Events
Errored Block (EB): 1 block with at least 1 errored bit
Errored Second (ES): 1 second period with at least one errored block or
at least one defect(*)
Severely Errored Second (SES): 1 second containing more than 30%
errored blocks or at least one defect(*)
Background Block Error (BBE): 1 errored block not belonging to a SES
G.828 introduces two additional error performance events, SEP
(Severely Errored Period, sequence of between 3 to 9 consecutive SES)
and SEPI (SEP Intensity) SEP and SEPI values tbd
(*) e.g.: LOS, AIS, LOF
1 - 2 - 105
Errored performance should only be evaluated whilst the path is in the
available state
Errored Second Ratio (ESR). The ratio of ES in available time to total
seconds in available time during a fixed measurement interval
Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR): The ratio of SES in available
time to total seconds in available time during a fixed measurement
interval
Background Block Error Ratio (BBER): The ratio of BBE in available
time to total blocks in available time during a fixed measurement interval
excluding all blocks affected by SES
SEPI (Severely Errored Period Intensity): The number of SEP events
during available time, divided the total available time
1 - 2 - 106
G.826/G.828 Error performance objective
Global error performance objectives for 27,500 HRP
Mbit/s 1.5 - 5 5 - 15 15 - 55 55 - 160
ESR 0.04 0.05 0.075 0.16
G.826 SESR 0.002
BBER 2*10
-4
ESR 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.04
SESR 0.002
G.828 BBER 5*10
-5
5*10
-5
5*10
-5
5*10
-5
SEP t.b.d.
1 - 2 - 107
Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828
The choice of G.826 or G.828 objectives depends on a mutual agreement between the
parties: the path fails to meet the error performance requirement if any of these
objectives is not met
The actually suggested evaluation period is 1 month: in cases where 1 month
evaluation period may not permit accurate statistical estimation, a longer evaluation
period (up to 1 year) may be used.
Compliance with the performance specification of these Recommendations will, in
most cases, meet the G.821 requirements
Note that G.828 has same SESR objective than G.826 but more stringent ESR and
BBER objectives
SDH paths meeting the G.828 will ensure ATM traffic to meet I.356
1 - 2 - 108
Total objectives
100%
27500 km
Country based
portion 45%
Distance based
portion 55%
National portion
35%
International portion
10%
1% each 500 km (G.826)
0.2% each 100 km (G.828)
Terminating
country 1% (2)
Transit
country 2% (4)
G.826-G.828 Basic apportionment principles
1 - 2 - 109
1%
Objectives
allocation
17.5%
PEP
Terminating
country
27500 Km
National
portion
National
portion International portion
10% 17.5%
2% 2% 2% 2% 1%
PEP
45%
Transit
countries
Terminating
country
G.826/G.828 Country based apportionment
1 - 2 - 110
G.826-G.828 - Allocation to the National/International Portion of the end-to-
End path
For each national portion are allocated a fixed block allowance of 17.5%
of the end-to-end objective
For the international portion is allocated a block allowance of 2% per
intermediate country plus 1% for each terminating country
In both cases a distance-based allocation is added to the block
allowance in terms of 1% per 500 km (Rec. G.826) or 0.2% per 100 km
(Rec. G.828)
The added distance-based allocation is rounded up to the nearest 500
km for Rec. G.826 and to the nearest 100 km for Rec. G.828
1 - 2 - 111
Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828
G.826-G.828 related recommendations
F. 1703 F.1493 F.1492
Radio
Real Link
G.827 G.827 G.827 HDP Availability
objectives
F. 1668
F.1491 F.1397
Path &
Mpx/Reg.
sections
F.1189 F.1092 Path Performance
objectives
Final omni
inclusive
Recomendations
National
portion
International
portion
1 - 2 - 112
Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828 - ITU-R F.1092 [cont.]
F.1092: Error Performace Objectives for path on digital Radio, International
portion of 27500 km HRP
The G.826-8 objective is subdivided into:
Distance allocation factor: F
L
= 0.01 x L/500 L(km)
Block allowance factor B
L
(L
REF
value is provisionally 1000 km) defined as:
Intermediate country Terminating country
Where: B
R
= Block allowance ratio (0 < B
R
< 1)
L
min
= 50 km
REF min
REF
R L
L L L if
L
L
x .02 x B B < < =
REF R L
L L if .02 x B B > =
2
L
L L if
2 / L
L
x .01 x B B
REF
min
REF
R L
< < =
2 / L L if .01 x B B
REF R L
> =
1 - 2 - 113
Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828 - ITU-R F.1092 (International, Path)
Stating A = F
L
+ B
L
the table lists the new objectives
Mbit/s 1.5 - 5 5 - 15 15 - 55 55 - 160 >160
ESR .04*A .05*A .075*A .16*A Under Study
SESR .002*A
BBER .0002*A
1 - 2 - 114
F.1397: Error Performance Objectives for real digital radio links in the
international portion of 27500 km HRP
Defines a rule in order to indicate the objectives based on real link
length and it should be used for path, multiplex and regenerator sections
performances according to the parameters defined in G.826-828 for
path and G.829 for multiplex and regenerator sections.
EPO = B
j
(L
link
/ L
R
) + C
j
where:
L
R
= 2500 km, L
min
= 50 km
j=1 for L
min
< L < 1000 km, j=2 L > 1000 km for intermediate country
j=3 for L
min
< L < 500 km, j=4 L > 500 km for terminating country
1 - 2 - 115
Parameter Bit rate L
min
< L
link
< 1000 km 1000 km < L
link
(Kbit/s) B1 C1 B2 C2
ESR 1664 5 x 10
-4
(1+B
R
) 0 5 x 10
-4
2 x 10
-4
x B
R
ESR 2240 5 x 10
-4
(1+B
R
) 0 5 x 10
-4
2 x 10
-4
x B
R
ESR 6848 5 x 10
-4
(1+B
R
) 0 5 x 10
-4
2 x 10
-4
x B
R
ESR 48960 10
-3
(1+B
R
) 0 10
-3
4 x 10
-4
x B
R
ESR 150336 2 x 10
-3
(1+B
R
) 0 2 x 10
-3
8 x 10
-4
x B
R
SESR 1664-150336 10
-4
(1+B
R
) 0 10
-4
4 x 10
-5
x B
R
BBER 1664-48960 2.5 x 10
-6
(1+B
R
) 0 2.5 x 10
-6
10
-6
x B
R
BBER 150336 5 x 10
-6
(1+B
R
) 0 5 x 10
-6
2 x 10
-6
x B
R
Parameters for the EPO for Intermediate countries according to G.828
1 - 2 - 116
Parameters for the EPO for Terminating countries according to G.828
min
< L
link
< 500 km 500 km < L
link
ESR 1664 5 x 10
-4
(1+B
R
) 0 5 x 10
-4
10
-4
x B
R
ESR 2240 5 x 10
-4
(1+B
R
) 0 5 x 10
-4
10
-4
x B
R
ESR 6848 5 x 10
-4
(1+B
R
) 0 5 x 10
-4
10
-4
x B
R
ESR 48960 10
-3
(1+B
R
) 0 10
-3
2 x 10
-4
x B
R
ESR 150336 2 x 10
-3
(1+B
R
) 0 2 x 10
-3
4 x 10
-4
x B
R
SESR 1664-150336 10
-4
(1+B
R
) 0 10
-4
2 x 10
-5
x B
R
BBER 1664-48960 2.5 x 10
-6
(1+B
R
) 0 2.5 x 10
-6
5 x 10
-7
x B
R
BBER 150336 5 x 10
-6
(1+B
R
) 0 5 x 10
-6
10
-6
x B
R
1 - 2 - 117
min
< L
link
< 1000 km 1000 km < L
link
ESR 1.5-5 2 x 10
-3
(1+B
R
) 0 5 x 10
-4
8 x 10
-4
x B
R
ESR >5-15 2.5 x 10
-3
(1+B
R
) 0 5 x 10
-4
10
-3
x B
R
ESR >15-55 3.75 x 10
-3
(1+B
R
) 0 5 x 10
-4
1.5 x 10
-3
x B
R
ESR > 55-160 8 x 10
-3
(1+B
R
) 0 8 x 10
-3
3.2 x 10
-3
x B
R
ESR >160-3500 under study
SESR 1.5-3500 10
-4
(1+B
R
) 0 10
-4
4 x 10
-5
x B
R
BBER 1.5-3500 10
-5
(1+B
R
) 0 10
-5
4 x 10
-6
x B
R
Parameters for the EPO for Intermediate countries according to G.826
1 - 2 - 118
Rec. ITU-T G.826 and G.828 - ITU-R F.1397
Parameters for the EPO for Terminating countries according to G.826
min
< L
link
< 500 km 500 km < L
link
ESR 1.5-5 2 x 10
-3
(1+B
R
) 0 2 x 10
-3
4 x 10
-4
x B
R
ESR >5-15 2.5 x 10
-3
(1+B
R
) 0 2.5 x 10
-3
5 x 10
-4
x B
R
ESR >15-55 3.75 x 10
-3
(1+B
R
) 0 3.75 x 10
-3
7.5 x 10
-4
x B
R
ESR > 55-160 8 x 10
-3
(1+B
R
) 0 8 x 10
-3
1.6 x 10
-3
x B
R
ESR >160-3500 under study
SESR 1.5-3500 10
-4
(1+B
R
) 0 10
-4
2 x 10
-5
x B
R
BBER 1.5-3500 10
-5
(1+B
R
) 0 10
-5
2 x 10
-6
x B
R
1 - 2 - 119
F.1189: Error Performance Objectives for digital path carried by digital radio,
national portion of a 27500 km HRP.
It concerns the national portion of the HRP that is subdivided into three
basic sections
Access
Short haul
Long Haul
Performance objectives are fixed for each of the three types of
link, just for path level, according to the following table
PEP LE PC/SC/TC IG
Access Short
Haul
Long
Haul
1 - 2 - 120
The values for the B parameter are fixed as following:
A1 + .001*L/500 long haul ( 1%<A1<2%)
7.5%<B<8.5% short haul
7.5%<B<8.5% access
Mbit/s 1.5-5 5-15 15-55 55-160 >160
ESR .04*B .05*B .075*B .16*B ?
SESR .002*B .002*B .002*B .002*B .002*B
BBER .0002*B .0002*B .0002*B .0002*B .0002*B
The values indicated can be reallocated in different way within the national portion of the network taking
into account that:
the sum of the 3 contributions shall not exceed 17.5%
the sum resulting from short and long haul contributions are in the range 15.5% to 16.5%.
1 - 2 - 121
F. 1491: Error performance objectives for real digital radio links, national portion
of a 27500 km HRP
Defines a rule in order to indicate the objectives based on real link length and it should be
used for path, multiplex and regenerator sections performances.
The national portion is subdivided into three categories: the access section, the short haul
section and the long haul section.
The parameters used for the performance objectives are defined in
G.826-828 for path section
G.829 for multiplex and regenerator sections
1 - 2 - 122
Long haul
A = A
1
+ 0.00002 x L
link
for L
link
> 100 km
where A
1
provisionally been agreed in 0.01<A1<0.02
Short haul and access: 7.5% < A < 8.5%
Mbit/s 1664 2240 6848 48960 150336
VC-11 TC-11 VC-12 TC-12 VC-2 TC-2 VC-3 TC-3 VC-4 TC-4
ESR 0.01*A 0.01*A 0.01*A 0.02*A 0.04*A
SESR 0.002*A 0.002*A 0.002*A 0.002*A 0.002*A
BBER 5*A*10
-5
5*A*10
-5
5*A*10
-5
5*A*10
-5
1*A*10
-4
( ) 100km L 50km for
100
L
x 0.002 A A
link
link
1
< < + =
1 - 2 - 123
Rec. ITU-T G.827
G.827 - Availability parameters and objectives for end-to-end international
constant bit-rate digital paths
Gives two kind of objectives:
Availability ratio
Outage intensity
The objectives are dependents by length and by categories (National or
international path elements)
For both objectives mean and worst values are given
1 - 2 - 124
Rec. ITU-T G.827 [cont.]
Relevant to G.827 parameters and objectives, ITU-R derived these
recommendations:
Rec. F.1492: Availability Objectives for real Digital Radio-relay links
forming part of international portion constant bit rate digital path at or
above primary rate
Rec. F.1493: Availability Objectives for real Digital Radio-relay links
forming part of national portion constant bit rate digital path at or above
primary rate
and, to include and substitute both the above, recently approved
Rec. F.1668: Error performance objectives for real digital fixed wireless
links used in 27 500 km hypothetical reference paths and connections
1 - 2 - 125
Exercise
Exercise 1 - Unavailability
Calculate the unavailability objective due to
the propagation in
a 60 km link (using Rec. 695).
Exercise 2 - SES calculation
Calculate the allowed SES by using G.826 (F.1092) in the following link:
Link lenght : 50 km
Type of country : intermediate country
Block Allowance Ratio : 1
1 - 2 - 126
8 Fading countermeasures
1 - 2 - 127
Adopted techniques
Techniques adopted to reduce the multipath fading impairment:
Adaptive Signal Equalization at the Receiver
Diversity Reception:
Space Diversity
Frequency Diversity
Angle Diversity
1 - 2 - 128
Adaptive equalization [cont.]
An Adaptive Equalizer is a circuit used at Rx, to partially compensate for signal
distortion. Adaptativity means that the equalizer response is modified,
depending on the received signal.
In the Intermediate Frequency (IF) implementation, the equalizer amplifies the
spectral components more deeply attenuated by fading.
In the Base Band (BB) implementation, the equalizer cancels from each signal
sample the component due to Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI). This technique is
usually more effective.
The effectiveness of a signal equalizer can be appreciated by comparing the
receiver signatures with and without the equalizer.
The reduction in the area below the signature curve gives a measure of the
improvement provided by the equalizer.
1 - 2 - 129
Adaptive equalization [cont.]
Notch Frequency [MHz]
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15
Without Equalizer
With Equalizer
N
o
t
c
h

D
e
p
t
h

[
d
B
]
1 - 2 - 130
Diversity Improvement [cont.]
In order to improve link performance diversity scheme can be adopted.
Using more than one receiver the outage probability can be significantly reduced.
The diversity configurations are:
Frequency diversity (two receivers)
Space diversity (two receivers and two antennas)
Space and Frequency diversity (two receivers and two antennas)
Space and Frequency diversity (four receivers and two antennas)
The diversity can be performed by means of:
BB switch (best channel selection)
IF combiner that adds the two signals elaborated with a suitable algorithm
BB switch and IF combiner
In a diversity configuration the probability that BER exceeds performance objective depends
on:
single channel performance
correlation between the bearers
multipath fading probability
1 - 2 - 131
TWO RECEIVERS DIVERSITY
Diversity parameter m relevant to order two diversity is defined:
where is the multipath activity parameter
The outage probability for a protected channel is:
The corresponding improvement is:
where P
i
is the probability without protection
( )
2
K 1 m =
( )
m
P P
10 BER P
j i n
DIV

= >

i DIV
i
P
m
P
P
I = =
1 - 2 - 132
a) Frequency diversity
F = frequency diversity [GHz]
m
= median hop delay [ns] =
where d = hop length [km]
b) Space diversity
S = antenna separation [m] (Max. = 200 in this formula) = wavelenght [m]
c) Space and frequency diversity (2 receivers)
In this case two antennas are used, but the two receivers are at a different frequency. The diversity
needs a BB switch and the correlation coefficient considers separatly the two effects and so:
If four antennas are used to obtain the space diversity also in the other side, the formula is:
( )
m
2
f
F 0.9 - exp K =
=

2
6 2
s
S
10 4 exp K
2
f
2
s
2
fs
K K K =
2
f
2
s2
2
s1
2
fs
K K K K =
1.3
50
d
0.7

1 - 2 - 133
SPACE AND FREQUENCY DIVERSITY (4 RECEIVERS)
To analyze these configurations we need to extend the definitions given dealing with order
two diversity to the case of order four diversity schemes; so the diversity parameters m
becomes
where is the multipath activity parameter
Stating that K
ij
is the correlation coefficient between i and j channels
4
3
4
K det m =
1 K K K
K 1 K K
K K 1 K
K K K 1
K det
43 42 41
34 32 31
24 23 21
14 13 12
4
=
1 - 2 - 134
Diversity Improvement
As shown in the figure, there are two possibilities for this configuration including,
or not, a space diversity on both sides: space diversity correlation in transmission
is generally given by k
s1
and its value will be 1 in the case in which there is only
one antenna.
Space diversity in Tx side can be applied ONLY in 1+1 configuration.
1
4
2
3
S
2
S
1
f
1
f
2
1 - 2 - 135
Frequency diversity
Multipath fading is frequency selective. In multi-channel radio systems (usually with
about 20 - 30 MHz spacing), not all the RF channels are deeply faded at the same time.
An RF stand- by channel is usually available (in 1+ 1 or N+ 1 arrangement) for equipment
failure. It can be exploited also for multipath protection.
The traffic of a low quality (deeply faded) working channel can be switched to the stand-
by channel, with high probability of a significant quality improvement.
In some cases, the stand-by channel can be in a different RF band (Cross-band frequency
diversity). Example: 7 GHz system with 11 GHz protection.
Fast quality detector and switching circuits are required (Hitless Switching: without
errors or frame loss caused by the switching itself).
Tx1
f1
Tx2
f2
Rx1
Rx2
Dem
Dem
BB
BB
1 - 2 - 136
Exercise
Exercise - Frequency diversity improvement
Calculate the frequency diversity improvement by
using the following data:
Frequency : 8 GHz
Hop lenght : 50 km
Frequency diversity : 40 MHz
Multipath occurrence factor P
o
: 1
Outage probability without protection (10
-4
) : 0.0001
1 - 2 - 137
Space diversity
Two antennas are usually arranged on a single structure, with a suitable
vertical spacing.
Typical spacing: 150 - 200 wavelengths.
The correlation of fade depth at the two antennas decreases as the antenna
spacing increases. Thus the probability of deep fading at the two antennas at
the same time can be made sufficiently low, with a suitable antenna spacing.
Tx1
f
f
Rx1
Rx2
S
Dem
Dem
BB
BB
1 - 2 - 138
Exercise
Exercise - Space diversity improvement
Calculate the space diversity improvement by
using the following data:
Vertical antenna separation : 8 m
Frequency : 8 GHz
(=3.75 cm)
Multipath occurrence factor P
o
: 1
Outage probability without protection : 0.0001
1 - 2 - 139
Space and frequency diversity [cont.]
a) 2 Receivers
f1
f2
Rx1
Rx2
S
Diversity in reception side only
Tx1
f1
Tx2
Diversity in transmission and reception sides
Tx1
Tx2
Rx1
Rx2
S
2
f2
S
1
Dem
Dem
BB
BB
Dem
Dem
BB
BB
1 - 2 - 140
Space and frequency diversity
b) 4 Receivers
3/f2
4/f2
Rx1
Rx2
1+1 configurations with 4 receivers
Tx1
1/f1
Tx2
Tx1
Tx2
S2
4/f2
F1
F2
F1
F1
DEM
Rx3
Rx4
F2
F2
1/f1
2/f1
Rx1
Rx2
1+1 configurations with 4 receivers and space diversity also in transmission side
F1
F1
Rx3
Rx4
F2
F2
S1
3/f2
2/f1
F1
F2
BB
DEM BB
DEM BB
DEM BB
1 - 2 - 141
Angle diversity
Two implementations of Angle Diversity can be considered:
Antenna Diversity: Two antennas (of the same type or of different types)
side-by-side with slightly different pointing angles.
Beam Diversity: One antenna with two feeders, producing beams with
different shapes and/or pointing.
In both cases, two beams operate at the receiver, closely spaced, but with
different shapes. The multipath components are subject to different weighting at
the two beams and the two composed Rx signals are in some measure
uncorrelated.
Advantages: No need of high, complex tower structures; only one antenna with
Beam Diversity; lower costs.
Disadvantages: Less diversity improvement.
1 - 2 - 142
9 Reflections from ground
1 - 2 - 143
Reflections from ground
Depending on the Path Profile, a part of the Tx radio signal can be reflected by the
ground toward the Rx antenna. At the receiver, in addition to the direct signal (D), arrives a
reflected signal (R).
The presence of a ground reflection can be rather critical :
Fluctuations in the Rx signal level, even for long time periods
Enhancement of Multipath Activity (the reflected signal is not added to a stable
direct signal, but to the fast-varying multipath signal)
Reduction of Space Diversity effectiveness as a countermeasure to multipath.
Reflections should be avoided by:
Route Planning (in particular over-water paths)
Site Selection: Obstruction of the reflected ray can be obtained in some cases, by suitable
selection of the radio sites and of antenna heights.
1 - 2 - 144
Geometrical model
Tx
P R1
R2
D
1
2

Geometrical parameters related to the Reflection mechanism:

Reflection point P
Grazing angle
Direct path length D
Reflected path length R1+ R2
Angles a1, a2 between Direct and Refl. Rays
These parameters are varying with time, because of varying propagation conditions (k-factor).
1 - 2 - 145
Rx signal with reflection
In the presence of reflection, the overall received signal (S) is given by the (vectorial)
addition of the direct (D) and the reflected (R) signals:
S = D + R
The result of adding the two vectors D and R depends on:
Relative amplitude of D and R:
reflection loss: depends on the surface type (worst case: 0 dB e. g. water)
divergence factor: due to the spherical earth surface (usually a small loss)
antenna directivity: depends on path geometry and antenna beamwidth.
Phase shift between D and R:
direct and reflected path length difference (expressed in multiples of the
wavelength ; 360 deg. phase shift for each )
reflection shift: depends on frequency, grazing angle, and surface type
(usually close to 180 deg).
If the antenna height is varied, then the path length difference and the phase shift between the Direct and the
Reflected signal change. As a result, the Rx signal level is a function of the antenna height.
Direct and Reflected signals co-phased Maximum Rx level
Direct and Reflected signals phase-opposed Minimum Rx level
The exact positions corresponding to the maximum and minimum Rx level change with propagation conditions
(k-factor).
1 - 2 - 146
Rx signal level
Rx Level
Tx
Rx
1 - 2 - 147
Exercise
Why does the reflected ray from the ground change?
1 - 2 - 148
Space diversity in reflection paths
The Rx level varies with the antenna height, but the position of the maximum Rx level is not
stable, due to varying propagation conditions (k- factor).
With two antennas, a good Rx level can be expected at least at one antenna.
Space Diversity Engineering:
Antenna Spacing: The optimum value is computed, but it depends on the k-factor.
Design Rule: Compute Spacing for k= 4/ 3 and check for higher and lower k-factors.
Position of the lower antenna: In general, as low as possible, in order to:
Obstruct (at least partially, if possible) the reflected ray
Clearance:
For the Lower Antenna, in most cases, Clearance= 0 is enough;
Usual rules for the Higher Antenna.
Implementation Options:
BB Switching to the best signal
IF Adaptive Combining (as for Multipath countermeasure)
RF Combining (Anti-Reflection System).
1 - 2 - 149
Exercise
In the space diversity configuration is the antenna
separation vertical or horizontal?
1 - 2 - 150
10 Frequency re-use
1 - 2 - 151
10 Frequency re-use
Introduction [cont.]
Polarization is the characteristic of electromagnetic wave related to the
orientation and rotation of the electrical (E) or magnetic (H) vector.
1 - 2 - 152
10 Frequency re-use
Introduction
Polarization is a very convenient and simple method to enlarge
the isolation between two signals increasing the spectrum usage.
Isolation (XPI) of 30 - 40 dB can be obtained adopting available
antennas.
By using orthogonal polarization, two independent channels
using the same frequency can be transmitted over a single link.
However, during fading periods, the cross-polarization
discrimination (XPD) is reduced and significant interference from
adjacent or re-used channel can be observed.
Cross Polar Interference Cancellers (XPIC) are used to reduce
the effects of cross-polar interference.
1 - 2 - 153
10 Frequency re-use
Terminology
Definition of cross-polarization terms (ITU-R P.310):
Cross-polarization The appearance, during the propagation, of a polarization
component which is orthogonal to the expected polarization.
Cross-polarization
discrimination For one radio wave transmitted on a given polarization, the ratio at
the reception side of the power received with the expected
polarization to the power received with the orthogonal polarization.
Note - the cross-polarization discrimination depends both on the
characteristics of the antenna and on the propagation medium.
Cross-polarization
isolation For two radio waves transmitted with the same frequency with the
same power and orthogonal polarization, the ratio of the co-
polarized power in a given receiver to the cross-polarized power in
that receiver.
Depolarization A phenomenon by virtue of which all or part of the power of a radio
wave transmitted with a defined polarization may no longer have a
defined polarization after propagation.
1 - 2 - 154
10 Frequency re-use
Exercise
What is the difference between XPD and XPI?
1 - 2 - 155
10 Frequency re-use
Concepts
Frequency reuse of the same RF channels:
The RF frequency channel is used in Vertical and in Horizontal
polarization, with two different transceivers.
Single antenna, double polarity or
Double antenna, single polarity
Double the RF spectrum traffic capacity
RF frequency reuse types:
1. Without interference canceller (low modulation level)
2. With interference canceller (high modulation level)
1 - 2 - 156
10 Frequency re-use
Interferences
Interference due to RF re-use:
1. Same frequency re-used channel (cross-polar)
2. Adjacent frequency re-used channels (co-polar)
Interference level:
The interference level permitted is proportional to:
1. Modulation type
2. XPC (Cross Polar Canceller) gain (for cross-polar channel)
3. NFD & ATPC (for adjacent channel)
The interference is non stationary
It depends on fading activity
1 - 2 - 157
10 Frequency re-use
Interference types
1. Same frequency re-used channel (cross-polar) example: ch 2 and ch 2r
2. Adjacent frequency re-used channels (co-polar) example: ch 2 and ch (1r & 3r)
Co-channel mode (RF band reused)
Go (Return) Return (Go)
z x y
H (V) 1 2r 3 4r N 1' 2'r 3' 4'r N'
V (H) 1r 2 3r 4 Nr 1'r 2' 3'r 4' N'r
fo
B
1 - 2 - 158
10 Frequency re-use
Frequency reuse system block diagram
Single antenna, Double polarity
LO
LO
MOD
MOD
UP
TX
TX
UP
CONV
CONV
RX
RX
IF
IF
DOWN
CONV H
V
DEM
&
XPIC
DEM
&
XPIC
H
V
IN
OUT
CONV
DOWN
DATA DATA
OUT
DATA
IN
DATA
LO
H
V
V
H
H H
V
V
V
H
1 - 2 - 159
10 Frequency re-use
Same frequency re-used channel (cross-polar)
With the following formula it is possible to calculate the threshold degradation with a given
C/I ratio:
1 dB WORSENING DUE TO C/I ON A
128 QAM SYSTEM
MODULATION C/N E-3 C/I
dB dB
mod 128 QAM 23 30
MODULATION C/N E-3 Rx THRESHOLD
dB dBm
mod 128 QAM 23 -71.0
INTERF. CALC. Rx PW XPI XPIC GAIN TOTAL
dBm dB dB dBm
-30.00 -35.00 -16.00 -81.00
C/I = 51 dB

+ =
10
10 1 log 10
I
C
N
C
n(dB) Degradatio
THYPICAL THRESHOLD VALUE OF SAME
SYSTEM
THYPICAL INTERFERENCE LEVEL OF A CCDP
SYSTEM IN NOT FADING CONDITIONS
1 - 2 - 160
10 Frequency re-use
Adjacent frequency co-polar channel interference
EXAMPLE: for 1 dB WORSENING DUE TO C/I
MODULATION C/N E-3 C/I
dB dB
mod 128 cross 23 30
INTERF. CALC. PRX NFD TOTAL
dBm dB dBm
-30.00 30.00 -60.00
With Correlated fading on all the co-polar signals (same
antenna).
1 - 2 - 161
10 Frequency re-use
Exercise
What is the difference between C/N and C/I?
1 - 2 - 162
10 Frequency re-use
Prediction of outage due to multipath propagation [cont.]
The combined effect of multipath propagation and the cross-polarization patterns of the
antennas governs the reductions in XPD occuring for small percentage of time. To compute
the effect of these reductions in link performance the following step-by-step procedures
should be used (Rec. ITU-R P.530-7):
Step 1: Compute
XPD
g
+ 5 for XPD
g
< 35 (5 is the mean field decreasing)
XPD
0
=
40 for XPD
g
> 35
where XPD
g
is the manufacturers guaranteed minimum XPD at boresight for both the
transmitting and receiving antennas, i.e., the minimum of the transmitting and receiving
antenna boresight XPDs.
1 - 2 - 163
10 Frequency re-use
Prediction of outage due to multipath propagation [cont.]
Step 2: Evaluate the multipath activity parameter ()
Step 3: Determine
0.7 one transmit antenna
k
XP
=
two transmit antennas
In the case where two orthogonal polarized transmissions are from different antennas:
vertical separation is S
t
(m)
carrier wavelength is (m)
=
0
xp
P
k
log 10 - Q
2
t 6 -
S
4x10 - exp 0.3 - 1
1 - 2 - 164
10 Frequency re-use
Prediction of outage due to multipath propagation
Step 4: Calculate the probability of outage P
xp
due to clear-air cross-polarization from
where M
XPD
is the equivalent XPD margin for a reference BER given by:
co-channel without XPIC
M
XPD
= co-channel with XPIC XPIRF : 15 - 20 dB
adjacent channel
where is the Carrier - To - Interference ratio for a reference BER (10
-3
)
Step 5: Evaluate the overall outage as the unweighted sum of partial outages
related to flat fadding, selective fading and frequency re-use.
P
tot
= P
f
+ P
s
+ P
xp
10
M
-
0 xp
XPD
10 P P =
I
C
- Q XPD
o
0
+
I
C
- XPIRF Q XPD
o
0
+ +

I
C
- NFD Q XPD
o
0
+ +
I
C
o
1 - 2 - 165
10 Frequency re-use
Prediction of outage due to rain effects [cont.]
Intense rain governs the reductions in XPD observed for small percentages of time. For paths on which
more detailed predictions or measurements are not available, a rough estimate of the unconditional
distribution of XPD can be obtained from a cumulative distribution of the co-polarized rain attenuation
CPA using the equi-probability relation:
XPD = U - V(f) log (CPA)
where:
U = U
0
+ 30 log (f) (U
0
15)
V(f) = 12.8 f
0.19
for 8 < f < 20 GH
V(f) = 22.6 for 20 < f < 35 GH
Long-term XPD statistics obtained at one frequency can be scaled to another frequency using the semi-
empirical formula:
for 4 < f
1
, f
2
< 30 GHz
where:
XPD
1
and XPD
2
are the XPD values not exceeded for the same percentage of time at frequencies f
1
and
f
2
.
The equation is least accurate for large differences between the respective frequencies. It is most
accurate if XPD
1
and XPD
2
correspond to the same polarization (horizontal or vertical).
( )
1 2 1 2
/f f log 20 XPD XPD =
1 - 2 - 166
10 Frequency re-use
Prediction of outage due to rain effects [cont.]
Step-by-step procedure for predicting outage due to precipitation effects (Rec. ITU-R P.530-7):
Step 1: Determine the path attenuation, A
0,01
(dB), exceeded for 0.01% of the time.
Step 2: Determine the equivalent path attenuation, A
p
(dB):
where U and V are obtained previously, C
0
/I (dB) is the carrier-to-interference ratio defined for the
reference BER without XPIC, and XPIRF (dB) is the cross-polarized improvement factor for the reference
BER.
If an XPIC device is not used, set XPIRF = 0.
( ) ( ) /V XPIRF /I C U
p
0
10 A
+
=
1 - 2 - 167
10 Frequency re-use
Prediction of outage due to rain effects
Step 3: Determine the following parameters:
if m < 40
m =
40 if m > 40
and
valid values for n must be in the range of -3 to 0. Note that in some cases, especially when an XPIC
device is used, values of n less than -3 may be obtained. If this is the case, it should be noted that values
of p less than -3 will give outage BER < 1 x 10
-5
.
Step 4: Determine the outage probability from:
[ ]
0.01 p
0.12A / A log 23.26
( ) /2 4m - 161.23 12.7 - n + =
( ) 2 n
XPR
10 P

=
1 - 2 - 168
11 Interferences
1 - 2 - 169
11 Interferences
Introduction
Interference could arise from:
1 Local sources (Tx coupled via antennas to Rx)
2 Signals belonging to the same system at a common location
3 Signals belonging to the same system from other locations
4 Signals belonging to the same system from other locations through an overreach
condition
5 Different services sharing the same frequency band (interferences generated by radio
links of other customers)
Depending on frequency spectrum, the interferences can be subdivided into
A Gaussian interferences
B Non Gaussian interferences
Depending on occurrence probability, the interferences can be subdivided into
C Stationary
D Non stationary (depending on fading activity)
E Non stationary (periodic or non periodic, some external sources as radar)
1 - 2 - 170
11 Interferences
Modem performances
Each radio system is characterized by a minimum value of Carrier to Noise C/N and is also
characterized by a minimum value of Carrier to Interference C/I.
(In the table are shown some values for training purpose only).
C/I causes 1 dB worsening C/I causes 0.5 dB worsening
C/N W/O FEC (dB) AT C/N E-3 & E-6 W/O
FEC
AT C/N E-3 & E-6 W/O FEC
10^-3 10^-6 10^-3 10^-6 10^-3 10^-6
mod level
QAM
512 33.00 36.50 39.00 42.50 42.00 45.50
256 30.00 33.00 36.00 39.00 39.00 42.00
128 27.00 30.00 33.00 36.00 36.00 39.00
64 24.00 27.00 30.00 33.00 33.00 36.00
32 21.00 24.00 27.00 30.00 30.00 33.00
16 18.00 21.00 24.00 27.00 27.00 30.00
1 - 2 - 171
11 Interferences
Local sources [cont.]
Transmitter to receiver interference
INTERFERENCE Type "1"
SPECTRUM Type "A" for digital to digital or "B" for analog to digital interference
ACTIVITY Type "C"
WEST EAST
INTERFERENCE
TX TORX
PTx1 PRx2
ANTENNA1 ANTENNA 2
AF1= ATTEN. FEEDER 1 AF2= ATTEN. FEEDER 2
TX1 RX2
1 - 2 - 172
11 Interferences
Local sources
Transmitter to receiver interference: calculation example
INTERFERENCE CALCULATIONS TX on RX Type
Site of calculations
West site As example see A, B
East Site
INPUT DATA (example)
OUTPUT DATA
PTX1 Power TX at radio circulator antenna port dBm 30.00 C/I results (at threshold)
P
Rx
thr. P
Rx
at threshold 10^-3 dBm -72.00 level of C/I West on East dB 28.00 B
AF1 Attenuation feeder West dB 0.00
AF2 Attenuation feeder East dB 0.00
D Angle between antennas deg. 80.00 + Threshold 10^-3
A Attenuation provided by West + East ant dB 130.00 - level of TX West signal on East RX
NFD Net filter discrimination (for co-channel) dB 0.00
COMPUTED DATA
level of TX West signal on East RX dBm -100.00 A + Power TX at radio circulator antenna port
- Attenuation feeder West
- Attenuation provided by West + East ant
- Attenuation feeder East
FLORENCE
MILAN
VENICE
for 2 antennas
1 - 2 - 173
11 Interferences
Signals belonging to the same system at a common location [cont.]
Receiver to receiver interference
ACTIVITY Type "D" (depending on fading activity)
WEST EAST
INTERFERENCES
Rx to Rx
PR1* PR2*
ANTENNA 1 ANTENNA 2
G1= ANTENNA 1 GAIN G2= ANTENNA 2 GAIN
AF1= ATTEN. FEEDER 1 AF2= ATTEN. FEEDER 2
PR1= RX1 INPUT SIGNAL PR2= RX2 INPUT SIGNAL
RX1
* power field at antenna input
RX2
I
I
W W
1 - 2 - 174
11 Interferences
Signals belonging to the same system at a common location
Receiver to receiver interference: calculation example
Site of calculations
As example see A, B, C
West site
East Site
INPUT DATA OUTPUT DATA
PRx thr. PRx at threshold 10^-3 dBm -72.00 Various C/I results (at threshold)
G1 Gain antenna West dB 40.00 level of C/I West Hon East H dB 25.00
G2 Gain antenna East dB 43.00 level of C/I West Hon East V dB 28.00
AF1 Attenuationfeeder West dB 5.00 level of C/I West Von East V dB 25.00
AF2 Attenuationfeeder East dB 5.00 level of C/I West Von East H dB 28.00
PR1 Rec. Power at Rx West dBm -30.00 level of C/I East HonWest H dB 26.00 C
PR2 Rec. Power at Rx East dBm -30.00 level of C/I East HonWest V dB 30.00
D Angle betweenantennas deg. 94.00 level of C/I East VonWest V dB 26.00
ATTEN Attenuationprovided by West antenna HH dB 65.00 level of C/I East VonWest H dB 30.00
ATTEN Attenuationprovided by West antenna HV dB 69.00
ATTEN Attenuationprovided by West antenna VV dB 65.00
ATTEN Attenuationprovided by West antenna VH dB 69. + P
RX
at threshold 10^-3
ATTEN Attenuationprovided by East antenna HH dB 70.00 - level of East Hsignal on West Hant.
ATTEN Attenuationprovided by East antenna HV dB 73.00
ATTEN Attenuationprovided by East antenna VV dB 70.00
ATTEN Attenuationprovided by East antenna VH dB 73.00
BRANC RX branching insertionloss West dB 2.00
BRANC RX branching insertionloss East dB 2.00
NFD Net filter discrimination(for co-channel) dB 0.00
COMPUTED DATA * power fieldat antenna input
PR1* Power Rx at antenna directionWest dBm -63.00 A Rec. Power at Rx West
PR2* Power Rx at antenna directionEast dBm -66.00 + Attenuationfeeder West
level of West Hsignal onEast Hant. dBm -97.00 - Gain antenna West
level of West Hsignal onEast Vant. dBm -100.00 + RX branching insertionloss West
level of West Vsignal onEast Vant. dBm -97.00
level of West Vsignal onEast Hant. dBm -100.00
level of East Hsignal on West Hant. dBm -98.00
B Power Rx at antenna directionWest
level of East Hsignal on West Vant. dBm -102.00
- Attenuationprovided by East antenna HH
level of East Vsignal on West Vant. dBm -98.00
+ Gain antenna East
level of East Vsignal on West Hant. dBm -102.00
- Attenuationfeeder East
- Net filter discrimination(or filter attenuation)
- RX branching insertionloss East
FLORENCE
MILAN
VENICE
1 - 2 - 175
11 Interferences
Signals belonging to the same system from other locations
Interfered signal received power
P
RXCW
= P
TXAW
- B
TXAW
+ GT
XAW
- FSL
AC
+ G
RXCW
- B
RXC
Interfering signal received power
P
RXCint
= P
TXAint
- B
TXAint
+ GT
XAint
- DG
TXAint
- NFD - FSL
AC
+ G
RXCW
- B
RXC
ACTIVITY Type "D"
B
A
C
w
I
1 - 2 - 176
11 Interferences
Signals belonging to the same system from other locations through an overreach condition
Interfered signal received power
P
RXDW
= P
TXCW
- B
TXCW
+ GT
XCW
- FSL
CD
+ G
RXDW
- B
RXD
Interfering signal received power
P
RXDint
= P
TXBint
- B
TXBint
+ GT
XBint
- DG
TXBint
- NFD - FSL
BD
+ G
RXDW
- DG
RXDint
- B
RXD
ACTIVITY Type "D"
B
A
D
w
I
I
w
E
F
C
1 - 2 - 177
11 Interferences
Exercise
Exercise - Threshold degradation
Calculate the threshold degradation due to a
-95 dBm co-channel interference signal on the
following system.
Rx threshold = -72 dBm
dB 23
N
C
=
1 - 2 - 178
Blank Page
1 - 2 - 179
End of Module
2.1 Design exercises
Design exercises
Network planning - Design exercises
2 - 1 - 2
Blank Page
2 - 1 - 3
Objectives
To be able to execute final exercises, useful to
recapitulate all the topics explained in Section 1.
2 - 1 - 4
Objectives [cont.]
2 - 1 - 5
Table of Contents
Page
1 Design exercises 7
Exercise 9
End of Module 10
2 - 1 - 6
2 - 1 - 7
1 Design exercises
2 - 1 - 8
1 Design exercises
Final Exercises
Exercise - 1
Check if the following link meets the unavailability (F.695)
and quality recommendation (F.1092) (the clearance
is 100%).
Link data
Length : 60 km
Hop type : Flat
Roughness : 10 m
Rainfall region : K
Type of country : international intermediate
Block Allowance Ratio : 1
2 - 1 - 9
1 Design exercises
Final Exercises [cont.]
Equipment data
Channel configuration : 1+0 (V pol.)
Tx power : +32 dBm
Symbol frequency : 24.458 Mbit/s
RF Frequency : 3890 MHz
Signature K
n
(10
-3
) : 0.445
10
-3
threshold : -74 dBm
Antennas (station A & B) : 3 m (40 dBi gain)
Feeder in station A : 55 m (2.3 dB/100 m)
Feeder in station B : 45 m (2.3 dB/100 m)
Branching loss (station A and B) : 3 dB
Tolerance : 1 dB
2 - 1 - 10
End of Module
3.1 Appendix
Appendix
Network Planning - Appendix
3 - 1 - 2
Blank Page
3 - 1 - 3
Objectives
To be able to understand the modulation concepts.
To be able in an example to calculate the unavailability objective
due to the equipment failures.
To be able to understand the general concepts of the
M.21xx series and the differences between G.821/826
and M.21xx recommendations.
3 - 1 - 4
Blank Page
3 - 1 - 5
Table of Contents
Page
1 Refresh on modulation concepts 7
Modulation Concepts 8
BB Transmission 10
Bandwidth Formula 11
Modulated Signal Spectrum 12
2-PSK 17
4-PSK 20
16-QAM 22
16-TCM 27
Performances Versus Noise 30
Exercise 31
Main Modulation Types Characteristics 32
Thermal Noise (C/N versus BER) 33
Comparison of Different Mod. Schemes 37
Roll-off calculation example 39
Blank Page 40
2 Equipment unavailability 41
Introduction 43
Unavailability objective 44
Unavailability of a non-protected section (1+0) 47
Unavailability of a protected section (1+1) 50
3 M.21xx-series Recommendations 51
End of Module 54
3 - 1 - 6
3 - 1 - 7
1 Refresh on modulation concepts
3 - 1 - 8
Modulation Concepts
Why modulation?
Modulation is necessary to occupy RF narrow bandwidth!
Without modulation (BB transmission) the occupied bandwidth is:
where: f
b
= bit rate
= roll-off factor
( ) 1
2
f
Bw
b
+ =
3 - 1 - 9
BB Transmission [cont.]
Ideal Transmission Channel
Att. = constant
Rx
Att.
f
f
0
0
Tx
-

3 - 1 - 10
BB Transmission
Real Transmission Channel
Att. = Kost.
Att.
f
0
Tx
Att. =
f
c
Rx
3
2f
c
t
2f
c
1
Att. = Kost.
Att.
f
0
Att. =
f
c
t
1
T =
2 1 3
T T T T
2 1 3
1
f
b
T =
f
b
= Bit rate frequency
1
=
1
f
b
2
2f
c
2f
c
2f
c
2
=
f
b
f
c
3 - 1 - 11
Bandwidth Formula
= 1.0
= 1.0
= 0.3
= 0.1
0 < < 1
R(f)
-f
C
0.1
r (t)
C
-2f
C
0.3
+f
C
+2f
C
a
Antisymmetrical Freq. Responce
a
c
Roll Off = =
R(f)
Ideal Freq. Responce
-T -2T -3T -4T 0 +T +2T +3T +4T
Bw = Bw = f
b
Bw = (1+ )
f
b
2
f
b
2
-f
c
+f
c
3 - 1 - 12
Modulated Signal Spectrum
V
f
MOD
70 MHz
LO
IF
f 0
Bw = 2f
c
f
c
70+f
c
f 0
70 70-
fc
B
2f
c
3 - 1 - 13
2-PSK [cont.]
2 PSK Modulator
2 PSK Demodulator
DIFF.
DEC.
100111
Data
L.O.
IF
IF signal
BTF
1 0
B A
DIFF.
ENC.
100111
Data
L.O.
IF
IF signal
Post
Conversion
Filter
2 PSK
Mixer
BTF
3 - 1 - 14
2-PSK [cont.]
2-PSK Waveforms - Modulator
DATA IN
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
CARRIER
IF OUTPUT
+V
-V
3 - 1 - 15
2-PSK [cont.]
2-PSK Waveforms - Demodulator
DATA OUT
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
CARRIER
IF INPUT
DEMODULATED SIGNAL
-V
+V
3 - 1 - 16
2-PSK [cont.]
Absolute Coding Differential Coding
0 = B 0 = No change in the phase of the carrier
1 = A 1 = 180 change in the phase of the carrier
B A
1 0
A A
1
B
0
A
1
B
1
B
0
A
1
Switch
A A B B A B B A
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
B A B B A B B A
1 1 0 1 1 0 1
RX
ON
TX B
0
3 - 1 - 17
2-PSK
BTF Binary Transversal Filter (digital filter)
IN
H(f)
T
5
IN
X
A
10
T
5
X
A
5
T
5
X
A
2
T
5
X
A
5
A
10
X
OUT
A
A/10
A/5
T/5
A/2
T/5
A/5
T/5
A/10
T/5
f
N
-f
N
-2f
N
=1
0.4
0
f
N
(1+ ) 2f
N
OUT
H(t)
1
W
-
1
2W
-
1
2W
+
1
W
+
3 - 1 - 18
4-PSK [cont.]
4-PSK Modulator
1 0
DIFFER.
ENCODER
IF
Post
Convertion
Filter
2 PSK
Mixer
BTF
L.O.
90
L.O.
90
BTF
0010111
2 PSK
Mixer
S
P
L.O.
RF
Branching
Filter
Bw = f
b
(1+ ) Bw = f
s
(1+ )
f
s
0
1
2 PSK f
s
= f
b
4 PSK f
s
=
f
b
2
2
2
8 PSK =
3
2
3
16 PSK =
4
2
4
B (10) A (00)
C (11) D (01)
f
s
f
b
f
s
f
b

3 - 1 - 19
4-PSK [cont.]
Differential Coding
B B
00
B
B
D
B
C
C
D
B
D
Switch
D
11 10 01 11 01 01
ON
= No change
01 = -90 change
TX C
A
A (00)
10 01 11 01 01 00
RX B B B C B C
10 = +90 change
11 = -180 change
001001110101.........
D (01)
B (10)
C (11)
- +
3 - 1 - 20
4-PSK
4-PSK Demodulator
2 PSK
Mixer
BTF
L.O.
90
L.O.
90
BTF
2 PSK
Mixer
P
S
IF DIFFER.
DECODER
Y1
X1
Y1
X1
Decision
Circuit
Decision
Circuit
3 - 1 - 21
16-QAM [cont.]
16-QAM Modulator
11
10
01
00
01 00 11 10
Vy
Vx
Y1
X1
Y2
X2
Y
X
1 1 +3V
1 0 +1V
0 1 -1V
0 0 -3V
BTF
L.O.
90
L.O.
90
BTF
S
P
IF DIFFER.
ENCODER
X2 X2
2R
X1 X1
Y2
Y1
X2
X1
Y2
Y1
FEC
X2
X1
Y2
Y1
2R
Y2
2R
Y2
Y1 Y1
2R
X2
X1
3 - 1 - 22
16-QAM
16-QAM Demodulator
BTF
L.O.
90
L.O.
90
BTF
P
S
IF DIFFER.
DECODER
X2 X2
Decision
Circuit
Decision
Circuit
X2
X1 X1 X1
Y2 Y2 Y2
Y1 Y1 Y1
3 - 1 - 23
16-TCM [cont.]
16-TCM Modulator
BTF
L.O.
90
L.O.
90
BTF
S
P
IF
DIFFER.
CONVOL.
X2 X2
2R
X1 X1
Y2
Y1
X2
X1
Y2
Y1
MAPPING
X2
X1
Y2
Y1
2R
Y2
2R
Y2
Y1 Y1
2R
X2
X1
+
ENCODER
3 - 1 - 24
16-TCM [cont.]
16-TCM Demodulator
BTF
L.O.
90
L.O.
90
BTF
P
S
IF
DIFFER.
DECODER
X2 X2
Decision
Circuit
Decision
Circuit
X2
X1 X1 X1
Y2 Y2 Y2
Y1 Y1 Y1
VITERBI
DECODER
+
3 - 1 - 25
16-TCM [cont.]
TCM Principles - State Diagram (Example with 8-TCM)
S
P
a
b
S
0
S
1
c
CONVOLUTIONAL ENCODER
S
0
S
1
0 0
b c
0 / 0
S
0
S
1
0 1
S
0
S
1
1 1
b c
0 / 1
S
0
S
1
1 0
b c
1 / 0
b c
1 / 1
b c
1 / 0
b c
0 / 0
b c
0 / 1
b c
1 / 1
3 - 1 - 26
16-TCM [cont.]
TCM Principles - Mapping (Example with 8-TCM)
1
0
7
6 5
4
3
2
a
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 0 0 1 1 1
b 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 c
7
1
1
1
3 - 1 - 27
16-TCM
TCM Principles - Trellis Diagram (Example with 8-TCM)
0
4
0
4
0
4
0
b=0
T
0
T
1
T
2
T
3
3
7
b=1
b=0
1
5
2
6
5
1
b=1
3
7
2
6
6
2
0
4
1
5
3
7
0
0 1
1 0
1 1
S
0
S
1
3 - 1 - 28
Performances Versus Noise [cont.]
2-PSK
C
A
= Carrier
N = Noise
B
Threshold
1 1
C
N
C+N
Errors depend of the distance between two points.
We have "ERROR" if N > C N > 1
3 - 1 - 29
Performances Versus Noise [cont.]
4-PSK
2 PSK and 4 PSK have the same performance versus noise, but for this reason is never
used 2 PSK due to its double bandwidth
B A
C D
1
1
Two Different
Threshold
2
2
= 0.7
2
If the Noise (N) is:
you have error
N > 0.7
Modulation
Type
2 PSK
4 PSK
Error
Condition
N > 1
N > 0.7
Bandwidth
BW
BW
2
(-3dB)
Symbol
Freq. (fs)
fb
fb
2
Noise Power (N) = Amplitde x Bandwidth
3 - 1 - 30
Performances Versus Noise
DEMODULATOR
IF data
DETECTOR
ERROR
10
-6
S
N
= 13.5 dB
10
-6
4 PSK
S
N
= 18.6 dB
10
-6
8 PSK
S
N
= 20.5 dB
10
-6
16 QAM
S
N
= 26.5 dB
10
-6
64 QAM
3 - 1 - 31
Exercise
Why is used the 16 QAM modulation and
not the 16 PSK?
3 - 1 - 32
Main Modulation Types Characteristics
4 PSK
0
8 PSK
0
16 QAM
2.5
64 QAM
3.7
Modulation type
Position of Vectorial modulation
states (levels) at equal peak
power (C
max
)
Peak-to-Mean power ratio (dB)
R/2 R/3 R/4 R/6 Nyquist Bandwidth (Bny)
Symbol frequency (S)
(R = Binary information capacity)
2 3 4 6 Modulation efficiency (bit/sec/Hz)
(Theoretical)
S/N (dB)
(Theoretical at BER = 10
-6
)
13.5 18.6 20.5 26.5
3 - 1 - 33
Thermal Noise (C/N versus BER)
1 1 0 (normalized) 2 PSK
v C/N (20log v/ ) Mod.
1 0.70 +3.1 dB 4 PSK
1 0.38 +8.4 dB 8 PSK
1 0. 19 +14.2dB 16 PSK
0.7 0.23 +9.7 dB 16 QAM
0.6 0.10 +15.6 dB 64 QAM
0.6 0.047 +22.1 dB 256 QAM
16 QAM
Phase level
decision
threshold
I
v
Q
v
Q
8 PSK
I
= noise voltage
v = carrier peak voltage
3 - 1 - 34
Comparison of Different Mod. Schemes [cont.]
Bit/s
(Hz)
6
4
2
10 15 20 25 W (dB)
2 2
4
8
4
8
16
16
BER = 10
-6
QAM
FSK
64
32
16 QAM 16 PSK
PSK
3 - 1 - 35
10
-10
5 W (dB)
10
-9
10 15 20 25
10
-8
10
-7
10
-6
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
16QAM
16PSK
2PSK
4PSK
8PSK
32PSK
64QAM
3 - 1 - 36
Comparison of different modulation schemes
(Theoretical Wand S/N values at 10
-6
BER; calculated values may have slightly different assumptions)
a) Basic modulation scheme
(1)
As an example, error
correction with redundancy (r)
of 6.7% is used for calculation
in this Table.
System Variants W
(dB)
S/N
(dB)
Nyquist
Bandwidth (b
n
)
FSK 2-state FSK with discriminator detection 13.4 13.4 B
3-state FSK (duo-binary) 15.9 15.9 B
4-state FSK 20.1 23.1 B/2
PSK 2-state PSK with coherent detection 10.5 10.5 B
4-state PSK with coherent detection 10.5 13.5 B/2
QAM 16-QAM with coherent detection 17.0 20.5 B/4
32-QAM with coherent detection 18.9 23.5 B/5
Basic modulation schemes with FEC
QAM 16-QAM with coherent detection 13.9 17.6 B/4*(1+r)
with 32-QAM with coherent detection 15.6 20.6 B/5*(1+r)
block 64-QAM with coherent detection 19.4 23.8 B/6*(1+r)
codes
(1)
128-QAM with coherent detection 21.1 26.7 B/7*(1+r)
3 - 1 - 37
Comparison of Different Mod. Schemes
B) Coded modulation scheme
System Variants W
(dB)
S/N
(dB)
Nyquist
Bandwidth (b
n
)
(1)
BCM
(2)
16 BCM - 8D (QAM. One step partition) 15.3 18.5 B/3.75
80 BCM - 8D (QAM. One step partition) 23.5 28.4 B/6
TCM
(3)
16 TCM - 2D 12.1 14.3 B/3
32 TCM - 2D 13.9 17.6 B/4
64 TCM - 4D 18.3 21.9 B/5.5
128 TCM - 2D 19.0 23.6 B/6
128 TCM - 4D 20.0 24.9 B/6.5
512 TCM - 2D 23.8 29.8 B/8
512 TCM - 4D 24.8 31.1 B/8.5
MLCM
(4)
32-MLCM - 2D (QAM) 14.1 18.3 B/4.5
64-MLCM - 2D (QAM) 18.1 21.7 B/5.5
128-MLCM - 2D (QAM) 19.6 24.5 B/6.5
(1)
The bit rate B does not include code redundancy.
(2)
The block code length is half the number of the BCM signal dimensions.
(3)
The performances depend upon the implemented decoding algorithm.
In this example, an optimum number is used.
(4)
In this example, convolutional code is used for lower 2 levels and block codes are used for the third level to
give overall redundancies as those of 4D-TCM. Specially redundancies on the two convolutional coded
levels are 3/2, 8/7 and 24/23 on the block coded third level.
3 - 1 - 38
Roll-off calculation example [cont.]
Example 1
Available bandwidth = 40 MHz
Transmitted stream = 34 Mbit/s
Modulation type = 2 PSK
Roll-off = ?
BW = fb (1+)
40 = 34 (1+ )
a = 40/34-1 = 0.05
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN fb and fs AS FUNCTION OF THE MODULATION TYPE
2 PSK fs = fb fb = 34 Mbit/s fs = 34 MHz
4 PSK fs = fb/2 fb = 34 Mbit/s fs = 17 MHz
8 PSK fs = fb/3 fb = 34 Mbit/s fs = 11.3 MHz
16 QAM fs = fb/4 fb = 34 Mbit/s fs = 8.5 MHz
3 - 1 - 39
Roll-off calculation example
Example 2
Available bandwidth = 20 MHz
Transmitted stream = 140 Mbit/s
Modulation type = ?
BW = fb/n
n = fb/BW = 140/20 = 7
2
7
= 128 128 QAM with = 0
2
8
= 256 256 QAM with = 1
3 - 1 - 40
Blank Page
3 - 1 - 41
2 Equipment unavailability
3 - 1 - 42
Introduction [cont.]
Unavailability = Part of the time in which the link is out of order.
Where:
MTTR = Mean Time To Repair
MTBF = Mean Time Between Failures
MTBF MTTR
MTTR
U
+
=
Equipment unavailability
3 - 1 - 43
Introduction
By supposing:
Failures statistically independent
MTTR << MTBF
UNAVAILABILITY OF SERIES BLOCKS
U
1-2
= U
A
+ U
B
UNAVAILABILITY OF PARALLEL BLOCKS
U
1-2
= U
A
U
B
A B
1 2
1 2
A
B
3 - 1 - 44
Unavailability objective
EQUIPMENT UNAVAILABILITY OBJECTIVE
for HRDP (L = 2500 km) is supposed to be 1/3 of the total unavailability:
U
eq.
< 0.1% = 0.001
The HRDP consists of 9 switching sections (section length = 280 km approx.)
For one-direction of the link only:
U
eq.s1
< 55.10
-6
4 eq.
eq.s
10 1.1
9
U
U
=
3 - 1 - 45
Unavailability of a non-protected section (1+0) [cont.]
Suppose that a radio section consists of:
1 Tx Terminal
1 Rx Terminal
5 Repeaters (equal each other)
3 - 1 - 46
Unavailability of a non-protected section (1+0) [cont.]
1+0 radio section: 6 hops, 5 repeater stations
Mod. Tx
PSU
Z'
Rx Dem
PSU
Mod Tx Rx Dem
PSU
Z
L = 50 km L = 50 km
3 - 1 - 47
Unavailability of a non-protected section (1+0)
U
Tx Term.
= U
Term. Mod
+ U
Tx
+ U
PSU
U
Rep.
= U
Rx
+ U
Rep. Dem
+ U
Rep. Mod
+ U
Tx
+ U
PSU
U
Rx Term.
= U
Rx
+ U
Term. Dem
+ U
PSU
Unavailability of the non-protected section (uni-directional) (points Z-Z):
U
S(1+0)
= U
Tx Term
+ 5 U
Rep.
+ U
Rx Term
3 - 1 - 48
Unavailability of a protected section (1+1) [cont.]
T
S
= Tx part of the switching system, the failure of which causes the total
unavailability of the section.
R
S
= Rx part of the switching system, the failure of which causes the total
unavailability of the section.
L
p
= Part of the switching system, the failure of which doesnt allow the regular
operation of the switching system.
MTBF
s
= Global MTBF of the switching system series part.
MTBF
p
= Global MTBF of the switching system parallel part.
U
S
U
S
R'
T
S
R
R
S
L
p
3 - 1 - 49
Unavailability of a protected section (1+1) [cont.]
1+1 radio section: 6 hops, 5 repeater stations
Mod. Tx
PSU
Z'
Rx Dem
PSU
Mod Tx Rx Dem
PSU
Z
L = 50 km L = 50 km
Mod. Tx
PSU
Z'
Rx Dem
PSU
Mod Tx Rx Dem
PSU
Z
R' R
LOGIC
3 - 1 - 50
Unavailability of a protected section (1+1)
Global unavailability of the 1+1 protected section:
The section is unavailable due to:
failures of the 2 channels
failure of the series part of the switching system
failure of a channel and of the parallel part of the switching
system
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 0.5 U U U U U
0 1 s par ser
2
0 1 s 1 1 s
+ + =
+ + +

3 - 1 - 51
3 M.21xx-series Recommendations
3 - 1 - 52
General concepts [cont.]
Differences between Recommendations G.821/G.826 and the M.21xx series start with their
different origins:
G-series Recommendations are from ITU-T Study Group 13 (General network
issues);
M-series are from Study Group 4 (Network Maintenance and TMN).
Main differences:
G.821/G.826 define long-term performance objectives to be met.
G.821/G.826 require very long test intervals (one month).
The M-series Recommendations are particularly useful when bringing-into-service
new transmission equipment. They are intended to assure that the requirements of
the G series are met in every case.
As a general rule, the requirements of the M-series are tougher than those of the
G-series.
For practical reasons, the M.21xx-series Recommendations allow short test
intervals.
3 - 1 - 53
General concepts [cont.]
Media independent (ITU-T)
M.2100 for PDH paths sections and transmission systems
M.2110 how to apply M.2100 and M.2101 for BIS (Bring-Into-Service)
M.2120 how to apply M.2100 and M.2101 for maintenance
M.2101 for SDH paths and multiplex section
Radio specific (ITU-R)
F.1330 for parts of international PDH and SDH paths and sections.
3 - 1 - 54
End of Module

Radio Network Planning

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Section 1 - Module 1 - Page 1

3FL 42104 AAAA WBZZA Edition 2 - J uly 2005

Section 1 - Module 1 - Page 42

Section 1 - Module 2 - Page 34

n TxRx PRx TxP = + = +

Section 1 - Module 2 - Page 133

Geometrical parameters related to the Reflection mechanism:

Section 3 - Module 1 - Page 10

Section 3 - Module 1 - Page 51

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