CHAPTER 1 DIODES

1 Diode
Objectives of this Experiment
Measure the DC parameters of a PN junction diode
Recognize the characteristics of the reverse bias current.
Identify typical values of DC parameters for PN junction
diodes
Equipments required for this Experiment
Circuit #1 of D3000 - 2.1 Semiconductors-1 Module
Two multimeters
Shorting links and connecting leads

Exercise 1.1 Diode Forward Characteristic
The physical properties of a semiconductor junction prevent
Ohm's Law having control over the current that flows both in the
forward and reverse bias modes.
In the forward bias mode, the barrier potential must first be
overcome before any appreciable current can flow.
In reverse bias the very small number of minority carriers
available is the controlling influence on the amount of current flowing.






Figure 1.1
The circuit diagram for taking the measurements to plot the forward
characteristic is shown in Fig 1.1 above.
The special power supply used for plotting the forward bias conditions of the
diode in Circuit #1 is mounted on the module panel near to the top right hand corner,
marked 0-2V DC SUPPLY.









Figure 1.2
Steps for doing the experiment
1. Locate the 0-2V DC supply and turn the control to MIN.
2. Connect a shorting link between sockets 1.3 & 1.8, as shown in Fig
1.2 above.
3. Connect multimeter 1 on DC current range to sockets 1.1 (positive)
and 1.4 (common).
4. Connect multimeter 2 on DC voltage range to sockets 1.9 (positive)
and 1.10 (common).
5. Switch ON the Module Power Supplies.
6. Adjust the 0-2V supply to give 100mV across the diode.
7. Read the current from multimeter 1 and record in Table 1.1.
8. Reset the voltage to 200mV and repeat the current reading.
9. Continue taking readings at the voltages indicated in Table 1.1,
noting that the interval is changed to 50mV as soon as the current
starts increasing rapidly. Watch the current reading as the voltage is
increased and change the range setting of multimeter 1 as required.
If your multimeter has auto-range facility then this should be
selected
Beware - as the range is changed on multimeter 1 you may need to reset
the voltage.














Table 1.1
10. Plot the forward characteristic of the diode on the axes provided.
Note that the low current readings are too small to be plotted











You will observe that the steps of current are not linear against voltage,
showing that the diode does not follow Ohm's Law.




Exercise 1.2 Diode Reverse Characteristic
It is necessary to get the reverse bias current (leakage current) flow of the
diode into proportion. For practical purposes this current is negligible. This is
confirmed in the first part of the experiment. However the leakage current of a p-n
junction can be significant in some semiconductors, so it is worth spending a little
extra time investigating this more carefully.



















Figure 1.3
1. Plug a shorting link between sockets 1.7 & 1.8
2. Connect multimeter 1 on DC current range between sockets 1.5
(positive) and 1.4 (common).
3. Set the 0-12V Variable DC supply control to the MIN (0V) position
and switch ON the Module Power Supplies.
Note: The 0-12V DC variable power supply is connected with its negative
terminal uppermost, so that the diode can be conveniently reverse biased using
shorting links.
4. Watch multimeter 1 as the 0-12V DC variable supply is increased to
maximum.
You will note that there is no response, indicating that the current is of
negligibly small proportions. However, we know that there is a small amount of
minority carrier current, and by monitoring the voltage dropped across R16
(1Mresistor in Circuit #8, Standard Amplifier Configurations), we will be able to
determine the leakage current.
5. Remove multimeter 1 from the circuit and replace it by a shorting link
between sockets 1.4 & 1.5.
6. Remove the shorting link between sockets 1.7 & 1.8. Connect leads
between sockets 1.7 & 8.14 and 8.15 & 1.8.
7. Connect multimeter 2 on DC voltage range to sockets 1.9 (positive) and
1.10 (common), to measure the anode voltage of diode D1 with respect
to the cathode. Adjust the variable supply until the measured anode
voltage is -1V.














Figure 1.4
8. Move the positive lead of multimeter 2 (still on DC voltage range) to
socket 1.7, as shown in Fig 1.4.
Note that you cannot use two multimeters, since one of them would be
shunting the diode and giving false readings on the other.
9. Record the potential difference (voltage) across R16 (in mV) in Table
1.2.
10. Repeat the previous two steps for anode voltages of -2V, -3V, and so
on, up to -11V.
Note: Because the voltage across R16 is so very small multimeter 2 may have
difficulty in giving a steady reading when measuring across R16. If you encounter
this difficulty you should take the average of the highest and lowest indications and
record that value.













Table 1.2
The value of the leakage current can now be calculated by dividing the voltage
across resistor R16 by its value (1M).
Note that dividing millivolts (10
-3
) by megohms (10
6
) gives nanoamps (10
-9
).
For example, 10mV divided by 1M gives 10nA.
11. Calculate the value of leakage current for each of the voltage steps and
add to Table 1.2 opposite.
2 Diode Rectifier Circuits
Objectives of this Experiment
Determine by measurement and calculation Vp-p for an AC wave
Measure Vp and Vave for a half-wave rectifier output
Measure reservoir capacitor voltages for a half-wave rectifier output
Determine by measurement and calculation Vave across a load for
positive and negative rectifier outputs
Calculate Vp and Vave for half-wave rectifier circuits
Recognise the function of a reservoir capacitor
Diagnose a fault in a half-wave rectifier circuit
Equipments required for this Experiment
Circuit #2 of D3000 - 2.1 Semiconductors-1 Module
Multimeter
Signal generator
Oscilloscope
Shorting links and connecting leads

Exercise 2.1 Half way Rectifier
The diode only permits current to flow in one direction. If alternating voltage
is applied to a circuit containing a diode, conventional current will only flow in the
direction of the arrowhead that is part of the diode symbol. Hence the current is
directional or direct (DC).
The value of the direct current flowing will be proportional to the peak value
of the applied alternating voltage, which is itself proportional to the RMS value of
the applied voltage.









Figure 2.1
The relationship between alternating voltage values is shown in Fig 2.1. If the
peak voltage is taken as the initial reference, the peak-to-peak, RMS and average
values can be related to it. Vpeak-to-peak (Vp-p) is twice the peak value and the
RMS value is 0.707 times the peak value (

/2;

= 2

). Note
that the average value of a complete cycle is zero, and this will be the result if you
try to measure an alternating quantity on the DC range of a meter.
The average value over one half cycle is also shown, and this leads to the
average of full- and half-wave rectified sinewave quantities which are also shown in
Fig 2.1 above.





Figure 2.2
Steps for doing this experiment:
1. Connect the multimeter, on ACvoltage range between sockets 2.1 and
2.2
2. Set the frequency of the signal generator to main supply frequency, and
adjust the output amplitude to give 5VRMSinput to the circuit as
indicated on the multimeter.

Exercise 2.2 Reservoir Capacitor
With an alternating voltage applied, the instantaneous value will fall to zero
at the start and finish of each half cycle. This is not a very satisfactory form of direct
current supply. The ability of a capacitor to store and then release charge allows this
disadvantage to be overcome.
There is a small variation of the voltage provided to the load, falling as the
capacitor discharges when the diode is non-conducting (reverse biased), and rising
quickly again when the diode conducts to restore the charge during the peak of the
applied voltage.
This is called the ripple voltage, the amplitude of which increases with load
current, and causes a reduction in the average value of load voltage.






Figure 2.3
Steps for doing this experiment
1. Remove the shorting link from sockets 2.4 & 2.7 and connect a lead
between sockets 2.4 & 2.9, and a shorting link between sockets 2.8 &
2.11.
2. Connect the multimeter positive on DC voltage range to socket 2.10.
3. With the input from the signal generator adjusted to main supply
frequency and 5V
RMS
as in the previous exercise, measure the direct
voltage across the reservoir capacitor C1.
Note: Resistor R3 (10k) simulates the load. This is not connected at all at
the moment and so there is no current being drawn from the reservoir capacitor. The
voltage across the capacitor will therefore be the full peak voltage from the diode.















Figure 2.4
4. Remove the lead from sockets 2.4 & 2.9, and connect shorting links
between sockets 2.4 & 2.7, 2.6 & 2.9, and 2.8 & 2.11.
5. Set up the oscilloscope as follows:
Timebase to 5ms/div, trigger selector to AC, dual trace operation.
Set the ALT/CHOP to CHOP.
Centralize both traces at the middle of the display.
CH.1 Y amplifier gain to 2V/div, DC input.
CH.2 Y amplifier gain to 2V/div, DC input.
6. With CH.1 of the oscilloscope connected to socket 2.1, check that the
waveform still indicates an input of 5V
RMS
at main supply frequency.
7. Connect CH.2 of the oscilloscope via a lead to socket 2.10.
8. Make an accurate sketch of the oscilloscope display, marking in the
voltage and time scales on the graticule provided.








Exercise 2.3 Bridge Rectifier
Full-wave rectification allows both half cycles of the input to cause current to
flow in the load, but always in the same direction.










Figure 2.5
Circuits #2 and #3 have been located close to each other to facilitate
comparisons between half- and full-wave rectifier circuits.
9. Connect shorting links between sockets 2.4 & 2.7 and 2.8 & 2.11 on
Circuit #2 and a lead to provide a common ground line between Circuits
#2 and #3 from socket 2.5 to 3.4.
Make sure that you connect the common ground line to the correct socket in
Circuit #3.
10. Set up the oscilloscope as follows:
Timebase to 5ms/div, trigger selector to AC, dual trace operation.
Set the ALT/CHOP switch to CHOP.
Centralize the CH.1 trace at the middle, CH.2 at the bottom of the
display.
CH.1 Y amplifier gain to 5V/div, DC input.
CH.2 Y amplifier gain to 2V/div, DC input.
11. Use leads to connect CH.1 of the oscilloscope to socket 3.5, and CH.2
to socket 2.6.
12. Switch ON the Module Power Supplies.
13. Set the signal generator to main supply frequency, and adjust the output
amplitude to give a 6V peak voltage. Fine tune the frequency to get both
traces on the oscilloscope as stationary as possible.
Note: It is not possible to use the signal generator or the main supply to feed
both circuits because of the ground line which would short out one of the diodes in
the bridge circuit.
14. Sketch the oscilloscope traces on the graticule provided, marking in
voltage and time scales.
Note: It will be necessary to have two different voltage scales, one for the
upper half of the screen and another for the bottom.











Figure 2.6











Exercise 2.4 Effect of Reservoir Capacitor
With the Bridge Rectifier circuit the reservoir capacitor is recharged every
halfcycle, instead of just on the positive half-cycles.









Figure 2.7
Steps for doing this exercise
1. Connect shorting links between sockets 2.4 & 2.7 and 2.8 & 2.11 on
Circuit #2 and a lead to provide a common ground line between Circuits
#2 and #3 from socket 2.5 to 3.4.
2. Set up the oscilloscope as follows:
Timebase to 5ms/div, trigger selector to AC, dual trace operation.
Set the ALT/CHOP switch to CHOP.
Centralize the CH.1 trace at the middle, CH.2 at the bottom of the
display.
CH.1 Y amplifier gain to 5V/div, DC input.
CH.2 Y amplifier gain to 2V/div, DC input.
3. Use leads to connect CH.1 of the oscilloscope to socket 3.5, and CH.2
to socket 2.6.
4. Switch ON the Module Power Supplies.
5. Set the signal generator to main supply frequency and adjust the output
amplitude to give a 6V peak voltage. Fine tune the frequency to get both
traces on the oscilloscope as stationary as possible.
6. Plug a lead into socket 2.10 to act as a flying lead.
7. Plug the loose end of the flying lead to socket 3.3.
8. Sketch the upper oscilloscope trace on the graticule provided below,
marking in voltage and time scales.
9. Transfer the CH.2 oscilloscope lead from socket 2.6 to 2.9 and transfer
the flying lead from socket 3.3 to socket 2.6.
10. Sketch the lower trace.
Note: It will be necessary to have two different voltage scales, one for the
upper half of the screen and another for the bottom.







Figure 2.8
Note: Do not attempt to monitor the waveforms on both sides of the diode
bridge at the same time. Connecting ground returns to both sockets 3.2 and 3.4 will
almost certainly result in destroying one of the diodes in the bridge circuit.

HOMEWORKS
1. Simulate the actual laboratory experiment in Exercise 1.1 (Diode
Forward Characteristic) by using Electronic Workbench software
(Multisim)
2. Simulate the actual laboratory experiment in Exercise 1.2 (Diode
Reverse Characteristic) by using Electronic Workbench software
(Multisim)