3 Slides PDF

Dr.
Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum

3. Magnetostatic fields
Dr. Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum
2/16/2013
1
Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum
3.1 Introduction to electric currents
Electric currents
Ohms law Kirchoffs law Joules law
Boundary
conditions
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Kirchoffs current
law
Kirchoffs voltage
law
Fig. 3.1 Electric currents
So far we have discussed electrostatic fields associated with
stationary charges
What happens when these charges started moving with
uniform velocity?
It creates electric currents and electric currents creates
magnetic fields magnetic fields
In electric currents, we will study
Ohms law,
Kirchoffs law
Joules law
Behavior of current density at a media interface
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3.1.1 Current density
What is this?
For a particular surface S in a conductor, i is the flux of the
current density vector over that surface or
mathematically
i j ds =
r
r
j
r
3.1.2 Ohms law
It states that the current passing through a homogeneous
conductor is proportional to
the potential difference applied across it and
the constant of proportionality is 1/R which is dependent on
the material parameters of the conductor
S
i j ds =
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Mathematically,
From the relation between
current density (j) and current (i),
V
i V i
R
=
current density (j) and current (i),
electric potential (V) with electric field (E) and
resistance (R) with resistivity () in an isotropic material
we can obtain the Ohms law in point form as
V Edl Edlds E
jds i j E
dl
R dl
ds
= = = = = =
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where is the conductivity and
is the resistivity of the isotropic material
=
Material (S/m)
Rubber 10
-15
Table 3.1 Conductivities of some common materials
Rubber 10
-15
Water 210
-14
Gold 410
7
Aluminum 310
7
Copper 510
7
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Some points on perfect conductors and electric fields:
Perfect conductors or metals have infinite conductivity ideally
An infinite conductivity means for any non-zero electric field
one would get an infinite current density which is physically
impossible impossible
Perfect conductors do not have any electric fields inside it
Perfect conductors are always an equipotential surface
At the surface of the perfect conductor, the tangential
component of the electric field must be zero
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3.2 Equation of continuity and KCL
j
r
ds
r
Fig. 3.3 Equation of continuity
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= =

V
v
S V
v
dv
dt
d
s d j dv
dt
d
dt
dq
i
r
r
The above equation is integral form of equation of continuity
It states that any change of charge in a region must be
accompanied by a flow of charge across the surface bounding
the region
It is basically a principle of conservation of charge It is basically a principle of conservation of charge
By applying the divergence theorem
0
V V
V V V
d d
jdv dv j dv
dt dt

= + =

r r
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Since the volume under consideration is arbitrary
Differential form of the equation of the continuity
0
V
d
j
dt
+ =
r
At steady state, there can be no points of changing charge
density
V
d
j
dt
=
r
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= =
S
s d j j 0 0
r
r r
The net steady current through any closed surface is zero
If we shrink the closed surface to a point, it becomes
Kirchoffs current law (KCL)
0 I =
KCL states that at any node (junction) in an electrical circuit,

the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of
currents flowing out of that node
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3.3 Electromotive force and KVL
Fig. 3.4 Proof of KVL
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When a resistor is connected between terminals 1 and 2 of
the battery,
The total electric field intensitys (total electric field
comprise of electrostatic electric field as well as the
impressed electric field caused by chemical action) relation to impressed electric field caused by chemical action) relation to
the current density is given as
where the superscript c is for conservative field and
the superscript n is for non-conservative field
( )
c n
j E E = +
r r
r
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Conservative electric field exists both inside the battery and
along the wire outside the battery,
While the impressed non-conservative electric field exists
inside the battery only
The line integral of the total electric field around the closed The line integral of the total electric field around the closed
circuit gives
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( ) l d
j
l d E E
C C
n c
r
r
r r r
= +


Note that the line integral of the conservative field over a
closed loop is zero
The line integral of the non-conservative field in non-zero
and is equal to the emf of the battery source
Since non-conservative field outside the battery is zero, Since non-conservative field outside the battery is zero,
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( ) ( ) l d
j
l d E l d E E
C C
n n c
r
r
r r r r r
= = = +

2
1
Note that i = jA or j=i/A
Therefore, the voltage drop across the resistor is
V=jl/=il/A=il/A=iR
If there are more than one source of emf and more than one
resistor in the closed path, we get Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
(KVL) (KVL)
KVL states that around a closed path in an electric circuit,
the algebraic sum of the emfs is equal to the algebraic sum of the voltage
drops across the resistances
1 1
M N
m n n
m n
i R
= =
=

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3.4 Joules law and power dissipation
Consider a medium in which charges are moving with an
average velocity v under the influence of an electric field
If
v
is the volume charge density, then the force
experienced by the charge in the volume dv is
= =
r r r
If the charge moves a distance dl in a time dt, the work done
by the electric field is
V
dF dqE dvE = =
r r r
( )
V V
dW dF dl dvE vdt E v dvdt E jdvdt j Edvdt = = = = =
r r r r r r r r
r r
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3.4 Joules law and power dissipation
Then, the elemental work done per unit time is
If we define the power density p as the power per unit
volume, then, point form of Joules law is
dW
dP j Edv
dt
= =
r r
volume, then, point form of Joules law is
The power associated with the volume (integral form of
Joules law) is given by
p j E =
r r
V V
P pdv j Edv = =

r r
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3.5 Boundary conditions for current density
S
1
Fig. 3.5 Boundary conditions for current density

2
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How does the current density vector changes when passing
through an interface of two media of different conductivities
1
and
2
?
Let us construct a pillbox whose height is so small that the
contribution from the curved surface of the cylinder to the contribution from the curved surface of the cylinder to the
current can be neglected
Applying equation of continuity and computing the surface
integrals, we have,
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( )
2 1 1 1 2 1
0 0 0
n n
S
J J J J n s J n s J n s d j i = = = = =
r r r r
r
r
It states that the normal component of electric current
density is continuous across the boundary
Since, we have another boundary condition that the
tangential component of the electric field is continuous
across the boundary, that is, across the boundary, that is,
( )
1 2 1 1 2 1
1 2
1 2 1 2 2 2
0 0 0
t t t
t
J J J J J
n E E n
J

= = = =

r r
r r
) )
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The ratio of the tangential components of the current
densities at the interface is equal to the ratio of the
conductivities of the two media
We can also calculate the free charge density from the
boundary condition on the normal components of the boundary condition on the normal components of the
electric flux densities as follows:
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2
n n
n n S S n n S n
J J
D D E E J

= = = =

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3.6 Introduction to magnetostatics
In static magnetic fields, the three fundamental laws are
Biot Savarts Law,
Gausss law for magnetic fields and
Amperes circuital law
Biot Savart law gives the magnetic field due to a current
carrying element carrying element
From Gausss law for magnetic fields, we can understand that
the magnetic field lines are always continuous
In other words, magnetic monopole does not exist in nature
Amperes circuital law states that a current carrying loop
produces a magnetic field
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Magnetostatics
Biot Savarts
law
Gausss law for
Magnetic vector
potential
Boundary
Self and mutual
inductance
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Gausss law for
magnetic fields
Magnetization
Amperes
law
Boundary
conditions
Fig. 3.6 Magnetostatics
Magnetic vector
potential in materials
3.6 Introduction to magnetostatics
It is easier to find magnetic fields from the curl of magnetic
vector potential whose direction is along the direction of
electric current density
Another topic we will study here is that how do magnetic
fields behave in a medium fields behave in a medium
We will also try to find the
self and mutual inductance and
magnetic energy
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3.7 Biot Savarts law
The magnetic field due to a current carrying segment is
proportional to
its length and
the current it is carrying and
the sine of the angle between and
r
r
Idl
r
the sine of the angle between and
inversely proportional to the square of distance r of the point
of observation P from the source current element
Mathematically,
0
2 2 2

4
dl r dl r dl r
dB I dB kI dB I
r r r

= =
r r r
$ $ $
r r r
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r
Idl
3.8 Gausss law for magnetic fields
In studying electric fields, we found that electric charges
could be separated from each other such that a positive
charge existed independently from a negative charge
Would the same separation of magnetic poles exist?
A magnetic monopole has not been observed or found in
nature nature
We find that magnetic field lines are continuous and do not
originate or terminate at a point
Enclosing an arbitrary point with a closed surface, we can
express this fact mathematically integral form of 3
rd
Maxwells equations
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= =
S
s d B 0
r
r
3.8 Gausss law for magnetic fields
Using the divergence theorem,
In order this integral to be equal to zero for any arbitrary
volume, the integrand itself must be identically zero which
( )

= = =
S V
dv B s d B 0
r
r
r
volume, the integrand itself must be identically zero which
gives differential form of 3
rd
Maxwells equations
=0 B
ur
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3.9 Amperes circuital law
In 1820, Christian Oersted observed that compass needles
were deflected when an electrical current flowed through a
nearby wire
Right hand grip rule: if your thumb points in the direction of
current flow, then your fingers grip points in the direction of current flow, then your fingers grip points in the direction of
magnetic field
Andre Ampere formulated that the line integral of magnetic
field around any closed path equals
0
times the current
enclosed by the surface bounded by the closed path
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Incomplete integral form of 4
th
Maxwells equation
By application of Stokes theorem
=
C
enclosed
I l d B
0
r r
In order the integral to be equal on both sides of the above
equation for any arbitrary surface, the two integrands must
be equal
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( )

= =
C S S
s d J s d B l d B
r
r
r
r r r
0

Incomplete differential form of 4
th
Maxwells equation
Note that there is a fundamental flaw in this Amperes
circuital law
0
= B J
ur uur
circuital law
Maxwell in fact corrected this Amperes circuital law by
adding displacement current in the RHS
Lorentz force equation: for a charge q moving in the uniform
field of both electric and magnetic fields, the total force on
the charge is
E M
F F F qE qv B = + = +
r r r r r
r
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3.10 Magnetic vector potential
Some cases, it is expedient to work with magnetic vector
potential and then obtain magnetic flux density
Since magnetic flux density is solenoidal, its divergence is
zero
( ) =0 B
ur
A vector whose divergence is zero can be expressed in term
of the curl of another vector quantity
= B A
ur ur
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From Biot Savarts law,
It is a standard notation to choose primed coordinates for the
source and unprimed coordinates for the field or observation
3
'
=
4
O
I dl R
B
R
r ur
ur
$ $
= (x-x') +(y-y') +(z-z') R x y z
ur
$
source and unprimed coordinates for the field or observation
point
where the negative sign has been eliminated by reversing the
terms of the vector product
3
1
( ) = -
R
R R
ur
Q
I 1
= ( ) d '
4
O
B l
R
ur r
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Since
Since the curl in unprimed variables is taken w.r.t. the
primed variables of the source point, we have,
1 ' 1
( ) d ' = ( ) - ( d ' )
dl
l l
R R R

r
r r
primed variables of the source point, we have,
d ' = 0 l
r
'
= ( )
4
O
I d l
B
R
r
ur
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The integration and curl are w.r.t. to two different sets of
variables, so we can interchange the order and write the
preceding equation as
0 0
' '
= [ ] =
4 4
I I dl dl
B A
R R

r r
ur ur
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Generalizing line current density in terms of the volume
current density,
0
= dv '
4
V
J
A
R

r
ur
4 4 R R

v
v
Fig. 3.8 (a) Electron orbit around nucleus creating
magnetic dipole moment; Magnetization in (b) non-
magnetic and (c) magnetic materials
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3.10.1 Magnetization
The magnetic moment of an electron is defined as
where I is the bound current (bound to the atom and it is
$ $
2
= I d = I S m n n
ur
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where I is the bound current (bound to the atom and it is
caused by orbiting electrons around the nucleus of the atom)
is the direction normal to the plane in which the electron
orbits and
d is the radius of orbit (see Fig. 3.8 (a))
$
n
Magnetization is magnetic moment per unit volume
The magnetization for N atoms in a volume v in which the
i
th
atom has the magnetic moment is defined as
1
= lim [ ]
N
i
A
M m

uur uur
i
m
uur
Materials like free space, air are nonmagnetic (
r
is
approximately 1)
For non-magnetic materials: (see for example Fig. 3.8 (b), in
a volume , the vector sum of all the magnetic moments is
zero)
0
1
= lim [ ]
i
v
i
M m
v m

=

2/16/2013
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For magnetic materials: (see for instance Fig. 3.8 (c), in a
volume , the vector sum of all the magnetic moments is non-
zero)
Given a magnetization which is non-zero for a
magnetic material in a volume, the magnetic dipole moment
M
r
magnetic material in a volume, the magnetic dipole moment
due to an element of volume dv can be written as
The contribution of due to is
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= dv dm M
ur uur
d A
ur
dm
ur
The magnetic vector potential and magnetic flux density
could be calculated as
( )
'
2
0
2
0
4
dv r M
r r
r m d
A d =
=
r
r
r
could be calculated as
'
3

= dv'
4
=
o
V
M r
A
r
B A
uur r
ur
ur ur
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3.10.2 Magnetic vector potential in materials
Let us try to express this magnetic vector potential in terms
of bound surface and volume current density
1
' ( ) =
r
$
Q
0
1
= ' ( ) dv' A M
ur uur
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We also have,
2
' ( ) =
r r
Q
0
= ' ( ) dv'
4
A M
r

1 1
' ( ) ' ( ) + '
M
M M
r r r
=
uur
uur uur
Q
1 1
' ( ) = ' - ' ( )
M
M M
r r r

uur
uur uur
The proof for the above equality, we will solve in example
'
0
1
A= ( ' - ' ) dv'
4
v
M
M
r r
uur
uur r

=
' '
' ' '
S V
s d
r
M
dv
r
M r
r r
Q
The proof for the above equality, we will solve in example
3.5
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( ) ( )
( ) ( )
'
0
' '
0
'
0
' '
0
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
' '
' '
ds n M
r
dv M
r
s d M
r
dv M
r
A
S V
S V
+ =
+ =

r r
r
r r r

The above equation can be written in the form below
Where
bound volume current density is given by
' '
0
' '
4
ds
r
J
dv
r
J
A
S
sb
V
vb

+ =
r r
r
bound volume current density is given by

bound surface current density is expressed as
=
vb
J M
uuur uur
= n
sb
J M
uuur uur
2/16/2013
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Magnetized material can always be modeled in terms of
bound surface and volume current density
But they are fictitious elements and can not be measured
Only the magnetization is considered to be real and
measurable measurable
2/16/2013
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3.11 Magnetostatic boundary conditions
S
S
J
r
h
h
S
J
r
h
Fig. 3.9 Magnetostatic boundary conditions
2/16/2013
45
3.11.1 Normal components of the magnetic flux density
Consider a Gaussian pill-box at the interface between two
different media, arranged as in the figure above
The integral form of Gausss law tells us that
=
r
r
As the height of the pill-box h tends to zero at the interface,
there will be no contribution from the curved surfaces in the
total magnetic flux, hence, we have
2/16/2013
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=
pillbox
s d B 0
r
r
1 2
d + d =0
S S
B s B s

ur r ur r
1 2
1 2
1 2
B ds - B ds =0
n n
S S

(B - B )ds=0

The normal components of the magnetic flux density are
continuous at the boundary
1 2
(B - B )ds=0
n n
S

1 2
B =B
n n
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3.11.2 Tangential components of the magnetic field intensity
Applying Amperes law to the closed path
where I is the total current enclosed by the closed path PQRS

= + + + =
PQRSP SP RS QR PQ
I l d H l d H l d H l d H l d H
r r r r r r r r r r
where I is the total current enclosed by the closed path PQRS
which lies in the xy plane
Assume that x is along the direction of PQ in Fig. 3.9
At the interface, h0, the line integral along paths QR and
SP are negligible, hence,
2/16/2013
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d + d =I
PQ RS
H l H l

uur r uur r
$ $
1 2
( - ) d l = dl
V
PQ
H H x J y h

uur uuur uur
h 0
Lim
V S
J h J

=
uur uur
Q
is the definition of surface current density
From the property of vector scalar triple product, we have,
h 0
Lim
V S
J h J

= Q
$
( )
$
1 2
( - ) d l = d l
S
PQ
H H y z J y

uur uuur uur
$
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The tangential component of the magnetic field intensity at
$
{ } { }
$ $
1 2 1 2
( - ) d l = ( - ) d l = d l
S
PQ PQ
y z H H z H H y J y

uur uuur uur uuur uur
$ $
1 2
( - ) =
S
z H H J
uur uuur uur
$
The tangential component of the magnetic field intensity at
the interface is continuous unless there is a surface current
density present at the interface
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3.12 Self and mutual inductance
A circuit carrying current I produces a magnetic field which
causes a flux to pass through each turn of the circuit
If the circuit has N turns, we define the magnetic flux linkage
as
Also, the magnetic flux linkage enclosed by the current
. N = B ds =
r
r
Also, the magnetic flux linkage enclosed by the current
carrying conductor is proportional to the current carried by
the conductors
L= /I=
where L is the constant of proportionality called the
inductance of the circuit (unit: Henry)
I LI =
N
I
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The magnetic energy stored in an inductor is expressed from
circuit theory as:
If instead of having a single circuit, we have two circuits
2
2
1
LI W
m
=
2
2
m
W
L
I
=
If instead of having a single circuit, we have two circuits
carrying currents I
1
and I
2
, a magnetic induction exists
between two circuits
Four components of fluxes are produced
The flux for example, is the flux passing through the
circuit 1 due to current in circuit 2
12
,
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Define M
12
=
Similarly,
1
2
12
S
B ds =
ur uur
12 1 12
2 2
N
I I

=
21 2 21
N
M

= =
The total energy in the magnetic field is due to the sum of
energies
21 2 21
21
1 1
N
M
I I

= =
2 2
1 2 12 1 1 2 2 12 1 2
1 1
2 2
m
W W W W L I L I M I I = + + = +
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3.13 Summary
Electric currents
Ohms law Kirchoffs law Joules law
Boundary
conditions
E j p
r r
=
E j = J J =
Fig. 3.10 (a) Electric currents in a nutshell
2/16/2013
54
Kirchoffs current
law
Kirchoffs voltage
law
0 I =
1 1
M N
m n n
m n
i R
= =
=

E j p
r r
=
E j =
2 1 n n
J J =
2
1
2
1
=
t
t
J
J
=
2
2
1
1
1
n s
J
3.13 Summary
Magnetostatics
Biot Savarts law
Gausss law for
magnetic fields
Magnetic vector potential
Fig. 3.10 (b) Magnetostatics in a nutshell
Self and mutual
inductance
0
2

4
dl R
dB I
R
=
r
r
J
r
ur
21 2 21
21
1 1
N
M
I I

= =
L=/I=N/I
2/16/2013
55
magnetic fields
Magnetization
Amperes law
Boundary conditions
Magnetic vector potential in materials
= =
S
s d B 0
r
r
=
C
enclosed
I l d B
0
r r
0
= dv '
4
V
J
A
R

ur
0
1
1
= lim [ ]
N
i
v
i
A
M m
v m

=

uur uur
' '
0
' '
4
ds
r
J
dv
r
J
A
S
sb
V
vb

+ =
r r
r
B
n1
=B
n2 ( )
S
J H H z
r r r
=
2 1

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Dr.

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum

KCL states that at any node (junction) in an electrical circuit,

3.3 Electromotive force and KVL

Fig. 3.5 Boundary conditions for current density

3.9 Amperes circuital law

3.10 Magnetic vector potential

bound volume current density is given by

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