CHAPTER 9

Antennas and Transmission Lines

1. A transmission line is a two-wire cable used to carry RF energy between
two different pieces of communications equipment or between an antenna
and a receiver or transmitter.
2. The two most common types of transmission lines are balanced and
coaxial.
3. The primary feature of a transmission line is its characteristic or surge
impedance Zo which is a function of the distributed inductance L and the
capacitance C per unit length (Zo = L / C).
4. The characteristic impedance of a balanced line is determined by its
physical dimensions. [ Zo = 276 log (2 S I D) where S is the center-to-
center spacing of the conductors and D is the diameter of the conductors.]
5. The characteristic impedance of coax also depends on its physical
dimensions. [ Zo = 138 log (D I d) where D is the inside diameter of the
shield and d is the diameter of the inner conductor.]
6. The proper use of a transmission line is to terminate it in a load
impedance equal to its surge impedance. All the power applied to the line
will be absorbed by the load.
7. Wavelength is the distance between adjacent peaks of a RF wave. It is
also the distance traveled by a signal in one cycle. Wavelength ( ) is
computed with the expression = 300 / f where f is the frequency in
megahertz and is in meters, Or = 984 / f where A is in feet.
8. If a transmission line is not terminated in its characteristic impedance,
the load will not absorb all the power. Some of it will be reflected back
toward the generator.
9. If the load on a transmission line is an open or short, all the power
applied to the line will be reflected back to the generator.
10. The forward or incident power applied to the line combines with the
reflected power to produce a pattern of voltage and current variations along
the line known as standing waves.
11. If the load impedance matches the line impedance, there are no
standing waves.
12. A measure of the mismatch between line and load impedances or the
maximum and minimum voltage and current variations along, the line is the
standing-wave, ratio (SWR) which is a number always greater than 1.
13. The SWR indicates how much power is delivered to the load and lost in
the line. With SWR = 1, all power is delivered to the load.
14. The ratio of the reflected voltage V, to the incident voltage V, on a
transmission line is caIled the reflection coefficient R (R = Vr I Vi).A
properly terminated line will have R = O. A shorted or open line will have R
=1.
15. The SWR in terms of the reflection coefficient is
16. The SWR = ZO I ZL, or ZL l Zo where ZO is the characteristic
impedance and ZLis the load impedance.
17. Every effort is made to reduce the SWR by using impedance-matching
circuits to ensure that maximum power is delivered to the load.
18. Transmission lines, one-quarter or one-half wavelength long and either
shorted or open, act like resonant or reactive circuits.
19. At UHF and microwave frequencies where one-half wavelength this
less than 1 ft, transmission lines are commonly used to replace
conventional LC tuned circuits.
20. A shorted quarter wave and an open half wave act like a parallel
resonant circuit.
21. Both an open quarter-wave circuit and a shorted half-wave circuit act
like a series resonant circuit.
22. The velocity of propagation of a radio signal is slower in a transmission
line than in free space. This difference is expressed as the velocity factor F
for different types of lines. Coax has a velocity factor of 0.6 to 0.7. The
velocity factor of open wire line or twin lead is in the 0.7 to 0.8 range. In
computing the length of a transmission line at a specific frequency, the
velocity factor must be considered ( = 984 F/f).
23. An antenna or aerial is one or more conductors used to transmit or
receive radio signals.
24. A radio signal is electromagnetic energy made up of electric and
magnetic fields at right angles to one another and to the direction of signal
propagation.
25. The polarization of a radio signal is defined as the orientation of the
electric field with respect to the earth and is either vertical or horizontal.
26. The most common antenna is the half wave dipole or doublet that has a
characteristic impedance of approximately 73 flat the center. Its length in
feet is 468/f where f is the frequency in megahertz.
27. The dipole has a bidirectional figure-eight radiation pattern and is
usually mounted horizontally but may also be used vertically.
28. A popular variation of the dipole is the folded dipole which is one-half
wavelength long and has an impedance of 300 .
29. Another popular antenna is the quarter-wave vertical. The earth acts as
the other quarter wave to simulate a half-wave vertical dipole.
30. The quarter-wave vertical is referred to as a ground plane antenna. It is
fed with coax with the center conductor connected to the antenna and the
shield connected to earth ground, to an array of quarterwave, wires m
called radials, or to a large, flat, metal surface. Its length in feet is 234/f
where f is in megahertz.
31. The characteristic impedance of a ground plane is about 36.5 . It has
an omni directional radiation pattern that sends or receives equally well in
all directions.
32. A directional antenna is one that transmits or receives over a narrow
range in only one direction.
33. Directional antennas made up of two or more elements focus the
radiation into a narrow beam, thus giving the antenna gain.
34. The gain of the, antenna is the power amplification resulting from the
concentration of power in one direction. The gain may be expressed as a
power ratio or in decibels.
35. The effective radiated power (ERP) of an antenna is the power input
multiplied by the antenna power gain.
36. Directional antennas with two or more elements are caIled arrays.
There are two types of arrays: parasitic and driven.
37. Parasitic elements called reflectors and directors when spaced parallel
to a half wave dipole driven element help focus the signal into a narrow
beam.
38. The measure of the directivity of an antenna is the beam width or beam
angle measured in degrees.
39. A parasitic array made up of a driven element, reflector, and one or
more directors is known as a Yagi or beam antenna and has a gain of 10 to
20 dB with a beam width of 40 to 20.
40. Driven arrays consist of two or more half wavelength elements, each
receiving power from the transmission line.
41. The three most popular driven arrays are the collinear, end-fire, and
broadside.
42. A widely used driven array is the log periodic antenna which exhibits
gain, directivity, and a wide operating frequency range.
43. A radio wave propagates through space in one of three ways: ground
wave, sky waves, or direct waves.
44. The ground or surface wave leaves the antenna and follows the
curvature of the earth. The ground wave is only effective on frequencies
below 3 MHz.
45. The skywave propagates from the antenna upward where it is bent
back to earth by the ionosphere.
46. The ionosphere is a portion of the earth's atmosphere 30 to 250 mi
above the .earth that has been ionized by the sun.
47. The ionosphere is made up of three layers of different ionization
density: the D, E, and F layers. The F layer is the most highly ionized and
causes refraction or bending of radio waves back to earth.
48. The refraction of the ionosphere causes a radio signal to be bent back
to earth with little or no attenuation long distances from the transmitter. This
is known as a skip or hop.
49. Multiple skips or hops between the ionosphere and earth permit very
long distances, even worldwide, communications. This effect is useful over
the 3- to 30-MHz range.
50. At frequencies above 30 MHz, propagation is primarily by the direct or
space wave which travels in a straight line between transmitting and
receiving antennas. This is known as line-of-sight communications.
51. Radio waves ate easily blocked or reflected by large objects. This is
particularly true of VHF, UHF, and microwave signals.
52. The communications distance at VHF, UHF, and microwave
frequencies is limited to the line-of-sight distance between transmitting and
receiving antennas.
53. The line-of-sight distance D is limited by the curvature of the earth and
is dependent upon the heights h, and h, of the transmitting and receiving
antennas, respectively.
54. To extend transmission distances at VHF, UHF, and microwave
frequencies, relay stations known as repeater stations receive and
retransmit signals.

SELF-TEST
Supply the missing word(s) in each statement.
Choose the letter that best answers each question.
1. The two basic types of transmission line are balanced, coax.
2. If one wire of a transmission line is connected to ground, the line is said
to be unbalanced.
3. The distance that a signal travels during one cycle is called the
wavelength.
4. One wavelength that a frequency of 450 MHz is 0.667 m.
5. A line 4 in. long represents one-half wavelength at a frequency of 1.475
GHz.
6. The physical dimensions of a transmission line determine its
characteristic or surge impedance.
7. To a generator, a transmission line looks like a(n) low-pass filter made
up of distributed capacitors and inductors.
8. A coax line has a shield braid with an inside diameter of 0.2 in. and a
center conductor with a diameter of 0.057 in. The characteristic impedance
is 75.23.
9. The attenuation of 250 ft of RG-11U coax at 100 MHz is 6.25 dB.
(SeeFig.9-7) (page 211-Frenzel)
10. For optimum transfer of power from a generator to a load of 52 , the
transmission line impedance should be 52 .
11. The current and voltage along a properly matched line are constant or
fiat.
12. If a transmission line is not terminated in its characteristic impedance,
standing waves will develop along the line
13. If a load and line have mismatched impedances, power not absorbed
by the load will be reflected.
14. Patterns of voltage and current variations along, a transmission line
with a mismatched load are known as standing waves.
15. A 52- coax bas a 36- antenna load. The SWR is 1.44.
16. If the load and line impedances are matched, the SWR will be 1.
17. All incident power on a line will be reflected if the line is open or
shorted at its end.
18. The ratio of the reflected voltage to the incident voltage on a
transmission line is called the reflection coefficient.
19. The maximum voltage along a transmission line is 150V, and the
minimum voltage is 90V. The SWR is 1.67.The reflection coefficient is 0.25.
20. The reflection coefficient of a transmission line is 0.75. The SWR is 7.
21. An open or shorted transmission line will have a reflection coefficient of
1 and an SWR of infinity.
22. Transmission lines, one-quarter or one haIf wavelength can be used as
tuned or resonant circuits.
23. A transmission line bas an SWR of 1.75. The power applied to the line,
is 90 W. The amount of reflected power is 6.3 W.
24. A shorted quarter-wave line looks like a(n) high or infinite impedance
to the generator.
25. The following lines look like a series resonant circuit: a open /4 line; a
shorted /2 line.
26. Transmission lines less than /4 or between /4 and /2 act like inductors
or capacitors.
27. An open transmission line 6 in. long acts as a series resonant circuit at
a frequency of 492 MHz.
28. A coax bas a velocity factor of 0.68. One half wavelength of this coax at
120 MHz is 2.788 ft long.
29. Radio waves are made up of electric and magnetic fields.
30. The polarization of a radio wave depends upon the position of its
electric field with respect to the earth's surface.
31. The antenna is connected to the transmitter or receiver by a(n)
transmission line.
32. A radio wave has its magnetic field horizontal to the earth. It is,
therefore, vertically polarized.
33. One of the most widely used and simplest antennas is the half-wave
dipole/ doublet.
34. The length of a doublet antenna at 150 MHz is 3.12 ft.
35. The feed impedance of a dipole antenna is approximately, 73 ohms
36. The horizontal radiation pattern of a dipole looks like a(n) figure eight.
37. The measure of an antenna's directivity is beamwidth.
38. An antenna that radiates equally well in all horizontal directions is said
to be omnidirectional.
39. A quarter-wave vertical antenna is commonly known as a(n) ground
plane antenna.
40. The length of a quarter-wave vertical antenna at 890 MHz is 3.16 in.
41. For proper operation of a vertical antenna, the shield of the feed coax
must make a good connection to earth ground or a set of quarter-wave
wires called radials.
42. The horizontal radiation pattern of a quarter-wave vertical is a(n) circle.
43. The feed impedance of a quarter-wave vertical is approximately 36.5
ohms.
44. An antenna that transmits or receives equally well in two opposite
directions is said to be bidirectional.
45. A unidirectional antenna transmits best in one direction(s).
46. A directional antenna that focuses the energy into a narrow beam has
gain since it effectively amplifies the signal.
47. To have gain and directivity, an antenna must have two or more
elements.
48. List two basic types of antenna arrays. Parasitic and driven
49. The three basic elements in a Yagi antenna are director, reflector,
driven element.
50. The two parasitic elements in a beam antenna are the director,
reflector.
51. A Yagi may have one or more director elements.
52. The beam width of a Yagi is usually in the range of 20-40 degrees.
53. The length of the driven element in a Yagi at 222 MHz is 2.1 ft.
54. List three kinds of driven arrays. Collinear, end-fire, broadside
55. True or false. Yagis and driven arrays may be operated either
horizontally or vertically. TRUE
56. A popular wideband driven array is the log-periodic array.
57. An impedance-matching circuit used to make the antenna, transmission
line, and transmitter impedances match is the antenna tuner.
58. A transformer used for impedance matching is the balun.
59. A quarter-wavelength section of transmission line used for impedance
matching is called a(n) Q section, matching stub.
60. A coax balun has an impedance-matching ratio of 60.4:1.
61. A quarter-wavelength of coax with a velocity factor of 0.7 at 220 MHz is
9.39 in.
62. List the three paths that a radio signal may take through space. ground
or surface wave, sky wave, direct or space wave
63. A radio wave that propagates near the surface of the earth is called
a(n) ground or surface wave.
64. The radio wave that is refracted by the ionosphere is known as a(n) sky
wave.
65. A radio wave that propagates only over line-of-sight distances is called
a(n) direct or surface wave.
66. The surface wave is effective only at frequencies below about 3 MHz.
67. The upper part of the earth's atmosphere ionized by the sun that affects
radio waves is called the ionosphere.
68. The F layer has the greatest effect on a radio signal.
69. The ionized atmosphere causes radio waves at some frequencies to be
refracted/ bent.
70. True or false. Radio waves are easily reflected by large objects. TRUE
71. True or false. The ionosphere reflects radio waves. FALSE
72. Only signals in the 3-30 MHz range are significantly affected by the
ionosphere.
73.Worldwide radio communications is possible thanks to multiple hop
transmission.
74. The VHF, UHF, and microwave signals travel in a(n) straight line.
75. To increase transmission distances at VHF and above, special stations
called are repeaters used.
76. A microwave relay station contains a(n) transmitters and a(n)
receivers operating on different frequencies.

2. unbalanced
3. wavelength
4. 0.667
5. 1.475
6. characteristic or surge impedance
7. low-pass filter, capacitors, inductors
8. 75.23
9. 6.25
10. 52
11. constant or fiat
12. standing waves
13. reflected
14. standing waves
15. 1.44
16. 1
17. open, shorted
18. reflection coefficient
19. 1.67,0.25
20. 7
21. 1, infinity
22. tuned or resonant circuits
23. 6.3 [0.07(90)=6.3] (See Fig. 9-12.)
24. high or infinite
25. open, shorted
26. inductors, capacitors
27. series
28. 2.788
29. electric, magnetic
30. electric field
31. transmission or feed line
32. vertically
33. dipole or doublet
34. 3.12
35. 73
36. figure eight
37. beam width
38. omni directional
39. ground plane
40. 3.16
41. earth ground, radials
42. circle
43. 36.5
44. bidirectional
45. one
46. gain
47. elements
48. parasitic, driven
49. director, reflector, driven element
50. director, reflector
51. director
52. 20, 40
53. 2.1
54. collinear, end-fire, broadside
55. true
56. log-periodic
57. antenna tuner
58. balun
59.Q section, matching stub
60. 60.4:1
61. 9.39
62. ground or surface wave, sky wave, direct or space wave
63. ground, surface
64. sky
65. 65. direct or space
66. 3
67. ionosphere
68. F
69. refracted or bent
70. true
71. false
72. 3, 30
73.multiple hop
74. straight line
75. repeaters
76. transmitter, receiver