1. What are the basic research design issues?

Describe them in some

detail.
Basic research design issues are primarily a function of the purpose
of the study (whether it is exploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis-
testing), and relate to such aspects as the type of study to be done
(causal or correlational), the setting in which it will be done (natural or
contrived), how much researcher control will have to be exercised
(very little in the case of field studies, to very much in the case of
experimental designs), how many times data will have to be collected
(one shot versus longitudinal), and the unit of analysis i.e. the level
at which data will be aggregated. For most correlational studies, the
field setting with minimal researcher influence will be the choice.
Most field studies are generally cross-sectional, though some could be
longitudinal. Longitudinal studies, though better for understanding the
dynamics of the situation fully, also consume more time and resources.
Thus, the costs of a study also determine some of the design choices.
The unit of analysis depends on whether the research question focuses
on individuals, dyads, groups, or entire systems.
2. Why is it important to consider basic research design issues before
conducting the study and even as early as at the time of formulating
the research question?
The research design ensures that the purpose for which a study is
conducted is effectively addressed. Some studies are focused on finding
results which will be highly reliable, whereas others might be interested
in getting some idea of what is going on, rather than wanting to know
the absolute truth. If the rigor needed can be achieved at only high cost
(e.g. more manipulation and control, conducting the study over an
extended period of time with a big sample, etc), and if this cost is
considered too much, then the goals of research might have to be revised
or even completely changed. Thus, thinking through the research design
issues at the early stages helps in averting several problematic issues
later.
3. Is a field study totally out of the question if one is trying to establish
cause and effect relationships?
Generally lab and field experiments, rather than field studies, are
useful for establishing greater internal validity, or faith in cause and effect
relationships. However, when longitudinal data are collected from field
studies, or when particular types of statistical analyses are done on cross-
sectional data gathered from field studies, it is sometimes possible to
establish the existence of causal relationships. More specifically, cross-
lagged correlation analysis (not discussed in the book) using data
collected at more than one point in time, can indicate causal relationships.
Even using cross-sectional data (i.e. with data collected at one time
only) statistical techniques, such as path analysis, can identify cause and
effect relationships. However, in such cases, the data and the theory will
have to lend themselves to certain assumptions which are not always
easily met.
4. An exploratory study is just as useful as a predictive study. Discuss
this statement.
Without exploratory studies, new areas of knowledge cannot be
developed. Every theory we now have must at one time have started as an
exploratory research study. Exploratory research lays the groundwork for
understanding new phenomena, and developing new measures to test
these. The exploratory studies of today blossom into the predictive studies
of tomorrow, and in that sense both types of study are useful and essential
to generate knowledge, understanding, and prediction of business
phenomena.
5. Why is the unit of analysis an integral part of the research design?
The unit of analysis is an important issue to be considered to find the
right answers to the research questions posed. The unit of analysis also
determines the sample size. For example, if one is interested in
researching the factors that influence the stock market in three different
European countries, it is the behavior of stock markets in those three
countries that are of central interest to the study, and not the individual
stock market within each country. At the time of data analysis, the data
gathered from each of the stock markets within each country will
somehow have to be meaningfully aggregated, and only those three data
points, which will form the three samples, have to be taken into
consideration. Thus, the unit of analysis is a function of the research
question posed, and is an integral part of the research design. As will be
seen later, research design decisions relating to sampling also depend on
the unit of analysis. Let us say a researcher decides to have a sample size
of 30 for a study. Sampling 30 individuals in an organization when the
unit of analysis is individuals, is not as problematic as sampling 30
organizations when the unit of analysis is organizations, or sampling 30
countries when the unit of analysis is countries. Thus, the unit of analysis
influences other decisions such as the sampling design, the sample size,
data collection methods, etc.
6. Discuss the inter-relationships among: non-contrived setting,
purpose of the study, type of investigation, researcher interference,
and time horizon of the study.
A non-contrived setting simply indicates that the research is conducted
where the flow of events normally takes place i.e. in the natural system.
Such research could be either field studies or field experiments. The
purpose of the field study could be for exploration and understanding of
phenomena, for describing phenomena, or for hypothesis-testing. The
field study is a correlational study, and not usually initiated to explore
cause and effect relationships. Researcher interference in field studies is
minimal. Field studies could be either cross- sectional or longitudinal.
Field experiments, on the other hand, are undertaken to establish cause
and effect relationships, are longitudinal in nature, and researcher
interference in field experiments is much more than in field studies, since
the independent variable will have to be manipulated. These are mostly
hypothesis-testing studies, though they could be exploratory in nature, as
well.
7. Because literature survey is a time-consuming exercise, a good, in-
depth interview should suffice to develop a theoretical framework.
Discuss this statement.
Literature survey is an important though time-consuming exercise and
has to be done for several reasons. Even an in-depth interview may not
surface some important factors that may be relevant for finding answers
to the problems. In other words, certain critical factors may be overlooked
both by the interviewee and the researcher, in which case no solution to
the problem will emerge even after the research findings are
implemented. A literature review will sensitize and make the researcher
aware of all the important factors that have been found to be related to the
problem in past studies. It will also help the researcher eliminate trivial
factors or variables from the investigation, thus ensuring parsimony and
increasing effectiveness. Secondly, a good documentation of the previous
work done in the area not only lends credibility to the results found, but
also adds to the scientific quality of the research by increasing
replicability, generalizability, and parsimony. Finally, good literature
surveys, and a theoretical framework formulated on the basis of past
studies, contribute to the growth of scientific knowledge, rather than
research becoming a futile exercise in reinventing the wheel.

8.Good models are complex. Whats more, a good model
should include both moderating and mediating variables. Discuss
this statement.

There is no relationship between the quality of a model and the
complexity of a model. Recall that parsimony is one of the hallmarks of
scientific research: Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems
that occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is always
preferred to complex research frameworks that consider an unmanageable
number of factors.
A good theoretical framework identifies and defines the important
variables in the situation that are relevant to the problem. Moderating and
mediating variables may or may not be important to the problem. A good
model does not necessarily include moderating and mediating variables.

9. Academic researchers usually develop more complex and
elaborate models than applied researchers. Discuss this statement.

No. The complexity of a model is not related to type of research in terms
of basic versus applied research. Again, parsimony is one of the
hallmarks of scientific research. The term scientific research applies to
both basic and applied research.

10. In an applied research context you do not need to explain the
relationships between the variables in your conceptual model.
Discuss this statement.

A theoretical framework is the foundation of hypothetico- deductive
research as it is the basis of the hypotheses that you will develop. A
theoretical framework represents your beliefs on how certain phenomena
(or variables or concepts) are related to each other (a model) and an
explanation on why you believe that these variables are associated to each
other (a theory). Both the model and the theory flow logically from the
documentation of previous research in the problem area. Integrating your
logical beliefs with published research, taking into consideration the
boundaries and constraints governing the situation, is pivotal in
developing a scientific basis for investigating the research problem.

A good theoretical base thus adds rigor to a purposive study. Rigor
connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and the degree of exactitude in
research investigations. Rigor is one of the hallmarks of scientific
research which pertains to both basic and applied research.

11. There is an advantage to stating the hypothesis both in the null
and the alternate; it adds clarity to our thinking about what we are
testing. Explain.
The null hypothesis is set so that the alternate hypothesis becomes
testable. When the observed Z value is greater than or equal to the critical
Z value for a given confidence level (usually 95 percent), then we know
that we ought to accept the alternate hypothesis. If, however, the critical Z
value is more than the observed Z value for a given level of confidence,
we would be inclined not to reject the null but to reject the alternate.
Setting up the null thus helps us to understand that though the null
hypothesis itself is not testable, it helps to decide whether we should
accept or reject the alternate.
12. How would you describe the research process?
The research process includes a series of steps in identifying the
variables to be studied and the method for conducting the study. The
problem statement is a critical aspect. Though it is generated by having a
good feel for where the gap between a desired state and the actual state
exists in the system, the problem statement can be repeatedly
honed(sharpen) and made more precise at various stages in the research
process. The theoretical framework and hypotheses are important parts of
the research process since these focus on finding the answers to the
research question. Good research design helps in finding reliable answers
to the problem that is investigated.
13. What are the basic aspects of a research design?
Purpose of the study
Type of investigation
Researcher interference
Study setting
Unit of analysis
Time horizon

14. Explain the preliminary data collection methods.
Preliminary data can be obtained through interviews and/or through
literature search. These processes help to define the problem
statement precisely and to formulate the theoretical framework.
Interviews conducted at various levels are aimed at obtaining
background information on the system that is investigated, the
structure and processes that operate in the system, the perceptions,
attitudes, and behaviors of the people in the institution, and other
related matters. The literature search will be based on the factors
that seem pertinent to the problem that is investigated. After
locating all the references in the area, the work relevant to the
problem at hand will be studied and a literature review written up.
15. Why is it important to gather information on the background of the
organization?
The background information of the company is likely to offer the
researcher several clues on when the problems that are currently
experienced by the company could have started and how they could have
originated. One can also assess how the other companies operating in
similar types of environment in the industry might be different and in
what way. Since multiple factors can influence the problem, the
possibility that some of the background features of the company are
influencing the situational problem cannot be ruled out. Additionally, the
background factors offer the researcher a good idea of how the
philosophy and culture of the company are shaped, and to what extent
they can be changed, if necessary.
Collecting background information also helps to focus on critical
issues and raise appropriate questions during the interview process.
Examples of this are provided in the book.
16. Should a researcher always find information on structural and job
characteristics from those interviewed? Give reasons for your answer
with examples.
It is almost always advisable for the researcher to gather some
information on the structure and job characteristics even though it may
appear that the problem may not be related to either of these factors. For
example, the problem of not meeting the production deadlines may be
directly related to the delayed deliveries of the raw materials by the
suppliers. In such a case, the tendency might be to focus the data
collection mainly as it relates to suppliers. However, interviewing the
employees and ascertaining their reactions to their job, work-flow
interdependencies, structure, and the like, might offer the solution that
deadlines can be met even with delayed raw material supplies by
changing the workflow patterns, or other structural aspects. It is for such
reasons that some time should be spent on finding the job and structure-
related information.
There is also another way of looking at this. Human beings operating
in organizations face a multitude of factors surrounding them, many of
which, directly or indirectly, influence their operating effectiveness. The
structural factors such as policies and procedures, reward systems and job
factors do play a critical part in how outcomes for the organization are
achieved. Because of this, it certainly helps to get a feel for these factors.
Of course, there is no need to spend a great deal of time on these unless
there is some indication that there could be problems in these areas.
As an example, it is possible that the age of the machinery could be
blamed for low production, and sophisticated machinery might be
installed without any appreciable difference in the results. Further
investigation might throw light on the fact that the current incentive
system does not encourage high levels of production, and this fact, rather
than the type of machinery used, is the problem. Not finding this before
investing heavily on new equipment would be a costly mistake!
17. How would you go about doing a literature survey in the area of
business ethics?
I would first obtain all the references and abstracts relating to the area
of business ethics through on-line systems, then organize the studies
based on the particular aspects they address, and finally, write up a
review of the available literature.
18. What is the purpose of the literature survey?
Basically to make sure that none of the important variables are left out
in the study and to generate a parsimonious set of factors which would
help to explain or predict the phenomenon under investigation.
19. Why is appropriate citation important? What are the consequences
of not giving credit to the source from which materials are extracted?
Most published articles are copyrighted. There are rules as to how
much can be quoted from the original text without obtaining the journals
and the authors permission. If permission is not obtained for quotes
exceeding the authorized limit, the individual quoting the material is
liable to be sued for plagiarism and can even be expelled from the
professional society to which he or she belongs.
20. The problem definition stage is perhaps more critical in the
research process than the problem solution stage. Discuss this
statement.
Finding the right solution to an incorrectly identified problem helps no
one because the original concerns will still continue to exist. Hence,
pinpointing where exactly the gap lies, for which a solution is needed, is
critical.
21. Why should one get hung up on problem definition if one already
knows the broad problem area to be studied?
Since a problem statement is a clear, precise, and concise statement of
the issue to be researched, it offers a focus and direction to the research.
In other words, it sets out the exact purpose of the research and clearly
states the question to which we are trying to find an answer. The broad
problem area, however, due to its vagueness and wide scope of the issues
that could be involved, leaves the focus of the research undetermined, and
hence offers no sense of purpose or direction to the research.
To put it differently, a broad problem area does not highlight the
specific problem that exists. Unless the precise problem is identified, a
solution to it cannot be found. This is akin to an individual going to a
doctor saying he is losing weight (broad problem). Unless the physician
can locate the reason for this weight loss (define the problem), the
situation cannot be rectified.
22. Offer a clearly focused problem statement in the broad area of
corporate culture.
What constitutes corporate culture? Or,
How does corporate culture influence employee performance?
23. After studying and extracting information from all the relevant
work done previously, how does the researcher know which
references, articles, and information should be given prominence in
the literature survey?
The mass of information extracted from the various published research
and technical and other reports, will indicate to the researcher the key
variables that need to be considered in the particular situation where the
problem has been identified. The choice of the variables for inclusion in
the study will be a function of the frequency with which they are
repeatedly found to be significant in the various research studies, the
relevance of the variables to the current research context, and
considerations of parsimony. Having decided on the key variables for
inclusion in the study, the researcher can then integrate the information
found in the studies that discuss these variables. Other studies which had
equally relevant variables but which had to be excluded from the current
research for certain valid reasons should also be briefly discussed. The
reasons for their exclusion should be explicitly stated in the literature
survey section.

24. One hears the word research being mentioned by several groups
such as research organizations, college and university professors,
doctoral students, graduate assistants working for faculty, graduate
and undergraduate students doing their term papers, research
departments in industries, newspaper reporters, journalists,
lawyers, doctors, and several other professionals and
nonprofessionals. How would you rank the aforementioned groups
of people in terms of the extent to which they might be doing
scientific investigations? Why?
To the extent that any of the above groups conforms to the hallmarks
of science, they would be doing scientific investigation. It is quite
possible that poor research is done by research agencies, and excellent
research is conducted by a graduate assistant. The ultimate test is the
rigor of the research which would lend itself to testability, replicability,
accuracy and precision, generalizability, objectivity, and parsimony.
Research organizations and research departments in industries engage
themselves in both basic and applied research and usually have the
resources required to conduct scientific investigations using rigorous
data collection methods, sampling designs, and data analysis. Most
professors in colleges and universities are well trained to conduct
scientific investigations, though their resources may not, in most cases,
be as plentiful as that made available in research organizations and
research departments. Because of restricted resources, professors may
have to compromise somewhat on methodological rigor (e.g. use a small
sample) which might restrict the generalizability of their findings.
However, their research might otherwise be scientific. Applied
researchers doing action-oriented research, are somewhat restricted in
even disseminating information about their findings due to the localized
nature of their inquiry which may not pass many of the criteria of the
hallmarks of science. Doctoral dissertations conducted under able
guidance and supervision quite frequently make valuable contributions
to the body of existing knowledge. Much of this research is later
published as journal articles, and some get published as books because
of their contributions to knowledge.
Students term papers are meant to be exercises in skill development
for integrating materials and communicating ideas in written form.
Exceptional research papers, when refined and published, could qualify
for being termed as scientific investigations. Newspaper reporters and
journalists may obtain extensive primary and secondary data but their
investigations are confined to a narrow range of current incidents,
events, or individuals, which are of passing interest with little
generalizability to other times, events or individuals. Hence, they cannot
ordinarily be termed scientific investigations. Some newspaper articles,
however as for instance, economic and environmental investigations
provide data, analysis of data, and valid conclusions drawn there from,
which might later be used as secondary data by other researchers. These
would be categorized as more scientific in contrast to articles or
editorials in the paper.
Academic journals usually publish articles that are scientific and
some of the practitioner-oriented articles are probably somewhat less
scientific than the academic articles in terms of rigor and
generalizability. To the extent that lawyers, doctors, professionals and
nonprofessionals present their findings that have wide testability,
replicability, generalizability, accuracy and precision, objectivity, and
parsimony, they will be scientific. However, if these investigations are
confined to single cases, incidents, or individuals, they cannot be called
scientific investigations despite the fact that they may be found useful.
25. Explain the processes of deduction and induction, giving an
example of each.
The hypothetico-deductive method of research helps the researcher to
deduce or infer from the results of data analysis and hence is the
deductive process. For example, if as a result of analysis of data
collected, one infers that the problem of turnover can be minimized by
three important factors: (i) flexible work hours; (ii) recognition of
superior performance of workers through suitable merit pay raises; and
(iii) enriching certain types of jobs, this is the deductive approach.
Induction is a process of drawing inferences from observed
phenomena, which may subsequently be put to the test through
hypothetico-deductive method of research. For instance, if a manager
observes that people residing at distances beyond 50 miles from the
workplace remain absent more frequently than those he knows to reside
close by, and infers thereby that distance is a factor in absenteeism, this
is an inductive process.
26. If research in the management area cannot be 100 percent
scientific, why bother to do it at all? Comment on this statement.
Research in the management area dealing with human behavior
cannot be 100 percent scientific. However, such research is necessary
and useful for detecting problems and coming up with solutions to
ensure that problems do not get out of control. Management research
makes a valuable contribution inasmuch that it can help organizations
function smoothly and effectively and help managers and individuals at
all levels in organizations experience and enjoy a better quality of life.

27. Why should a manager know about research when the job
entails managing people, products, events, environments and the
like?
The manager, while managing people, products, events, and
environments, will invariably face problems, big and small, and will
have to seek ways to find long lasting, effective solutions. This can be
achieved only through knowledge of research even if consultants are
engaged to solve problems.
28. For what specific purpose is Basic research important?
Basic research is important for generating and building upon the
existing knowledge in the areas of interest. It offers the foundation for
applied research by which one can circumvent reinventing the wheel.
29. When is Applied research, as distinct from Basic research, useful?
Applied research is useful in solving specific problems in particular
situations where early action might be needed to solve problems in
organizations.
30. Why is it important to be adept in handling the manager-
researcher relationship?
The manager who knows how to relate to researchers facilitates the
problem solving process and benefits the research team as well as the
organization. One who is not adept at this will frustrate and be frustrated
during the research process and thereafter.
Being capable of handling the manager-researcher relationship is thus
a big advantage and some of the nuances of handling research teams are:
(i) knowing how much and what information to give to the team;
(ii) meaningful and purposeful interactions with the team members;
(iii) stating from the outset what records of the company will and will
not be accessible to the team members and expressing the core values of
the system.
31. Explain, giving reasons, which is more important Applied or
Basic research?
Both are equally important. Without basic research, applied research
cannot work as well, and if the results of basic research are not applied,
such research would be futile. Whereas basic research is the foundation
of knowledge, applied research is its practical application and helps to
provide the additional information base for theory building and further
generation of knowledge.
32. Give two specific instances where an external research team would
be useful and two other scenarios where an internal research team
would be deployed, with adequate explanations as to why each
scenario is justified for an external or internal team.
The answers will vary.
For the external team, the suggestions could be:
a. to help non-tech companies to build up sophisticated technology in their
environment; (only those with specialized knowledge of technology can
help non-tech companies).
b. to evaluate the successful and deficient operations of the company; (to
avoid bias of internal team members).
For the internal team, it could be:
a. to figure out how the companies affected by the September 11th disaster
can rebuild themselves; (internal team would be more knowledgeable
about the company and could rebuild faster).
b. to solve the problem of consistent losses of a small division of a large
company (only a small pocket of a large company is involved and the
situation can be rectified by the internal team).
33.Explain with examples what do you mean by:
a. Dependent variables
The variable of primary interest to the researcher.It is not
manipulated by the researcher.Research may have more than one
dependent variables.

b. Confounding variables
A variable that is associated with the problem and with a possible
cause of the problem is a potential CONFOUNDING VARIABLE.
A confounding variable may either strengthen or weaken the
apparent relationship between the problem and a possible cause.


c. Intervening variables
It is one that surfaces between the time the independent variables
start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time
their impact is felt on it. It helps to conceptualize and explain the
influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

d. Moderating variables
It is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent
variable dependent variable relationship. Its presence modifies
the original relationship between the independent and the
dependent variables. It moderates the relationship between the
independent and the dependent variables.


e. Independent variables
It influences the dependent variable. It is manipulated by the
researcher in experimental research. Also known as treatment
variable in experimental research. Research may have more than
one independent variable.

f. Case Studies
It is intricately designed and reveals a comprehensive and
complete presentation of facts, as they occur, in a single entity.
This could be an individual, an organisation or an entire country

g. Exploratory Research
h. Ex-post facto studies
i. Hallmarks of scientific research
j. Null hypotheses
k. Alternate hypotheses
l. Explanatory research
m. Quasi Research designs
n. True research designs
o. Theoretical framework
A conceptual model of how one makes logical sense of the
relationship among several factors that have been identified as
important to the problem. Elaborates the relationship between the
variables, explains the theory underlying these relations, and
describes the nature and direction of relationship.A foundation on
which entire research work is based. Logically developed,
described through the process of interview, observation and
literature survey, experience and intuition.


p. Internal validity of an experiment
Communication among
cockpit members
Coordination between
ground control and
cockpit
Decentralization
Air safety
violations
Training of cockpit crew
Independent variables Dependable variable
Theoretical Framework Schematic
Internal validity tries to examine whether the observed effect on a
dependent variable is actually caused by the treatments
(independent variables) in question.
Factors affecting Internal Validity
History
Maturation
Testing ( effect of pre test on post test )
Instrumentation ( change in the observed
criteria at the pre & post test )
Selection bias
Statistical regression
Mortality


q. External validity of an experiment
External validity refers to the generalization of the results of an
experiment. The concern is whether the result of an experiment can
be generalized beyond the experimental situations.
Factors affecting External Validity
Interaction of treatment & selection
Higher the internal validity, lesser will be the external validity

r. Control group and experimental group
s. Randomization and matching