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LINEAR PROGRAMMING - I :
Formulation and Graphic Solution
(1) A product mix problem: Decide the combination of various product quantities to
maximise profit or to minimise production cost.
(2) Allocation of bank funds: To achieve highest possible returns. This should be
achieved within liquidity limits set by RBI and maintaining flexibility to meet the
customers demand for loans.
(4) Advertising application: To achieve the best possible exposure to the client’s
product at the lowest possible advertising cost.
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
(6) Staffing problem: Develop a work schedule that allows say, a large restaurant or a
hospital or a police station to meet their man power needs at all hours with minimum
number of employees.
(7) Trim loss problem: Find the combination of components to be produced from
standard sheets in order to keep trim loss to a minimum.
An extension of application of linear programming technique is found in transportation
and assignment problems.
Decision variables: Decision variables are the unknowns whose values are to be
determined from the solution of the problem. E.g. decision variables in the furniture
manufacturing problem are say the tables and chairs whose values or actual units of
production are to be found from the solution of the problem.
These variables should be inter-related in terms of consumption of resources. For
example, both tables and chairs require carpenter’s time and also wood and other
resources and any change in the quantity produced of table affects the production
level of chairs. Secondly the relationship among the variables should be linear.
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
When all the above mentioned conditions are satisfied the problem can be expressed as
L.P. problem. Then solve it for an optimal solution.
Let us first illustrate the formulation of LPP.
We have seen that a typical L.P.P. has three components:
(1) Objective function
(2) Constraints
(3) Non-negativity restrictions
Formulation of LPP therefore implies translating the given descriptive problem into these
three sets of linear relationships between the decision variables.
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
METHODS OF SOLUTION:
Solving an LP problem involves:
(i) Selection of appropriate method of solution and
(ii) Then obtain a solution to the problem with the help of selected method
(iii) Test whether this solution is optimal.
The problem can be solved by using:
(1) Graphical method: This method can be used if there are only t• decision
variables in the LPP.
(2) Simplex method: This method is useful in solving LP problems with two or more
than two decision variables.
We explain, in this chapter, the graphical method of solving LPP.
The Graphical method of solution: This method can be used in case where LPP has
only two decision variables. But there is no restriction on the number of constraints. The
method uses the familiar graphical presentation with two axes. The method becomes
unwieldy when there are three variables since we then need a three dimensional graph.
The method cannot be used if the number of decision variables is more than three. In
such a case we have to use a non graphical method to obtain a solution.
The graphical method of solution to L.P. problem uses all the equations in a given
problem, namely the equation expressing objective unction the constraints imposed in
achieving the objective. These constraints can be of (i) greater than (ii) less than or (iii)
strict equality type.
There is also a non-negativity restriction on the values of the decision variables. It
implies that the solution of the problem lies in the first quadrant of the graph. All these
relations are linear.
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
INFEASIBILITY
It is a case where there is no solution, which satisfies all the constraints at the same
time. This may occur if the problem is not correctly formulated. Graphically,
infeasibility is a case where there is no region, which satisfies all constraints
simultaneously.
UNBOUNDEDNESS
A LPP can fail to have an optimum solution if the objective can be made infinitely
large without violating any of the constraints. If we come across unboundedness in
solving real problems, then the problem is not correctly formulated. Since, no real
situation permits any management to have infinite production of goods and infinite
profits, unbounded solution results if in a maximization problem all constraints are of
greater than or equal to type. In such a situation there is no upper limit on feasible
region. Similarly, an unbounded solution occurs in a minimization problem if all
constraints are of less than or equal to type.
REDUNDANCY
A constraint, which does not affect the feasible region, is called a redundant
constraint. Such a constraint is not necessary for the solution of the problem. It can
therefore be omitted while formulating the problem. This will save the computation
time. In many LP problems, redundant constraints are not recognized as being
redundant until the problem is solved. However, when computers are used to solve
LPP, redundant constraints do not cause any difficulty.
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
ALTERNATIVE OPTIMA
[The slope of a line ax + by + c = 0 is defined as –b ]
a
The solution to a LPP shall always be unique if the slope of the objective function
line is different from the slope of all of the constraint lines. Incase, the slope of
objective function line is same as the slope of one of its constraint line, then multiple
optimum solution might exist.
ISO-PROFIT/ISO-COST LINES:
An iso-profit line can be obtained by putting the objective function equal to some
numerical value and plotting that equation on the graph in the same way as the
constraints are plotted. Each point on an iso-profit line yields the same profit. The
lines parallel to the one obtained by moving away from the origin correspond to
higher and higher profit levels. The line whose one point touches the extreme corner
point is considered and the profit corresponding thereto is the highest profit
attainable. And the variable values at that point are optimal values of the decision
variables.
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
LINEAR PROGRAMMING – II :
Simplex Method
THE SIMPLEX METHOD OF SOLUTION:
The simplex method uses a simplex algorithm; which is an iterative, procedure for
finding, in a systematic manner the optimal solution to a linear programming problem.
The procedure is based on the observation that if a feasible solution to a linear
programming exists; it is located at a corner point of the feasible region determined by
the constraints of the problem. The simplex method, selects the optimal solution from
among the set of feasible solution to the problem. The algorithm is very efficient as it
considers only those feasible solutions, which are provided by the corner points. Thus, we
need to consider a minimum number of feasible solutions to obtain an optimal one. The
method is quite simple and the first step requires the determination of basic feasible
solution. Then, with the help of a limited number of steps the optimum solution can be
determined.
Terminology of Simplex Method:
Algorithm: A formalised systematic procedure for solving problem.
Simplex Tableau: A table used to keep track of the calculations made b iteration of the
simplex procedure and to provide basis for tableau revision.
Basis: The set of basic variables which are not restricted to zero in the basic solution
and are listed in solution column.
The basic variables: The variables with non-zero positive values make up the basis are
called basic variables and the remaining variables are called non-basic variables.
Iteration: A sequence of steps taken in moving from one basic. The solution to another
basic feasible solution.
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
Cj row: A row in the simplex tableau which contains the co-efficients variables in the
objective function.
Zj row: A row in the simplex tableau whose elements represent the decrease (increase)
of the value of the objective function if one unit of the jth variable is brought into the
solution.
Cj - Zj or j row: A row whose elements represent net per unit contribution of the
jth variable in the objective function, if the variable is brought into the new basic
solution. Positive value of j therefore indicates gain and negative value indicates
loss in the total value Z obtained of the objective function.
Key or pivot column: The column with the largest positive j and it indicates which
variable will enter the next solution in a maximization case.
Key or pivot row: The row with the smallest positive value of the, replacement ratio 0
of the constraint rows. The replacement ratio is obtained by dividing elements in the
solution column by the corresponding elements in the key column. The key row
indicates the variable that will leave the basis to make room for new entering variable.
Key (pivot) element: The element at the intersection of key row and key column.
In addition to these terms in a simplex tableau we have the follow terms which are
necessary to make a linear programming problem fit to be solved by simplex method.
Slack variable: A variable used to convert a less than or equal constraint () into
equality constraint. It is added to the left hand side of the constraint.
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
Degeneracy: It occurs when one or more of the basis variables assume zero value.
In conditions of degeneracy, the solution would contain a smaller number of non –
zero variables than the number of constraints i.e. if there are 3 constraints the number
of non-zero variables in the solution is less than 3.
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
This can help managers in answering questions about alternative courses of action and
their effect on values of the objective function.
When the primal problem is of the maximisation type the dual is of the minimisation type
and vice versa. It is an interesting feature of the simplex method that we can use it to
solve either the original problem — the primal — or the dual. Whichever problem we
start out to solve, it will also give us the solution to the other problem. Consider the
following general linear programming problem. The primal
Maximise Z = c1x1 + c2x2
Subject to
a11x1 + a12x2 <or = b1
a21x1 + b22x2 <or = b2
x1,x2 > or = 0
We can write this problem in a short form as
Maximise Z = cx
Subject to ax < or = b
x> or = 0
The dual corresponding to this problem is
Minimise Z* = b’y
Subject to a’y > or = c’
y> or = 0
where
b’ =transpose of matrix b
a’ = transpose of matrix a
c’ = column matrix of coefficients of objective function.
Y’ = matrix of dual variables.
Or
Minimise Z* = b1y1 +b2y2
Subject to
a11y1 +a21y2 < or = c1
a12y1 +a22y2 < or = c2
y1,y2> or = 0
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
The value of the objective function in both the cases remains the same if a feasible
solution exists for both the primal and the dual. It is therefore not necessary to solve both
the primal and its dual. Another relation between the primal and the dual is, if one
problem has an unbounded solution its dual has no feasible solution.
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
2y1+4y2 > or = 40
similarly, the resources consumed in producing one unit of product x2 are 3 kg of raw
material and 3 capacity hours. The total rent of these resources should equal to atleast Rs.
35, the unit profit of product x2. i.e.,
3y1 + 3Y2 > or = 35
Besides, the rent cannot be negative. Therefore, y1 and y2 should both be non negative. In
complete form, the problem can be expressed as:
Minimise: Z* = 60y1 + 96y2
Subject to:
2y1 + 4y2 > or = 40
3y1 + 3y2 > or = 35
y1, y2 > or = 0
This problem is absolutely the same as the dual to the given problem. These rates y1 and
y2 are obtainable from the solution of the dual as y1 = 10/3 and y2 = 25/3. Also, these
values can be obtained from ∆j row of simplex tableau showing optimal solution to the
primal problem. As we have seen, values of the objective function of the primal and the
dual are identical. Naturally, the minimum total rent acceptable to the firm is equal to the
maximum profit that it can earn by producing the output itself using the given resources.
The individual rents of y1 and y2, are called the shadow prices or imputed prices. They
indicate the worth of the resources. These prices, of the two resources, materials and
capacity hours, are imputed from the profit obtained front utilizing their services, and are
not derived from the from the original cost of these resources.
Now we know that each unit of product x1 contributes Rs. 40 to the profit. The imputed
price of material and capacity is respectively, Rs. 10/3 per kg and 25/3 per hour, we can
find the total imputed cost of the resources used in making a unit of the product as
2kg at Rs. 10/3 per kg
i.e., 2 X 10/3 = 20/3 Rs.
4 hours at Rs. 25/3 per kg. = 4 X 25/3 = 100/3 Rs.
The total cost is 120/3 = 40 Rs.
Thus, the total imputed cost of producing one unit of product x1 equals the per unit profit
obtainable from it.
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
Similarly, from each unit of product x2, the total imputed cost of resources employed
would be:
3kg at Rs.10/3 per kg = 3 x lO/3 = 10 Rs.
3 hours at Rs. 25/3 per hour 3 x 25/3 = 25 Rs.
The total cost is 10 + 25 = 35 Rs.
This obviously equals the profit per unit of the product. This proves that the valuation of
the resources is such that their total value equals the total profit obtained at the optimum
level of production.
The shadow prices are also called the marginal value products or marginal profitability
of the resources. Thus, if there were a market for renting resources, the firm would be
willing to take some materials if the price of the material were less than Rs. 10/3 per kg,
and capacity hours, if the price is less than Rs. 25/3 per hour.
If we denote marginal profitability of resources as MPR and the marginal profitability of
capacity as MPc, respectively, the shadow prices of the two resources, we can write the
dual as follows:
Minimise H = 50 MPR + 96 MPc
Subject to:
2MPR + 4MPc > or = 40
3MPR + 3MPc > or = 35
MPR, MPc > or = 0
Now let us consider the economic significance of the surplus variables S1 and S2 in the
dual. The numerical values of these variables can be obtained from ∆j row in the optimal
solution of the primal. The value of S1 in the optimal solution represents the opportunity
cost of the product x1 while the value of S2 represents the opportunity cost of product x2.
Production of an additional unit of x1 will give the firm a profit of Rs. 40 and, at the same
time, the firm would use up resources worth 2 x 10/3 + 4 x 25/3 = Rs. 40. Thus, the net
effect of producing one unit of product would be 40 - 40 = 0. Similarly, for product x2 the
opportunity cost equals zero.
Further if x1, x2 is a feasible solution to the primal and y1, y2 is the feasible solution to its
dual then c1x1 + c2x2 < or = b1y1 + b2y2 i.e. [profit obtained is less than or equal to the
OR- MMS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS PROF. VINAY PANDIT
rents to be paid. This would induce the producer to rent the resources rather than produce
the goods himself.
The concept of dual and shadow prices help us in determining the upper and lower
bounds for changes in requirement vectors and coefficients in the objective function.
Such that the feasibility of the LPP is not disturbed.
OR- MMS