JANUARY, 2013

THE FABRICATION OF BIOGAS DIGESTER AND

PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS FROM COW DUNG AND RUMEN
FLUID

BY

ODETUNDE, Ibrahim Omoniyi (070264),
OLAWUYI, Iretioluwa (062135),
JEGEDE, Olanrewaju John (072157),
AGBOOLA, Olanike Elizabeth (072702).

BEING A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE


DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
LADOKE AKINTOLA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY (LAUTECH)
OGBOMOSO,
OYO STATE, NIGERIA.



IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B.TECH) DEGREE
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

ii

CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this project work was duly carried out by ODETUNDE,
Ibrahim Omoniyi (070264), OLAWUYI, Iretioluwa (062135), JEGEDE,
Olanrewaju John (072157) and AGBOOLA, Olanike Elizabeth (072702) of the
department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso.



_______________________ ____________________
Dr. Oladeji, J.T. Date
Supervisor




________________________ ____________________
Dr. Durowoju, M.O. Date
Head of Department
iii

DEDICATION
This project work is dedicated to Almighty God for making this project work realistic
and sparing our lives till this moment.
















iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We will like to make use of this medium to thank The Almighty God for enabling us
to carry out this project work successfully. We will also like to express our
appreciation to our lovely parents, who know and cherish the value of education in a
mans upbringing.
We really appreciate the effort of our supervisor in person of Dr. Oladeji. J.T. for his
fatherly love and supervision in making this project work a huge success. We also like
to appreciate the effort of Dr. Adebayo A., of Agricultural Engineering Department,
for his support, and contributions to the success of this project work.
Grateful acknowledgement is also made to our colleagues in the department for their
assistance and encouragement. God bless you all greatly.

v

ABSTRACT
The utilization of energy is of paramount importance and cannot be over
emphasized ranging from domestic purposes, industrial use and transportation
purposes which are dependent on fuel. It unarguably is the cornerstone of economic
and social development. However, there is energy shortage worldwide including
Nigeria and this necessitates producing energy from other sources, especially from
biomass. Therefore, this project work is focused on fabrication of a bio-digester and
generation of biogas using cow dung and rumen fluid as substrate.
A biogas digester with a capacity of 105litres was designed and fabricated.
The substrate (cow dung and rumen fluid) was mixed in the ratio 3:2 and water to
substrate ratio of 2:1 was used. The digester was stirred thrice daily to avoid scum
formation in the digester and to allow for easy escape of the gas produced. The
retention time used for this experiment was 42 days during which the daily internal
temperature reading was taken in order to determine temperature variation and also to
determine the effect of sunlight on the production rate. A rubber hose was connected
to the digester gas outlet located at the top of the digester and the other end of the
rubber hose was connected to a tyre tube provided for storing the gas generated,
which was further taken to the laboratory for analysis.
The biogas yielded consists of 57.99% of methane (CH
4
), 39.99% of carbon
dioxide (CO
2
), 2.00% of oxygen (O
2
), 0.01% of hydrogen sulphide (H
2
S) and 0.01%
of water vapour. The methane has the highest percentage which represents the main
source of energy and oxygen having 2.00% which shows that the process was purely
carried out under anaerobic condition.
Result of this study showed that methane has the highest percentage and
generally cow dung with rumen fluid easily subjected them to anaerobic digestion.
vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF PLATE xi
LIST OF TABLES xii
CHAPTER ONE 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background to the Study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Aim and Objectives 3
1.4 Justification for the Research 3
1.5 Scope of the Study 4
CHAPTER TWO 5
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 What is Biogas? 5
2.2 History of Biogas 5
2.3 The Renewable Source for Obtaining Biogas 8
vii

2.3.1 Solid Bio-energy Sources 9
2.3.2 Liquid Bio-energy Sources 10
2.4 Biogas Plant 10
2.5 Biogas Plants in Developing Countries. 11
2.5.1 Fixed Dome Digester 12
2.5.1a Characteristics & Functions Fixed Dome Digester 13
2.5.1b Advantages of Fixed Dome Digester 13
2.5.1c Disadvantages of Fixed Dome Digester 14
2.5.2 Floating Dome Digester 14
2.5.2a Characteristics 15
2.5.2b Advantages of Floating Dome Digester 15
2.5.2c Disadvantages of Floating Drum Digester 16
2.5.3 Bag Digester/ Balloon plants 16
2.5.3a Advantages of Bag Digester/ Balloon plants 17
2.5.3b Disadvantages of Bag Digester/ Balloon plants 17
2.5.4 Maintenance of Biogas Plants 17
2.6 Biogas Production with Substrate 18
2.7 Composition of Biogas 18
2.8 Uses of Product of Biogas 18
2.8.1 Methane 19
2.8.2 Carbon-dioxide 20
viii

2.8.3 Liquid 21
2.9 The Benefits of Biogas Technology 22
2.10 Conversion Processes in Anaerobic System 22
2.10.1 Hydrolysis 23
2.10.2 Acidification 23
2.10.3 Methane Formation 23
2.11 Factors Affecting Biogas Production 24
2.11.1 Temperature range of anaerobic fermentation 25
2.11.1a Minimal Average Temperature 25
2.11.1b Changes in Temperature 25
2.11.2 Available Nutrient 26
2.11.3 pH Value 26
2.11.4 Retention Time 27
2.12 Review of Previous Work 27
CHAPTER THREE 37
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 37
3.1 Choice of Feedstock 37
3.2 Material Procurement 37
3.3 Material Preparation 37
3.4 Materials and their Uses 38
3.5 The following are the component parts of the digester 39
ix

3.6 Design of Biogas Digester 39
3.7 Fabrication Process of the Digester 43
3.8 The Experimental Procedures 43
3.9 Characterization of the wastes 44
3.10 Biogas Purification 45
3.11 Cost Analysis 45
CHAPTER FOUR 47
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 47
4.2: Discussion of Results 50
CHAPTER FIVE 52
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 52
5.1 Conclusions 52
5.2 Recommendations 52
REFERENCES 54

x

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.2.1: Fixed Dome Plant 12
Fig.2.2: Cross- section of a floating dome digester 14
Fig. 2.3: Bag digester in Bolivia 16
Fig. 2.4: The Conversion Processes in Anaerobic System 24
Fig. 2.5: Schematic diagram for methanogenic activity test and reactor setup 33
Fig 3.1: Cross-section of a digester 42
Fig.4.1 Graph showing temperature (
o
C) against HRT (weeks) 49





xi

LIST OF PLATE
Plate 3.1 A cylindrical drum digester 41











xii

LIST OF TABLES
Tables 2.1: General Characteristics for the Biomass Batches 28
Table 2.2: Major Elements for the Biomass Batches 28
Table2.3: Physical Characteristics of 5-L and 20-L Working Volume Digesters 35
Table 3.1: Materials and Uses 38
Table 3.2: Cost Analysis of Materials Used for Construction 46
Table 4.1: Chemical composition of the substrate 47
Table 4.2: Average Weekly Temperature Readings for Biogas Production 48
Table 4.3: Percentage Composition of Biogas 49
1

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Energy is one of the most important factors to global prosperity in which its
importance cannot be over emphasized ranging from domestic purposes (heat energy
for cooking food and heating water), for industrial use (for heating furnaces and
running electric motors) and for transport purposes which run on fuel. It is also
important because it is the cornerstone of economic and social development (El-
saeidy, 2004).
There is energy shortage worldwide including Nigeria, which is as a result of
less potential energy to harness, making hydropower a less desirable energy
source(Okoye, 2007). The projected refining capacity only supports 445,000 barrels a
day, and the actual output of these refineries is far below capacity (Rilwanua, 2003).
Additionally, the refineries do not capture the gas that is given off in the refining
process and it is instead burned as flares. There is a trend of deforestation in Nigeria
at 300,000 hectares per year (Girod and Jacques, 1998).
Fossil fuel is one of the principal sources of energy. 86% of all the energy
consumed comes from fossil fuels (Kaliyan and Morey, 2009). There are many
problems associated with fossil fuels, which include high costs and fluctuation of
prices, increase in demand, disruption in supply, and environmental pollution which is
a major problem of fossil fuels. This is because they give off carbon dioxide when
burned thereby causing a greenhouse effect. This is also the main contributory factor
to the global warming experienced by the earth today.
2

Agricultural residues and Animal wastes are increasingly being diverted for
use as domestic fuel to displace fossils fuel and reduce environmental pollution and
reduce emission of greenhouse gases. Cassava solid wastes, amongst other plant
wastes have been widely used (Kozo et al., 1996). Agricultural residues in their
natural forms will not bring a desired result because they are mostly loose and of low
density materials in addition to the fact that their combustion cannot be effectively
controlled (Oladeji, 2009). Agricultural residues and even animal wastes are used in
production of biogas.
Biogas is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide, produced by the
breakdown of organic waste by bacteria without oxygen (anaerobic digestion). It
contains methane and carbon (IV) oxide with traces of hydrogen sulphide and water
vapour. It burns with pale blue flame and has a calorific value of between 25.9-30J/m
3

depending on the percentage of methane in the gas. Biogas production is a profitable
means of reducing or even eliminating the menace and nuisance of urban wastes in
many cities in Nigeria (Akinbami et al., 2001).
Consequently, biogas can be utilized in all energy consuming applications designed
for natural gas.

1.2 Problem Statement
There is energy scarcity all over the world and fluctuation in prices of energy.
Fortunately, Nigeria is an agricultural country that can use these agricultural residues
and animal wastes in biogas production. There is need to generate energy from other
sources, especially from agricultural residues, which are generated in large quantities
from farming activities. The large quantities of agricultural residues produced in
3

Nigeria can play a significant role in meeting her energy demand. Cassava and yam
are ones of the most important agricultural products in Nigeria, especially in southern
and western parts of the country. Residues in form of peels are generated from
processing of these crops. Initial digestion studies carried out on cassava peels
showed that the peels are poor producers of biogas probably as a result of their
content of toxic cyanogenic glycosides (Okafor, 1998). This work is therefore on one
of the techniques involved in production of biogas from cow dung and rumen fluid.

1.3 Aim and Objectives
The broad aim of this project was to produce biogas from cow dung and rumen
fluid. To achieve this, the project had the following specific objectives:
i. To prepare sample of cow dung and rumen fluid.
ii. To design and fabricate a digester that will facilitate conversion of cow dung
and rumen fluid into biogas.
iii. To produce biogas from cow dung and rumen fluid.

1.4 Justification for the Research
Biogas is a form of energy produced when organic materials such as animal
excrement or products that are left over from agriculture are fermented easily and at
low cost. The advantage of biogas is that it replaces other energy sources for example
charcoal, firewood, electricity, liquid petroleum gas and oil. After animal excrement
had been fermented in the gas plant it becomes a good quality and odourless substrate,
which is better than fresh manure in improving the soil for the agriculture. As an
4

energy source, it prevents deforestation and animal excrement from causing pollution,
smell, flies and water pollution in the community.
Also the problem of agricultural waste disposal is posing challenge to the
farmers and to the general public as this waste constitutes a nuisance to the
environment as well as an eyesore to the public. Therefore if these wastes could be
used to generate energy, it would be a welcomed solution to the problem of waste
pollution, disposal and control (Enweremadu et al., 2004a).
Nowadays the use of bio-gas has spread from small farms to big animal farms.
It is expected that biogas will be a significant source of energy in the future to
preserve the environment, solve the pollution problem and to promote better health to
agriculture and community.

1.5 Scope of the Study
The study covered the production of biogas from cow dung and rumen fluid.








5


CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 What is Biogas?
Biogas is a renewable fuel provided by anaerobic digestion of organic material
as substrate for biomethanation. The gas is flammable, which is obtained through the
action of methanogenic bacteria, which work in the absence of oxygen through a
process of anaerobic digestion (Quaak et al., 2001).
It contains 50-75% methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and hydrogen.
It can be used as fuel in boilers and dual fuel engines. It is made by fermenting
organic wastes in biogas digesters.
The wastes are fed into the digesters via the inlet pipe and undergo digestion
in the digestion chamber.
The temperature of the process is quite important because methane producing
bacteria do their work best at temperatures between 30-40
o
C and 50-60
o
C. It takes 2-
8 weeks to digest a load of wastes.
2.2 History of Biogas
Ancient Persians observed that rotting vegetables produce flammable gas. In
1859 Indians built the first sewage plant in Bombay. Marco Polo has mentioned the
use of covered sewage tanks in China. This is believed to go back to 2,0003,000
years ago in ancient China.
6

This idea for the manufacturing of gas was brought to the UK in 1895 by
producing wood gas from wood and later coal. The resulting biogas was used for gas
lighting in street lamps and homes (Ioana and Cioabla, 2010).
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of
organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas originates from biogenic material and
is a type of bio-fuel. One type of biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion or
fermentation of biodegradable materials such as biomass, manure, sewage, municipal
waste, green waste, plant material and energy crops. This type of biogas comprises
primarily methane and carbon dioxide. The other principal type of biogas is wood gas
which is created by gasification of wood or other biomass. This type of biogas is
comprised primarily of nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide, with trace amounts
of methane.
The gases methane, hydrogen and carbon monoxide can be combusted or
oxidized with oxygen. Air contains 21% oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to
be used as a fuel. Biogas can be used as a low-cost fuel in any country for any heating
purpose, such as cooking, etc. It can also be used in modern waste management
facilities where it can be used to run any type of heat engine, to generate either
mechanical or electrical power. Biogas can be compressed, much like natural gas, and
used to power different energy chains. It is a renewable fuel, so it qualifies for
renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the world.
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of
organic matter, in absence of oxygen. Biogas originates from biogenic material and is
a type of bio-fuel (Cioabl, 2009). Biogas arises from decomposition of organic
substance, by means of bacteria, in anaerobic or aerobic fermentation processes
(Bejan and Rusu, 2007). Organic matter consists mainly of water, albumin, fat,
7

carbohydrates and minerals and together with bacteria; they decompose the original
components, carbon dioxide, minerals and water. Thus a mixture of gas, called
biogas, arises as a metabolic product. Flammable methane (CH
4
) is the main
component of biogas, with a percentage of 50-85 % by volume, and thus represents
the main source of energy.
This natural process of decomposition occurs only in anaerobic environment, i.e. only
when oxygen is absent. The decomposition process is called decay in this case and is
naturally occurring in swamps, lakes, etc. In case of oxygen presence, decomposition
is carried out by other bacteria; the term for this process is rotting or composting.
Microorganisms that generate methane production are called methanogen
microorganisms, of liquid and acidogene origin. The energy released in the anaerobic
decomposition process is transferred as energy heat in the form of composting, and it
is used by bacteria to form methanogen flammable methane molecules. Collected and
stored in the biogas, the energy is of renewable nature, being derived from organic
matter of the green plants. More and more, the fossil energy will be less used and
replaced, alternatives are becoming necessary and the use of biogas is becoming
increasingly important.
The use of waste water and so-called renewable resources for energy supply is
not a novelty, with evidence of such practices even before Christs birth. Even around
3000 BC, Sumerians practiced anaerobic waste cleaning (Deublein and Steinhauser,
2008). Old Roman scholar Plinius described around 50 years BC lights that glittered
phenomena, in the ponds area.
By 1776, Alessandro Volta personally collected gas from the atmosphere over
the Lake Como, in order to analyse it. His research showed that the formation of gas
depends on a fermentation process and can even form an explosive mixture with air.
8

English physicist Faraday made experiments with swamp gas and identified a type of
hydrocarbon in its composition. Later, around 1800, Dalton, Henry Davy described
the first chemical structure of methane. The final chemical formula was elucidated by
Avogadro in 1821.
In the second half of 19
th
century, in France, a systematic and scientific
research for a better understanding of the process of anaerobic fermentation started.
The objective was to remove bad odour emanating from waste water. During
investigations, the researchers have detected typical microorganisms that are retested
nowadays as essential for the fermentation process. Bechamp identified by 1868 that a
mixed population of microorganisms is necessary to convert ethanol to methane, since
more final products were formed by the fermentation process; the whole process
depends on the substrate used.
By 1876, Herter reported the presence of acetate in the waste water, forming
methane and carbon dioxide in stoichiometric amounts. Louis Pasteur tried by 1884 to
produce biogas from horse droppings, collected from the streets of Paris. Together
with his students he managed to produce 100 m
3
of methane from a fermentation
process, developed at 35 C. Pasteur explained that the rate of production is sufficient
to cover energy needs for street lightening in Paris. Practically, this is considered the
starting point of larger application of renewable energy.

2.3 The Renewable Source for Obtaining Biogas
Biomass is the only renewable energy source that can be transformed into gas,
liquid or solid fuel by special conversion technologies. This universal renewable
energy carrier can be used in a wide range of applications, in the energy sector, for
9

small scale but also larger applications. Presently it is possible to provide this
renewable resource for the whole range of applications that require energy input,
starting from heating stations until providing electricity to mobile applications for
transport. On average, the industrialized countries contribute to the total biomass
energy sources used in a proportion of 9- 13 %, while in developing countries it
contributes in a percentage ranging from 5 % to 30 % ( Faaij, 2006). Typically, after
the biomass was treated, it is transformed into one of the major energy forms: (i)
Electricity or (ii) Heat. Range of application and disposal of biomass form the two,
very important advantages of biomass. Another major argument for using the energy
resources originated in bio resources is the possibility of protecting the environment
and climate. When stored in biomass energy use, greenhouse gases like carbon
dioxide are emitted, but this amount is not a supplementary generated product, as it is
result from a natural decay processes. Thus bio-energy carriers can be considered
neutral in terms of climate damage, particular CO
2
emission.

2.3.1 Solid Bio-energy Sources
The largest group of solid bio-energy sources includes products made from
wood. They are derived from industrial processing of wood waste. In many areas of
agricultural by-products such as straw, are also used to generate energy from biomass.
On one hectare of straw cereals is approximately equivalent to 200 litres of oil (Ioana
and Cioabla, 2010). However, straw and other products in this category have different
combustion characteristics from those of woody fuels. Point transformation in ash and
emission behaviour of biomass type straw means that different technical approaches
are needed.
10

Another important category of waste, which is not necessarily part of the old
wood sector, represents the wood residues from environmental management. These
occurred during maintenance work on roads and canals, parks and care. Wood
residues from environmental management are usually a mixture of wood, leaves and
straw type products. Only very rarely it is possible to consider these mixtures for a
new final product, thus utilization of its energy content is a very good strategy.

2.3.2 Liquid Bio-energy Sources
Mobility is essential in industrialized society. With few exceptions, passenger
transport and freight are based on liquid fuel. Today, there are few alternative bio-
fuels for these tasks. Ethanol, the alcoholic fermentation and methanol produced from
cellulose can be considered as having a biomass origin.

2.4 Biogas Plant
In many countries worldwide, biogas plants are in operation, producing biogas
from the digestion of manure or other biomass (GTZ, 2007). In addition, with success
small scale biogas plants are utilized to displace woody fuels and dung in many
developing countries. For example, the Dutch Development Organization, SNV,
implemented with success in Nepal and Vietnam over 220,000 household on site
biogas plants (FMO, 2007). Moreover, in China and India, millions of plants are in
operation. In conclusion, biogas plants have proven to be an effective and attractive
technology for many households in developing countries.
Under the right conditions a biogas plant will yield several benefits for the end-
users, the main benefits are (GTZ, 2007):
11

i. Production of energy for lighting, heat, electricity
ii. Improved sanitation (reduction of pathogens, worm eggs and flies)
iii. Reduction of workload (less firewood collecting) and biogas stoves has a
better cooking performance
iv. Environmental benefits (fertilizers substitution, less greenhouse gas emission)
v. Improved indoor air quality (less smoke and harmful particle emission of a
biogas stove compared to wood or dung fuels).
vi. Economic benefits (substitution of spending on expensive fuels and fertilizer)
The problems experienced by the biogas production include the following:
(a) Design faults
(b) Construction faults
(c) Difficulty of financing
(d) Operational problems due to incorrect feeding or poor maintenance and
(e) Organizational problems arising from the differences of approaches and lack of
coordination.
All these aspects need to be taken into account. In addition, back up services are
important, i.e. monitoring of the performance by experts.

2.5 Biogas Plants in Developing Countries.
In developing countries, there are several digesters in operation; the most
familiar is the fixed dome digester. In addition, the floating dome digester and bag
digester are found in many developing countries. These types of digesters are
respectively explained below:

12

2.5.1 Fixed Dome Digester
The fixed dome digester is the most popular digester; its archetype was
developed in China. This is CSTR type digester. The digester comes in various types,
notably the Chinese fixed dome, Janata model and Janata II model.


Fig 2.1: Fixed dome plant
(Source: http://www.gtz.de/de/dokumente/en-biogas-volume2.pdf)
Legend:-
1. Mixing tank with inlet pipe and sand trap.
2. Digester.
3. Compensation and removal tank.
4. Gasholder.
5. Gas pipe.
6. Entry hatch, with gastight seal.
7. Accumulation of thick sludge.
8. Outlet pipe.
9. Reference level.
13

10. Supernatant scum, broken up by varying level.
2.5.1a Characteristics & Functions Fixed Dome Digester
A fixed dome digester is a closed dome shaped digester. The waste (manure,
dung, human excrement) is fed to the digester. After that the methanogen bacteria
digest the waste and produce biogas and slurry (digested waste). The gas is captured
in the gasholder and the slurry is displaced in the compensating tank. The more gas is
produced, the higher the level at the slurry outlet will be. The level of slurry in the
digester depends on the loading rate, gas production and consumption. During gas
production slurry is pushed back sideways, displaced to the compensation tank. When
gas is consumed slurry enters back into the digester from the compensation tank. As a
result of these movements, a certain degree of mixing is obtained of slurry of different
ages; therefore this design approaches a mixed digester reactor (Stalin, 2007).
The fixed dome digester is relatively inexpensive. It is simple, has no moving
parts and has therefore a long lifespan, up to 20 years (GTZ, 1999). The plant is
suitable for cold climates, because most part is beneath the ground level. Therefore
the plant is protected against low temperatures occurring during night and in cold
seasons. The temperature within the digester is lower during day time and higher
during night-time (GTZ, 1999). This fluctuation is beneficial for the methanogenic
bacteria and subsequently for the biogas production. The main advantages and
disadvantages are:

2.5.1b Advantages of Fixed Dome Digester
1. Relatively cheap and durable
2. No moving parts
3. Well insulated
14

2.5.1c Disadvantages of Fixed Dome Digester
1. High technical skills are required for a gas tight construction
2. Special sealant is required for the gasholder
3. Gas leaks occur when not designed well
4. Difficult to construct in bedrock
5. Amount of gas available for cooking is hard to detect
6. Enormous structural strength required for construction (Sharma and Giuseppe,
1991)
Experiences for the China biogas program teaches us that special attention is required
when constructing a fixed-dome digester (Daxiong, 1990). GTZ only advices to
construct such a plant under the supervision of experienced biogas technicians (GTZ
2007). This should not be taken lightly. Cleary, the design has many favourable
aspects, but its success is dependent on the input of high technical manufacturing.
2.5.2 Floating Dome Digester
Floating drum digesters are mainly found in India and this is semi CSTR type
reactor. A floating drum digester is shown below:

Figure 2.2: Cross- section of a floating dome digester, based on the original design developed by KVIC in
India.
(Source: www.ganesha.co.uk/Articles/Biogas%20Technology%20in%20India.htm)
15

The ideal situations for a community based biogas digester recommend a
central collection area for the plant substrate, be it animal manure, excrete or
food/vegetable waste. Here lies the first area of logistical headache which calls for
organizational skills from the responsible community. Studies by SRE (Sustainable
Rural Energy) for a Community based biogas plant in Haor (Wetland) involved
providing all the families in the community an improved sanitary latrine which was
connected to a central digester. According to SRE (2002) a beneficiary committee
has been formed and this community is entrusted with the responsibility of proper
operation and maintenance of the system.

2.5.2a Characteristics
The operation of a floating dome digester is not that different from a fixed
dome digester. The produced gas is collected in a movable steel drum, the gasholder.
The steel drum is guided by a guide frame. When gas is consumed the drum sinks.
Slurry is pushed out of the digester after the digestion (GTZ).
In contrast to the fixed dome digester, a floating drum digester is not a mixed
reactor like fixed dome, but here also some mixing take place due to gas production
and removal of gas.

2.5.2b Advantages of Floating Dome Digester
1. The operation of the plant is easy to understand and operate
2. Gas drum is air tight provided the drum is de-rusted and painted regularly
3. Constant gas pressure as a result of the weight of the drum

16

2.5.2c Disadvantages of Floating Drum Digester
1. Steel drum is relatively expensive and needs regularly maintenance (priming,
painting,
Coating)
2. Steel drum can get stuck

2.5.3 Bag Digester/ Balloon plants
A balloon plant or also referred to as a bag digester is a plastic or rubber bag
combining the gas holder and digester. This is a plug-flow type reactor. Gas is
collected in the upper part and manure in the lower part; the inlet and outlet are
attached to the skin of the bag. The pressure of the gas is adjustable by laying stones
on the bag. The next picture shows a bag digester as used in Bolivia on the Altiplano.


Figure 2.3: Bag digester in Bolivia.
(Source: www.tecnologiadesarrollo.tk)

According to GTZ (unknown date) these bags have a limited life span of 3-5
years. In China red mud bags, a by-product from the production of aluminium is used
since 1983 with success. However, the effective life span was also limited to 3-5 years
(Daxiong, 1990).
17

2.5.3a Advantages of Bag Digester/ Balloon plants
1. Low costs
2. Simple technology
3. Uncomplicated cleaning
2.5.3b Disadvantages of Bag Digester/ Balloon plants
1. Short life-span
2. Susceptible to physical damage
3. Hard to repair
4. Need for high quality plastic/PVC
5. Difficult to insulate
2.5.4 Maintenance of Biogas Plants
The manual of GTZ asserts that a dome digester needs to be cleaned every 5
years, which is probably also true for a floating dome digester. During the operation
of a digester some materials settle, such as sand or other heavy non digestible
materials, and therefore cleaning is necessary (GTZ, 1999). Cleaning consists of
emptying the complete digester and a cleaning rate of once every five year is
consistent.
A steady decrease in gas production rate over the years, probably due to the
settling of materials leading to a reduction of the effective digester volume (Kalia and
Kanswar, 1998). After cleaning, the biogas production increased to the highest levels
of the first years of operation. (Kalia and Kanswar, 1998) therefore suggested
cleaning the digester every 5 years. A bag digester has such a limited life span that
cleaning does not have to be considered. To avoid a long period with no gas
production, we suggest recycling most of the content of the emptied digester apart
from the settled materials.
18

The steel drum of the floating dome needs a new coating once in every three
years by applying corrosion resistant paint (Nazil, 1991). Higher quality materials
could be more leak resistant and more resistant to damage.

2.6 Biogas Production with Substrate
Many substrates are generally used as feedstock in biogas plants and the
potential for biogas production varies with feedstock. Generally animal waste, human
waste, kitchen waste and some crop residues are used in small scale biogas plants.
Gas production rate varies with the type of substrate used in the biogas plant.
Normally 1 m
3
of biogas is enough to cook three meals for a family of 5-6 members
(Practical Action Org, 2006).
2.7 Composition of Biogas
Biogas is a mixture of gases that is composed chiefly of:
Methane (CH
4
): 40-70 vol. %
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
): 30-60 vol. %
Other gases: 1-5 vol. % including
Hydrogen (H
2
): 0-1 vol. %
Hydrogen Sulphide (H
2
S): 0-3 vol. %
2.8 Uses of Product of Biogas
Biogas (methane and carbon dioxide) is the primary output product of the
bioconversion process. Biogas and/or its components may be utilized in a variety of
applications.
19

2.8.1 Methane
Methane (CH
4
) is the main component of biogas, representing the energy
produced from the bioconversion of wastes. This energy is recovered by using the gas
in one or more of the following ways:
i. Electricity
Biogas may be consumed in an engine generator set to produce electricity.
Typically, this is the lowest value option. The revenue from such use is dependent
upon prevailing local rates and how the produced electricity is distributed. Generally,
the electricity is sold at a wholesale rate to the local utility through an independent
meter. Such arrangements/rates are governed by an areas utility commission. Net
metering (exporting electricity through an existing meter for the retail rate) is a
reality in many states, but the size of most bioconversion systems exceeds applicable
limits. Wheeling (power purchase agreements between geographically separate
generators/consumers with access to a common power grid) is one method of
achieving higher value for generated power which has begun to be put into practice.
Another method is to provide the power in-house, thereby reducing the amount of
electricity which would otherwise need to be purchased.

ii. Thermal Energy
With equipment modification, biogas may replace the thermal energy in propane
or natural gas for cooking, heating, refrigeration and/or lighting. This provides
increased value when replacing propane, but once converted, the selected equipment
wont be able to use its original fuel unless it is converted back. However,
20

equipment can be converted or purchased to use two types of fuel (bi-fuel), which
would preserve the equipments function if one fuel source was interrupted.

iii. Transportation Fuel
With further processing, the methane in biogas can replace standard transportation
fuels. This use presents one of the greatest values, both economically and
environmentally. Energy is never produced or consumed; it is only converted from
one form to another. Our fossil-fuel-based economy is rapidly depleting solar energy
stored long ago in the form of plant and animal tissue (coal and oil, respectively).
Also, for every conversion step there are associated losses (efficiencies).
Pollution is inversely proportional to energy efficiency. One of the least
efficient (most polluting) uses of energy is as gasoline for vehicle fuel. Replacing the
least efficient use of non-renewable energy with a form of renewable energy, biogas.
This option provides the greatest environmental benefit at the same time it (usually)
provides the greatest economic return.
Vehicles can be purchased or converted to use compressed gas as fuel, instead
of gasoline or diesel. As with appliances, functionality can be preserved by converting
to or purchasing vehicles which are capable of bi-fuel operation.
2.8.2 Carbon-dioxide
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
), the other major component of Biogas, has several uses
when separated from the total gas stream. This option is exercised when there is a
market for the products and an economic return is indicated relative to the capital
equipment required to produce them. The standard uses of CO
2
are for carbonation of
21

beverages and for dry ice production. Dry ice is used in transportation of frozen
perishables. Chipped dry ice replaces grit and sand used in sandblasting operations
without polluting the immediate environment.
Additional uses include freeze tunnel applications for meat, fish, vegetable,
and fruit processing. As a supercritical fluid, CO
2
is used as an extraction solvent in
the food and pharmaceutical industries for products such as coffee, tea, tobacco, hops,
corn oil, flavours, and colours. Its use is also recommended in industrial processes and
for in-situ remediation of halogenated hydrocarbons and other solvents.
2.8.3 Liquid
Liquid co-products are also available from the bioconversion process:
i. Bio Green
The process of bioconversion results in a naturally-balanced liquid product
containing ammonium (fast-acting) and amino-protein (slow-release) nitrogen, in
addition to phosphorous, potassium, calcium, iron, sulphur, and magnesium. This
liquid is screened and pasteurized to create Bio green.
ii. Bio Activator
By further processing the screened effluent with a filter, a concentrated, slow-
release plant food is produced. Bio Activator feeds the soil micro environment
because 70% of its nitrogen is available as amino acids, protein, and polysaccharides
chelated to phosphorous, potassium, calcium, iron, sulphur, and magnesium.
iii. Bio Tonic
22

The other product from filtering is a fast-acting foliar, which improves bud and
flower production while increasing root development. 70% of bio tonic nitrogen is in
the readily-available ammonium form, along with soluble phosphorous and
potassium.

2.9 The Benefits of Biogas Technology
Well-functioning biogas systems can yield a whole range of benefits for their
users, the society and the environment in general, some of these benefits are:
i. Production of energy (heat, light, electricity)
ii. Transformation of organic waste into high quality fertilizer
iii. Improvement of hygienic conditions through reduction of pathogens, worm eggs
and flies
iv. Reduction of workload, mainly for women, in firewood collection and cooking.
v. Environmental advantages through protection of soil, water, air and woody
vegetation
vi. Micro-economic benefits through energy and fertilizer substitution, additional
income sources and increasing yields of animal husbandry and agriculture
vii. Macro-economic benefits through decentralized energy generation, import
substitution and environmental protection.
2.10 Conversion Processes in Anaerobic System
Biogas microbes consist of a large group of complex and differently acting
microbe species, notable the methane-producing bacteria. The whole biogas-process
can be divided into three steps: hydrolysis, acidification and methane formation.
23


2.10.1 Hydrolysis
In the first step (hydrolysis), the organic matter is enzymolyzed externally by
extracellular enzymes (cellulose, amylase, protease and lipase) of micro-organisms.
Bacteria decompose the long chains of the complex carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
into shorter parts. For example, polysaccharides are converted into monosaccharide.
Proteins are split into peptides and amino acids.

2.10.2 Acidification
Acid-producing bacteria, involved in the second step, convert the
intermediates of fermenting bacteria into acetic acid (CH
3
COOH), hydrogen (H
2
) and
carbon dioxide (CO
2
).
These bacteria are facultative anaerobic and can grow under acid conditions.
To produce acetic acid, they need oxygen and carbon. For this, they use the oxygen
solved in the solution or bounded-oxygen. Hereby, the acid-producing bacteria create
an anaerobic condition which is essential for the methane producing microorganisms.
Moreover, they reduce the compounds with a low molecular weight into alcohols,
organic acids, amino acids, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and traces of methane.
From a chemical standpoint, this process is partially endergonic (i.e. only
possible with energy input), since bacteria alone are not capable of sustaining that
type of reaction.
2.10.3 Methane Formation
Methane-producing bacteria, involved in the third step, decompose
compounds with a low molecular weight. For example, they utilize hydrogen, carbon
24

dioxide and acetic acid to form methane and carbon dioxide. Under natural
conditions, methane producing micro-organisms occur to the extent that anaerobic
conditions are provided, e.g. under water (for example in marine sediments), in
ruminant stomach and in marshes. They are obligatory anaerobic and very sensitive to
environmental changes.
In contrast to the acidogenic and acetogenic bacteria, the methanogen bacteria
belong to the archaebacter genus, i.e. to a group of bacteria with a very heterogeneous
morphology and a number of common biochemical and molecular-biological
properties that distinguish them from all other bacterial general. The main difference
lies in the makeup of the bacterias cell walls.

Fig 2.4: The Conversion Processes in Anaerobic System. Source: (GTZ, 1999)
2.11 Factors Affecting Biogas Production
There are many factors that can affect biogas production, some of which are:
25

2.11.1 Temperature range of anaerobic fermentation
Anaerobic fermentation is in principle possible between 3C and
approximately 70C.
Differentiation is generally made between three temperature ranges:
The psychrophilic temperature range lies below 20C,
The mesophilic temperature range between 20C and 40C and
The thermophilic temperature range above 40C.

2.11.1a Minimal Average Temperature
The rate of bacteriological methane production increases with temperature.
Since, however, the amount of free ammonia also increases with temperature; the bio-
digestive performance could be inhibited or even reduced as a result. In general,
unheated biogas plants perform satisfactory only where mean annual temperatures are
around 20C or above or where the average daily temperature is at least 18C. Within
the range of 20-28C mean temperature, gas production increases over-proportionally.
If the temperature of the bio-mass is below 15C, gas production will be so low that
the biogas plant is no longer economically feasible.

2.11.1b Changes in Temperature
The process of bio-methanation is very sensitive to changes in temperature.
The degree of Sensitivity, in turn, is dependent on the temperature range. Brief
fluctuations not exceeding the following limits may be regarded as still un-inhibitory
with respect to the process of fermentation:
Psychrophilic range: 2C/h
Mesophilic range: 1C/h
26

Thermophilic range: 0.5C/h
The temperature fluctuations between day and night are no great problem for
plants built underground, since the temperature of the earth below a depth of one
meter is practically
constant.

2.11.2 Available Nutrient
In order to grow, bacteria need more than just a supply of organic substances
as a source of Carbon and energy. They also require certain mineral nutrients. In
addition to carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, the generation of bio-mass requires an
adequate supply of nitrogen and sulphur.

2.11.3 pH Value
The methane-producing bacteria live best under neutral to slightly alkaline
conditions. Once the process of fermentation has stabilized under anaerobic
conditions, the pH will normally take on a value of between 7 and 8.5. Due to the
buffer effect of carbon dioxide-bicarbonate (CO
2
HCO
3

-
) and ammonia-ammonium
(NH
3
NH
4

+
), the pH level is rarely taken as a measure of substrate acids and/or
potential biogas yield.
A digester containing a high volatile-acid concentration requires a somewhat
higher-than-normal pH value. If the pH value drops below 6.2, the medium will have
a toxic effect on the methanogen bacteria.
27

2.11.4 Retention Time
The retention time can only be accurately defined in batch-type facilities. For
continuous systems, the mean retention time is approximated by dividing the digester
volume by the daily influent rate.
Depending on the vessel geometry, the means of mixing, etc., the effective
retention time may vary widely for the individual substrate constituents. Selection of a
suitable retention time thus depends not only on the process temperature, but also on
the type of substrate used.
2.12 Review of Previous Work
Ioana and Cioabla (2010) carried out an experiment which were accomplished
using a temperature domain of 30 38 C (mesophilic range) and the duration for
each batch extended over 45 days, which means that the process was fully under
control. The waste materials used for the experiments were maize bran and a recipe of
maize (40 %), corn cobs (40 %) and sunflower seeds (20 %), all percentage by mass.
These substrates determine the amount of energy that is transformed into biogas.
Before the experiments, preliminary determinations for each type of biomass were
completed and the results are presented in Tables 2.1 and 2.2


28

Tables 2.1: General Characteristics for the Biomass Batches
No. Sample
Hygroscopic
Humidity (%)
Ash
Content
(%)
Low Calorific
Value (kJ/kg)
1 Maize Bran 0.16 4.63 15.535
2
Recipe of Corn Maize
and Sunflower seeds
1.04 1.18 15.192
Source: (Ioana and Cioabla, 2010)

Table 2.2: Major Elements for the Biomass Batches
No. Element Maize bran
(mg/kg)
Recipe of corn, maize and sunflower seeds
(mg/kg)
1 Mg 1331 764
2 Al 71 61
3 Si 174 34
4 P 5855 2419
5 S 1165 925
6 Cl 370 388
7 K 9697 4359
8 Ca 1209 901
9 Mn 108 14
10 Fe 177 117
11 Zn 69 25
Source: (Ioana and Cioabla, 2010)

29

They reported that the nature of utilized biomass represents an important
factor in the production of biogas, supplementary to the quantity and quality of the
produced biogas using the anaerobic fermentation process. The main parameter to be
controlled during the anaerobic fermentation process is temperature, the chosen range
having a relevant impact on the characteristics of the resulted biogas.
Further parameters of influence on the anaerobic fermentation process are
complementary to the temperature at which the process is achieved: the pH of slurry,
the elementary chemical composition of the materials used and the biomass nature. As
it resulted from the details involved in the process of anaerobic fermentation, the
material can be decomposed partially, or totally, as a function of its nature and
properties. The main operations which were accomplished are: (i) preliminary size
reduction, (ii) transport and storage, (iii) removing of non-desired materials (iv)
reducing the ash content (v) total or partial drying and secondary size reduction, prior
to the use.
Huong (2012) demonstrated the use of Orange peel as a potential source for
biogas production. However, D-limonene present in the peel is known as an anti-
microbial agent which can decrease biogas production. Biogas production from the
orange peel was improved by solvent pre-treatment.
A simple pre-treatment procedure following solid-liquid technique for the
removal of D-limonene was designed. In addition, experimental design has been
employed as an important tool for conducting experiments efficiently and analysing
experimental results in a correct statistical manner.
The results showed that biogas production at 2% Volatile Solid concentration
increased from 0.061 m
3
methane/kg VS to 0.217 m
3
methane/kg VS if the chopped
peel was treated using n-hexane as solvent at the condition of 20C, 10 minutes and a
30

hexane/peel ratio (volume/weight) of 12. D-limonene in orange peel was partly
removed and the amount varied depending on pre-treatment conditions.
Four important factors which cause effect on pre-treatment step was studied,
including orange peel types (chopped peel and homogenized peel), pre-treatment
temperature, pre-treatment time, hexane/peel ratio so that the pre-treatment step can
be improved. Two level factorial designs were employed to conduct experiments in
the experimental series.
The results showed that only factor of peel type gave significant effect. The
chopped peel gave higher methane production compared to that of homogenized peel.
N-hexane was the most interesting solvent since it showed higher extraction
efficiency toward D-limonene and orange peel treated by n-hexane gave higher
methane production than the peel treated by other solvents. Behaviour of n-hexane
can be due to either its high extraction efficiency or its less toxicity to bacteria.
Further experiments should be focused on pre-treatment using n-hexane as
solvent and the peel treated by n-hexane for biogas production. In addition, the pre-
treatment step should be improved and the conditions for pre-treatment should be
investigated so that biogas production from treated orange peel will increase in
comparison with untreated one.
Rungvichaniwat (2003) used residue from fruit and vegetable wastes mixed
with cow manure by using a low-solids anaerobic digester to determine the biogas
production as well as the efficiency in total solids (TS) and volatile solids (VS)
reduction from fruit and vegetable wastes (FVW) mixed with cow manure (CM) by
using a low-solids anaerobic digester.
The four bench-scale digesters were operated at the same hydraulic retention
time of 31.25 days with a digester volume of 12.5 litres. The various ratios of mixed
31

wastes to the volatile solids of FVW and CM were 100:0, 80:20, 60:40 and 40:60 and
were used as waste-feed for the digesters.
The results indicated that the efficiency in total solids reduction at various
ratios of the mixed wastes were from 36.84-73.12 %, whereas, the volatile solids
reduction were in the range of 43.83-80.63 %. The amount of biogas production was
varied from 0.67-0.73 m
3
/m
3
of digester-day or the equivalent of 0.12-0.30 m
3
/kg of
VS feed-day.
The composition of the biogas consisted of methane from 48.64-53.26 % and
carbon dioxide was in the range of 29.84-41.28 %. Furthermore, the methane
production varied from 0.16-0.37 m
3
/m
3
of digester-day or the equivalent of 0.07-0.15
m
3
/kg of VS feed-day. In all cases, the digesters could be operated without addition of
chemicals or nutrients into the system.
The results clearly demonstrated that the digester, which was fed with mixed
waste, of FVW and CM, of 80:20 could produce the highest biogas production (0.73
m
3
/m
3
of digester-day or 0.30 m
3
/kg of VS feed-day). In addition, this digester also
produced a large amount of methane (0.37 m
3
/m
3
of digester-day or 0.15 m
3
/kg of VS
feed day). With a TS and VS reduction of 60.61 % and 66.77 %, respectively.
Periyasamy and Nagarajan (2011) used jatropha deoiled cake and orange peel
waste for biogas production which was carried out in the batch scale (500 ml serum
bottle) under anaerobic condition at ambient temperature (at various mixing ratios of
two substrate).
The experimental data showed a maximum gas output of 1140 ml of gas
production at (1:2) ratio of jatropha deoiled cake with orange peel waste obtained for
a period of 17 days. The modified Gompertz equation was used to adequately describe
the cumulative biogas production for this reactor.
32

The CH
4
content was 75%, CO
2
content was 16% and CO content was 9%.
The biogas production was measured by liquid displacement system on daily basis.
The total solids content of feed materials were determined as per the standard
method. The initial weight of the samples of 50 g biomass with pre-weighed porcelain
boxes were taken by using an electronic balance with least count of 0.001 g. The
samples were first heated at 60C for 24 h and then at 103C for 3 h using a hot air
oven. The final weight or dried samples weight with pre-weighed porcelain boxes
were recorded. The percentage total solids content of the sample was then calculated
using the formula:
(

)
Where, TS is the total solids in percentage (%); Wd is the weight of oven dried
sample and Ww is the weight of wet sample in gram (g).
The volatile solids and non-volatile solids content of feed materials were determined
as per the standard method. The oven dried samples used for the determination of
total solids content were further dried at 550 50C temperature for 1 h in a muffle
furnace and allowed to ignite completely. The dishes were then transferred to
desiccators for final cooling. The weight of the cooled porcelain dishes with ash were
taken by the electronic balance. The volatile solids content and non-volatile solids
content of the sample were calculated using the formulas:
(

)
(

)
33

Where, VS is the volatile solids in dry sample, %; NVS is the non-volatile solids in
dry sample, %; Wd is the weight (g) of oven dried sample; Wa is the weight (g) of dry
ash left after igniting the sample in a muffle furnace.

Figure 2.5: Schematic diagram for methanogenic activity test and reactor setup.
Source: (Periyasamy and Nagarajan, 2011).

Biogas production from jatropha deoiled cake and orange peel waste was
established here to be feasible at room temperature. The application of the modified
Gomperzt equation in studying the biogas production was able to predict the pattern
of biogas production with time.
It was observed that the maximum biogas production could be obtained from
the reactor 1 (2g jatropha deoiled cake + 4 g orange peel waste (1:2). In reactor 2, the
biogas production was fewer amounts than the reactor 1. Likewise reactor 3 and 4
34

produced less amount of biogas than the reactor 2. He concluded that biogas
production varied due to various substrate concentrations of the reactors.
Wantanee and Sureelak (2004) used starch-rich tubers of cassava plant in the
production of biogas which was investigated in the laboratory scale using the simple
single-state digesters of 5- and 20-litre working volumes. The digesters were fed on a
batch basis with the slurry of dry cassava tuber containing the average moisture
content of 18%, and operated at ambient temperature (29-31C) for 30 days. When
operating the single-state digester of 5-liter working volume fed with the optimal
concentrations of carbon and nitrogen sources, 1.00% (w/v) total solids and 0.04%
(w/v) urea, the gas yield of 1.95 litres/day containing the maximum methane content
of 67.92% was achieved at 10-day retention time.
The fermentation reactions were ceased after 16-day operation. The
fermentation volume was then scaled up to 20 litres. The gas yield of 5.50 litres/day
containing 55.70% methane was obtained at 10-day retention time. Whereas the
methane content of 67.57% and the gas yield of 3.88 litres/day were obtained at 14-
day retention time. The fermentation reactions were ceased after 24-day operation.
Biogas containing 67% methane content could be achieved from the digestion of
cassava tubers using simple single-state digesters.
The production of biogas from raw cassava tuber was performed using the
simple single-state digesters with working volumes of 5 and 20 litres. The digesters
were fed on a batch basis with the slurry of dry cassava tuber containing the average
moisture content of 18% and 10% (v/v) of seed cultures. The biogas fermentation was
then operated in triplicate at ambient temperature for 30 days.


35

Table2.3: Physical Characteristics of 5-L and 20-L Working Volume Digesters
Parameter 5L 20L
Digester height (cm) 25.00 35.00
Liquid height (cm) 13.50 41.30
Empty Volume (L) 7.50 26.00
Filled Volume (L) 5.00 20.00
Source: (Wantanee and Sureelak, 2004)
Since the amount of main nutrients (carbon and nitrogen sources) affects the
growth of micro-organisms and the production of biogas, the optimal concentrations
of TS (carbon source) and nitrogen source added were determined. The high carbon-
to-nitrogen ratio (approximately 80:1) of cassava root (dry weight) has been reported.
The optimum ratios for the maximum biogas generation have been suggested to be
20-30:1.
In the study, various TS concentrations: 0.25, 0.50, 1.00, 2.00, 4.00, and
8.00% (w/v), were applied to the 5-L reaction volume to obtain the optimum TS
content. Then the addition of urea (46% of nitrogen) as a nitrogen source at 0.00,
0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.10, and 0.20% (w/v) was investigated.
For stabilizing pH of cassava slurry during the anaerobic digestion, the
addition of sodium bicarbonate (0.25%, w/v) was considered whenever the volatile
fatty acids-to-alkalinity ratio was greater than 0.8. The volume of biogas produced in
the digester was measured by the displacement of water in the gas holder
compartment.
The pH of water in this holder was adjusted to 2 to avoid carbon dioxide
dissolution. Gas production was measured daily. The composition of biogas collected
over water, was analysed using the Gas Analyser equipped with a thermal
36

conductivity detector (TCD) and 1-M Porapak Q (80-100 mesh) column. Helium was
used as a carrier gas at a flow rate of 25 mL/min. The oven, injector, and detector
temperatures were 80, 120, and 120C respectively.
Biogas containing the methane content of 67% could be efficiently produced
from cassava tuber slurry (1%, w/v, TS) and the supplement of urea (0.04%, w/v) in
the simple single-state digester with both 5-L and 20-L reaction volumes. Cassava
tubers used to prepare the slurry contain the average contents of 81% of TS, 40% of
total carbon, 38% of starch, and 0.5% of total nitrogen.



37

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Choice of Feedstock
The choice of feedstock for this project was cow dung and rumen fluid as co-
substrate due to the excess abundance of cattle in Nigeria and its numerous
advantages. Cow dung is the ideal substrate for bio-digesters because it is not acidic
according to Karanja and Kiruiro (2003).

3.2 Material Procurement
The cow dung and rumen fluid used in this research was obtained from
slaughterhouse located at Ogbomoso, Oyo state, Nigeria. The fresh cow dung was
obtained from animal holding pen unit while rumen fluid was collected from
evisceration unit.

3.3 Material Preparation
Rumen fluid was prepared as follows: rumen content was poured to 25 litre
tank and 20 litre tap water added. Solid content was separated from slurry by filter
cloth. Before using, all of cow dung and rumen fluid collected was homogenized by
mixing with propeller mixer. Cow dung and rumen fluid sample was analysed based
on its dry matter (DM) content by mean heating at 105
o
C and 550
o
C, respectively.


38

3.4 Materials and their Uses

Table 3.1: Materials and Uses
Materials Uses
9mm diameter rubber hose Used to connect the digester to the gas collector
Clip made of metal plates, bolt and nut To clip the hose at various point as required
during the experimental procedure
Rubber motorcycle tyre tube Used for collection of the gas yielded
Weighing scale Used for weighing of material needed
Cow dung (raw material) Used as feedstock into the digester
Rumen fluid (raw material) Used as co-substrate
Maggots Used to exhaust oxygen enclosed in the digester
Chemical reagent Caustic soda used to absorb co
2
Rubber seal Used to ensure the digester is airtight
Poly filler Used for sealing welded joint to avoid leakages
Water Used for preparing the slurry
Thermometer
Galvanized steel sheet (1.2 mm)
Welding machine
Sheet metal cutter
Hand drilling machine
Thermometer duct cork (x2)
6201 bearings (x2)
Meter rule
Used for measuring the ambient temperature of digester
Used for the fabrication of the digester
Used for joining the galvanized steel sheet together
Used for cutting of the sheet metal into size and shape
Used to create bolt and nut holes on the digester
Used for closing the thermometer duct
Makes the agitator statically and dynamically balanced
Used for making measurements

39

3.5 The following are the component parts of the digester
i. The Manual Agitator
ii. The manual agitator handle (L-shaped)
iii. The thermometer duct
iv. Galvanized steel lid
v. 15 bolts, nuts and washers for the steel lid
vi. 6 bolts, nuts and washers for the substrate inlet cover
vii. The gas outlet duct
viii. The substrate inlet duct
ix. The digestion chamber
x. The slurry outlet duct
3.6 Design of Biogas Digester

40








41


Plate 3.1:- A Cylindrical Drum Digester
42



Fig. 3.1: Cross-section of a digester
43

3.7 Fabrication Process of the Digester
i. Cutting of galvanized sheet metal into dimension required
ii. Rolling of sheet metal into shape
iii. Welding of sheet metal
iv. Grinding of welded joints of sheet metal
v. Making indentation to the top lid and the substrate inlet cover
vi. Drilling of holes for the bolt and nuts on the top lid and the substrate inlet
cover
vii. Application of poly filler to the welded joint to seal off every hole left over by
the welding and grinding process
viii. Painting of the digester
3.8 The Experimental Procedures
Cow dung to rumen fluid with ratio 3:2 and water to the feedstock (cow dung
and rumen fluid) mixing ratio was 2:1 as research variables was fed to digester and
homogenized with manual stirrer. The inlet of the digester was covered tightly by bolt
and nuts and it was padded with rubber seal to ensure the anaerobic condition was
maintained. One end of the rubber hose was connected to the digester gas outlet
located at the top of the digester and the other end of the rubber hose was connected
to the tyre tube for gas storage.
The digester was stirred thrice daily to avoid scum formation in the digester. The
experiment was on for 42 days and reading taken for this retention period. The
temperature was measured thrice daily. The daily readings were taken every day for 6
weeks and the average weekly temperature was recorded.
44

The temperatures were taken with the aid of a mercury-in-glass thermometer via the
thermometer duct provided. The temperature readings were taken three times daily
around 8:00a.m, 2:00p.m and 6:00p.m of the day. This was done in order to determine
the temperature changes during the day and also the effect of sunlight on the digester.
Observation shows that, the body of the digester received so much heat, especially
around 2:00p.m and 6:00p.m as a result of reduced relative humidity in the air, and
this could be related to the black paint used to coat the outside body of the digester.
The average temperature readings taken from the measurement was 31.75
o
C.

3.9 Characterization of the wastes
The wastes used for this experiment were collected in two separate compartments and
water was also collected in another compartment. The total volume of digester used
for the experiment was 105 litres. The total wastes comprising of cow dung and
rumen fluid mixed in the ratio of 60:40 respectively, and water to substrate ratio of
2:1 was used. This is an indication that total waste of 23kg was used along with 47kg
of water, making the overall substrate quantity in the digester 70kg which represent
66.7% of the digester volume and does not exceed 2/3 of digester volume.
The experiment include the preparation of substrate (cow dung and rumen fluid) to
water mixture, feeding of the digester, daily temperature reading, collection of the gas
after 42 days, and running of laboratory analysis to determine the proximate
composition of generated gas. The daily temperature readings was taken and
recorded.

45


3.10 Biogas Purification
If the gases were to be purified before use ,then the main requirement would
be the removal of acid gases (i.e. CO
2
and H
2
S) provided the hydrogen sulphide level
are low, and then it can be removed by passing the gas through heated iron oxide (iron
sponge). The carbon dioxide forms calcium carbonate and is precipitated. However,
this is only applicable in small scale operations, in large installations full scale Alkali
or organic scrubbers maybe necessary.

3.11 Cost Analysis
Cost analysis is the breakdown of the cost of construction of the biogas
digester, comprising of the labour cost and the material cost. The total estimated cost
is N52, 650 which is reckoned to be a bit expensive based on the quality of material
used for the construction of the digester. Hence, other materials which are cheaper
could be adopted for digester construction by medium scale farmers and household
utilization. The table below shows the breakdown of the materials used.

46

Table 3.2: Cost Analysis of Materials Used for Construction
S/N Material
Description
Quantity of
Material
Specification of
Material
Unit
Cost (N)
Total
Cost (N)
1 Galvanized steel
sheet
2 1.2 mm thickness
(8X6) ft
10,000 20,000
2 Mild steel
shaft/rod
1 12mm diameter 2,500 2,500
3 Roller bearing 2 40mm Diameter 600 1,200
4 Bolt and nut 21 12mm 40 840
5 Valve 1 - 400 400
6 Rubber packing 1 1.5 thickness 1,300 1,300
7 Workmanship - - 5,000 5,000
8 Thermometer 1 Mercury-in-glass 450 450
9 Cork 2 Wooden 100 200
10 Hose 5 yards 8mm diameter 200 1000
11 Clip 2 Round 30 60
12
13

14
Tube
Laboratory
Analysis
Logistics
1
2

-
Vehicle size 14
-

-
700
-

-
700
14,000

5,000
Total 52,650


47

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Results
The table below shows the chemical composition of the substrate (cow dun
and rumen fluid) and indicating all parameters determined from the analysis of the
substrate.
Table 4.1: Chemical composition of the substrate



Parameters Determined 1 2 Average

% D.M @ 105
o
C 23.85 23.83 23.84
% O.D.M @ 550
o
C 72.34 72.36 72.35
% M.C 76.18 76.14 76.16
NH
4
-N (g/kg) 17.84 17.89 17.86
Nitrogen(g/kg) 41.18 41.13 41.15
%K on DM. 1.56 1.58 1.57
Phosphorus (g/kg) 3759.0 3756.0 3757.5
%C.F 11.48 11.51 11.495
%Lignin 4.8 4.6 4.7
%O.C 31.56 31.59 31.575
pH 5.67 5.63 5.65
48


D.M: Dry Matter
O.D.M: Organic Dry Matter
NH
4
-N: Ammonium Nitrogen
K: Potassium
C.F: Crude fibre
O.C: Organic Content

Table 4.2: Average Weekly Temperature Readings for Biogas Production
HRT: Hydraulic Retention Time



HRT (Weeks) Temperature (
o
C)
1 30.50
2 31.00
3 33.50
4 32.50
5 33.00
6 30.00
Average 31.75
49

Table 4.3: Percentage Composition of Biogas





Fig.4.1:- Graph of temperature (
o
C) against HRT (weeks)
29.5
30
30.5
31
31.5
32
32.5
33
33.5
34
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

o
C

HRT, (Weeks)
Average Weekly Temperature Profile
Component 1 (%) 2 (%) Average (%)
Methane (CH
4
) 57.99 58.00 57.99
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) 39.98 40.00 39.99
Oxygen (O
2
) 2.00 2.00 2.00
Hydrogen Sulphide
(H
2
S)
0.01 0.01 0.01
Water Vapour 0.01 0.01 0.01
50

4.2: Discussion of Results
Table 4.1 shows the result of the chemical composition of the substrate. The
percentage of dry matter at 105
o
C was found to be 23.84%, the organic dry matter
was found to be 72.35%, the moisture content was 76.16%, the ammonium Nitrogen
content was 17.86 (g/kg), the nitrogen content was 41.15 (g/kg), the amount of
potassium in dry matter was 1.57%, and Phosphorus content was 3757.5 g/kg. The
crude fibre content was found to be 11.495%, Lignin component was 4.7%, the
organic content was 31.575% and pH of the substrate mixture was 5.65.
The result shows that the dry matter yield of 23.84% appears to be close with the
work of Budiyono et al., (2011), where the dry matter obtained from the proximate
analysis of cattle manure was 20.23%. However, the value obtained for lignin from
this work deviate from the work of (Budiyono et al., 2011), where the value 25.97%
was obtained from cattle manure.
The implication of this is that the result obtained is dependent on the kind of substrate
used, its chemical constituent, quality and operating condition.
Table 4.2 shows the average weekly temperature reading, beginning from the first
week the digester was loaded.
Observation also shows from fig. 4.1 that as the hydraulic retention time (HRT) in
weeks increases, the temperature (
o
C) increases to a maximum point which shows
increase in the rate of biogas production and the temperature later falls which shows
decrease in the volume of biogas production, that is; decrease in the production rate of
the substrate (cow dung and rumen fluid) because the substrate has reached the
maximum biogas yield point.
51

Table 4.3 shows the composition of the biogas produced. It can be seen that, the
production of biogas yielded 57.99% of methane (CH
4
), 39.99% of carbon dioxide
(CO
2
), 2.00% of oxygen (O
2
), 0.01% of hydrogen sulphide (H
2
S) and 0.01% of water
vapour. The result shows that the methane has the highest yield (57.99%) follow by
CO
2
(39.99%), oxygen yielded 2.00% which shows that the process was carried out
under anaerobic condition(absence of oxygen) before biogas can be produced and the
oxygen composition of the water used in the preparation of the feedstock.
The 2.00% of oxygen is in contrast with the work of (Budiyono et al., 2011) that also
carryout the production of biogas from cattle dung and rumen fluid which got 0%
oxygen composition of biogas. The high percentage of methane (CH
4
) represents the
main source of energy. The implication of this is that the percentage yield of product
of biogas produced depends on the type of substrate used and its chemical
constituents. The methane produced can be used for generation of electricity, thermal
energy for cooking and heating and also as transportation fuel.

52

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusions
From the study, the following conclusions can be made:
i. Biogas can be produced by the microbial digestion of organic matter in the
absence of air. Various wastes, such as municipal wastes, kitchen waste,
animal waste and crop residue can also be used in the production of biogas.
ii. Biogas production technology has established itself as a technology with great
potential which could exercise major influence in the energy scene in rural
areas.
iii. Biogas production took place within the retention period of six weeks from
microbial digestion of cow dung and rumen fluid in an anaerobic condition.
iv. The percentage yield of products of biogas produced depends on the type of
substrate used and its chemical constituents.
v. A biogas digester that is air-proof was constructed for this to ensure the
breaking down of cow dung and rumen fluid by anaerobic bacteria.
vi. The total average retention period for the experiment was 42 days (6 weeks)
before gas production started and the collection was done immediately and
stored in tyre tube for further analysis.
5.2 Recommendations
Based on the results and findings of this study, the following
recommendations were suggested for future experiment:
53

i. More research bodies and organizations should be created by the government
or tertiary schools to translate this study into a high performing technology.
ii. A means of sustaining mesophilic temperature should be developed, as
productivity of biogas is higher at this temperature region.
iii. Low cost design should be developed to suite the adoption of biogas
technology especially in rural areas.
iv. The produced bio fertilizer should be used on farm, most especially, small
farms like family unit.
v. To maintain the temperature of digester, it should be thermally insulated to
prevent loss of heat and the material for the construction should be non-heat
reflector.



54

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