FM Modulators and Transmitters

Sections: 4-8
Outline
FM modulators and transmitters
Frequency drifting; ppm
Basic component review
Angle Modulation Classification
Direct PM Modulation Techniques
Phase of the carrier changes according to m(t)
Thus, Indirect FM Modulation
Advantages of direct PM: Uses stable crystal oscillator
Disadvantages of direct PM: Limited phase deviation\

Indirect PM Modulation Techniques
Direct FM Modulation - frequency of the carrier changes according to m(t)
Advantages of direct FM: easy to obtain high frequency deviation
Disadvantages of direct FM: when using LC tanks it is not very stable, thus additional
circuitry is required
Approaches to create direct FM:
Varactor diode modulators
FM reactance modulators
IC-based modulators
Direct FM
Indirect FM
See notes for diagrams
FM Transmitters
Direct
Crosby utilizing AFC loop (automatic frequency control loop)
PLL- based
Indirect
Armstrong
FM transmitter using PM modulators
FM Transmitters/Receiver Key Components (review)
Linear and non-linear devices
Discriminators
Frequency to amplitude
converters
Differentiators
Multipliers
Dividers
Mixers
Phase detectors
Oscillators
Tank circuits (LC)
Varactor diodes
Adders
Bandpass Limiters
Envelop detectors
VCOs
Filters
RC (LPF, HPF)
LRC (Bandpass Filter)
All-pass filters
Amplifiers
PLL
Super-heterodyning
Preemphasis and Deemphasis
Filters
Devices which take input
waveform and modify its
frequency spectrum content
Use energy storage elements to
obtain frequency discrimination
Inductors
Capacitors
They have different
classifications:
Construction
LC elements
Quartz crystal elements
Transfer function response
Butterworth, Chebyshev
Filters contain energy storage
elements that are physically
imperfect
Inductors have resistance
Capacitors have shunt
resistance ! leakage
The quality of these elements
can be measured using Quality
Q of the filter
Two ways of calculation:
Q = 2pi (maximum energy stored
during on cycle)/Energy dissipated
per cycle
Q = fo/B (B is 3-dB BW; and fo is
resonant freq.
For LRC circuits we use Q = fo/B
The more narrowband the filter the
larger the Q ! less DRIFT!
Filter Construction
Filter Constructions
Lumped LC elements
are impractical above
300MHz Low Q
Active filters using OPAMPS are
limited to 500KHz opamps
have large open-loop gain!
Crystal filters using quartz crystal
elements are good up to 100 MHz, good
stability high Q! very good
performance ! low drift ! more
expensive than RC
FM Transmitters Crosby Direct FM
Used for commercial broadcast-band transmitters
Uses an Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) Loop
Characteristics:
Phase deviation of the output is multiple of phase deviation of the modulator
The modulating frequency is unaffected by the multiplication process
The angle modulated carrier is heterodyned through the non-linear mixer
The output of the mixer depends on the passband filter could be up/down converted
Discriminator generally has high-Q (narrowband)
Master Frequency
modulator (fc)
Crystal
Oscillator
Non-linear mixer
DC correction voltage is added to
the modulator to adjust the fc due
to any DRIFT
Note:
Kd is in V/Hz
Ko is in Hz/V

To the antenna
FM Transmitters - Example
Assume fc drift 40 ppm (40 x 5.1 = +/- 204Hz) ! 3672; thus, 18.36 KHz at the antenna!
In this case the open-loop drift is df
open
= N1.N2.df
c
.
Master Frequency
modulator (fc)
Crystal
Oscillator
Non-linear mixer
DC correction voltage is added to
the modulator to adjust the fc due
to any DRIFT
Note:
Kd is in V/Hz
Ko is in Hz/V

To the antenna
Max. frequency
deviation allowed by
FCC is 2KHz


Note that frequency drifting can occur due to temperature change.
It is often given in ppm per deg. C.
Example:
A drift of 40 ppm at the master oscillator will translate to
[(40ppm x 5.1)/10^6] = +/- 204Hz=!f)
Similarly,
!f=204 Hz ! [(!f/fc)*10^6] = 200 ppm
FM Transmitters Example w/AFC
Assume fc drift 40 ppm (40 x 5.1 = +/- 204Hz)
In this case the closed-loop drift is df
closed
= df
open
/(1 + N1.N2.Kd.Ko).
Thus, the total drift at the antenna will be 153 Hz. Much less than the previous case!
Master Frequency
modulator (fc)
Crystal
Oscillator
Non-linear mixer
DC correction voltage is added to
the modulator to adjust the fc due
to any DRIFT
Note:
Kd is in V/Hz
Ko is in Hz/V

To the antenna
Max. frequency
deviation allowed by
FCC is 2KHz
FM Transmitters Example w/AFC
Master Frequency
modulator (fc)
Crystal
Oscillator
Typical Values:
Discriminators: +/- 100 ppm

DC correction voltage is added to
the modulator to adjust the fc due
to any DRIFT
Note:
Kd is in V/Hz
Ko is in Hz/V

To the antenna
Max. frequency
deviation allowed by
FCC is 2KHz
What if the discriminator and crystal reference oscillator drift as well?
In this case the closed-loop drift is df
closed
= df
open
/(1 + N1.N2.Kd.Ko).
The total open-loop drift will be:
df
open =
N1.N2(df
c
+ .Kd.Ko.df
d
+ Kd.Ko.N4.df
o
)

Note that had we not used the
Mixer, the drift at the output of
the discriminator would have
been 100ppm*30.6 = 3060 Hz
as opposed to
100ppmx2 = 200Hz!!

Direct FM Transmitter Using PLL
Generating WBFM (large !F) ; we assume the stability of
the VCO (carrier) is not very good ! we use PLL
The stability of the crystal oscillator is relatively good and
has high Q

Good stability;
Lower frequency
ac
Phase detector
DC
Voltage Correction
dc
ac
fc
Indirect WBFM (Armstrong Method)
Uses NBFM to generate WBFM
The NBFM is generated using indirect method
WBFM Using Indirect Method of Armstrong
Two blocks: Mixer and Modulator
Note that the output of NBFM is !
Utilizes heterodyning and up-conversion
WBFM Using Indirect Method of Armstrong
Heterodyned
Low Freq.
Carrier / High Q
Must be 88-108 MHz
For commercial FM
Modulation index:
!F/fm
fm
Max 15KHz
Low !F=25 Hz
s(t) =V
c
cos(!
c
t +"(t))
s
PM
(t) =V
c
cos(!
c
t + D
p
m(t))
s
FM
(t) =V
c
cos(!
c
t + D
f
m(# )d
!
# )
Can lead
Or lag
Also called the
balanced modulator
WBFM Using Indirect Method of Armstrong
Heterodyned
Low Freq.
Carrier / High Q
Must be 88-108 MHz
For commercial FM
Modulation index:
!F/fm
fm
Max 15KHz
Low !F=25 Hz
s(t) =V
c
cos(!
c
t +"(t))
s
PM
(t) =V
c
cos(!
c
t + D
p
m(t))
s
FM
(t) =V
c
cos(!
c
t + D
f
m(# )d
!
# )
Can lead or
lag
Also called the
balanced modulator
Questions:
Calculate the min. modulation index.
How do you create NBPM?


References
Leon W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication
Systems, 8
th
edition, Pearson / Prentice, Chapter 4
Signal Conditioning: An Introduction to Continuous Wave
Communication By Apurba Das, Chapter 5
Contemporary Communication Systems, First Edition by M
F Mesiya Chapter 5
(http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073380369/information_center_view0/)

See
Notes