BITS Pilani

Hyderabad Campus
EngineeringMaterials:ENGGZC232
Instructor:B.HariharaVenkataraman

Lecture11
6
th
September

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ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Concepts of Stress and strain
Elastic deformation
Plastic Deformation

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Types of Metal Alloys
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Classification scheme of various metal alloys
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Ferrous Alloys :
Iron is the prime constituent (Steels and Cast Iron)

Widespread Use
Iron containing compounds exist in abundant quantities
Metallic iron and steel alloys : Produced using economical fabrication techniques
Extremely versatile

Non Ferrous Alloys :
All alloys that are not iron based (copper, aluminium, magnesium, titanium, nickel)
Typical properties and applications
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Concepts of stress and strain
Load is static and applied uniformly over a surface + Mechanical
behavior : Simple stress - strain test

Three principal ways in which a load may be applied

1) Tension.
2) Compression.
3) Shear and Torsion.

Engineering practice : Loads are torsional rather than pure shear
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Tension Tests
Most common mechanical stress - strain is performed in Tensile test.

Tensile test : Determine several mechanical properties of materials.

Tensile specimen - Rectangular specimens + Cross section is circular.
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Dogbone Configuration is Chosen : Deformation is confined to
the narrow center region.


Dimensions :
Standard Diameter (0.5 in)
Reduced section length (2.25 in)
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Tensile stress - strain : Apparatus
Tensile testing machine

Elongate the specimen at a constant rate.

Simultaneously measure the Instantaneous applied load (with a load cell)
and the resulting elongations (Extensometer).
Tensile load produces an
elongation
Dashed line : Represents the
shape before deformation
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Tensile test

Several minutes to perform

Destructive : Test specimen is permanently deformed and usually fractured



Output of the tensile test

Load (or) force versus elongation.

Load - deformation characteristics are dependent on the specimen size.
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Engineering Strain :
0 0
0
l
l
l
l l
i
A
=

= c
l = Change in length at some instant.

l
0
= Original length.

Engineering Stress :
o
o =
F
A
F = Instantaneous load applied.
A
o
= Original cross sectional area.

Units : Megapascals
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Typical Stress versus Strain curve
Fracture
Necking region
Yield point
Deformation is elastic (stress and strain are proportional) : Yield Point

Deformation is Inelastic : After Yield Point.
(Linear region is followed by a Non linear region)

Slope of the curve decreases + Becomes Zero at Maximum load.
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Engineering stress corresponds to Maximum load is Ultimate Tensile Strength

Beyond this maximum + Neck Forms in the Middle of the specimen
(Cross sectional area decreases)

Fracture : Material breaks into two pieces
Fracture
Necking region
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Metals : Occurs when noticeable necking starts

Ceramics : Occurs when crack propagation starts

Polymers : Occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and
about to break
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Compression tests

Similar to Tensile Test + Force is compressive.

Specimen contracts along the direction of the stress.






o
o =
F
A
0 0
0
l
l
l
l l
i
A
=

= c
Compressive stress
Compressive strain
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Compression tests



Tensile tests are more common : Easier to perform.



Material is brittle in nature : Compressive tests are used.
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Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression:
Fish under water
Pressurized tank
o
z
> 0
o
u
> 0
o < 0
h
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
COMMON STRESS STATES
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F
o
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
1. Initial 2. Small load
3. Unload
Elastic means reversible!
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
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Stress - Strain Behaviour

Degree to which a structure deforms (or) Strain depends on the
magnitude of an imposed stress.

For most metals (Stressed in tension + Relatively low levels)

Stress and strain are proportional to each other.






o = E c
Hookes law, Constant of Proportionality (E) = Modulus of elasticity
(or) Youngs Modulus.
Modulus of elasticity = Magnitude ranges from 45 to 407 GPa
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Elastic Deformation : Stress and Strain are
proportional

Slope = Modulus of elasticity

Modulus : Stiffness
(Materials resistance to elastic deformation)

Greater the modulus : Stiffer the Material
Modulus : Important design parameter

Elastic deformation is nonpermanent : Load is released + Returns
to its original shape.
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0.2
8
0.6
1
Magnesium,
Aluminum
Platinum
Silver, Gold
Tantalum
Zinc, Ti
Steel, Ni
Molybdenum
Graphite
Si crystal
Glass-soda
Concrete
Si nitride
Al oxide
PC
Wood( grain)
AFRE( fibers)*
CFRE*
GFRE*
Glass fibers only
Carbon fibers only
Aramid fibers only
Epoxy only
0.4
0.8
2
4
6
10
20
40
60
80
100
200
600
800
1000
1200
400
Tin
Cu alloys
Tungsten
<100>
<111>
Si carbide
Diamond
PTFE
HDPE
LDPE
PP
Polyester
PS
PET
CFRE( fibers)*
GFRE( fibers)*
GFRE(|| fibers)*
AFRE(|| fibers)*
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Metals
Alloys
Graphite
Ceramics
Semicond
Polymers
Composites
/fibers
E(GPa)
YOUNGS MODULI : COMPARISON
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Elastic properties of materials
Tensile stress is imposed on Metal specimen in z dirn :
Elastic elongation with Strain
z
in the z dirn

Contractions in the lateral directions :
Compressive strains (
x
and
y
)

Applied stress is uniaxial and material is isotropic :

x
=
y


Poissons ratio

Defined as the ratio of the lateral and axial strains.

Maximum value : 0.50
For many metals + alloys
Value ranges from 0.25 and 0.35
z
y
z
x
c
c
c
c
v = =
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1. Initial 2. Small load
3. Unload
Plastic means permanent!
F
o
linear
elastic
linear
elastic
o
plastic
PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)
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Simple tension test:
PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION
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Most metallic materials :
Elastic deformation persists only to strains of
about 0.005

Beyond this point :
Stress is no longer proportional to strain
(Plastic deformation occurs)

Transition from Elastic to Plastic is Gradual :
Curvature at the onset of the plastic
deformation + Increases more rapidly with
rising stress
Elastic and Plastic deformations
Proportional limit P
Yield strength : 0.002 strain offset method
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Mechanical Properties

Yield Strength

Tensile Strength

Ductility

Toughness

True Stress and Strain
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Tensile Properties

Point of Yielding

Most structures are designed : Elastic deformation will result when
a stress is applied.

Plastically deformed structure : Permanent change in shape + Not
capable of functioning.

Desirable to know the stress level : Plastic deformation begins (or)
Phenomenon of yielding occurs.

Point of yielding : Determined
Initial departure from linearity of the stress - strain curve
(Proportional limit, P)
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Convention :
Straight line Parallel to the elastic portion at
specified strain offset, 0.002.

Intersection of this line + Stress - Strain curve.
Yield Strength

Units of yield strength : Megapascals or psi

Magnitude : Measure of its resistance to
plastic deformation.

35 MPa to over 1400 MPa
Yield strength
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o
y(ceramics)

>>o
y(metals)

>> o
y(polymers)
YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON
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Tensile strength

Tensile strength :
Stress at the maximum on the engineering stress - strain curve.

Other words : Maximum stress sustained by a structure in tension.

Tensile strength : 50 MPa to 3000 MPa

Strength of a metal is cited in terms of Yield strength.
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TS
(ceram)

~TS
(met)

~ TS
(comp)
>> TS
(poly)
TENSILE STRENGTH: COMPARISON
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Ductility

Another mechanical property : Measure of the degree of plastic deformation

Stress - Strain behaviour for
brittle and ductile materials
Material experiences very little (or) no plastic deformation : Brittle
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Ductility : Either Percent Elongation (or) Percent reduction in area

%EL =
L
f
L
o
L
o
x100

%AR =
A
o
A
f
A
o
x100
Percentage of plastic strain at fracture
L
f
= fracture length
L
o
= original length

Magnitude of % EL depends on
specimen gauge length.

A
0
= Original cross sectional area
A
f
= Cross sectional area at the point of fracture
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Knowledge of Ductility

It indicates to the designer the degree to which a structure will deform
plastically before fracture.

It specifies the degree of allowable deformation during fabrication
operations.
Note : %AR and %EL are often comparable.

%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
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Energy to break a unit volume of material

Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve up to the
fracture point
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
Engineering tensile strain, c
Engineering
tensile
stress, o
smaller toughness (ceramics)
larger toughness
(metals, PMCs)
TOUGHNESS
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True stress and strain
i
T
A
F
= o
}
=
i
o
l
l
T
l
dl
c
o
i
l
l
ln =
F = load applied

A
i
= Instantaneous cross sectional area (A
i
)

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If no volume change occurs during deformation :
o o i i
l A l A =
o
i
o
T
l
l
A
F
= o
( ) c + = 1
o
A
F
( ) c o + = 1
( ) c c + = 1 ln
T
True and Engineering Stress and Strain are related by
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Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches oy.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
SUMMARY
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Concept Check
List four classifications of steels. Describe their properties and cite typical
applications
Low Carbon Steels
Properties : nonresponsive to heat treatments; relatively soft and weak; machinable and
weldable.
Typical applications: automobile bodies, structural shapes, pipelines, buildings, bridges.
Medium Carbon Steels
Properties: heat treatable, relatively large combinations of mechanical characteristics.
Typical applications: railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts, and machine parts.
High Carbon Steels
Properties: hard, strong, and relatively brittle.
Typical applications: chisels, hammers, knives, and hacksaw blades.
High Alloy Steels (Stainless and Tool)
Properties: hard and wear resistant; resistant to corrosion in a large variety of environments.
Typical applications: cutting tools, drills, cutlery, food processing, and surgical tools.
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Concept Check
What are the advantages and disadvantages of ferrous alloys ?
(a) Ferrous alloys are used extensively because:
(1) Iron ores exist in abundant quantities.
(2) Economical extraction, refining, and fabrication techniques are available.
(3) The alloys may be tailored to have a wide range of properties.
(b) Disadvantages of ferrous alloys are:
(1) They are susceptible to corrosion.
(2) They have a relatively high density.
(3) They have relatively low electrical conductivities.
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Example Problem 9.1
A piece of copper originally 305 mm long is pulled in tension with a stress of 276 Mpa.
If the deformation is entirely elastic, what will be the resultant elongation?
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Example Problem 9.2
A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical brass rod
that has a diameter of 10mm. Determine the magnitude of the load required
to produce a 2.5 x 10
-3
mm change in diameter if the deformation is entirely
elastic.
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Exercise Problem 9.20
A specimen of copper having a rectangular cross section 15.2 mm x 19.1 mm
is pulled in tension with 44500 N force, producing only elastic deformation.
Calculate the resulting strain.
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Exercise Problem 9.25
A cylindrical rod of steel (E = 207 GPa) having a yield strength of 310MPa is
to be subjected to a load of 11,100 N. If the length of the rod is 500 mm, what
must be the diameter to allow an elongation of 0.38 mm?
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Exercise Problem 9.32
A cyclindrical bar of aluminum 19mm in diameter is to be deformed
elastically by application of a force along the bar axis. Determine the force
that will produce an elastic reduction of 2.5 x 10
-3
mm in the diameter
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Exercise Problem 9.41
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Exercise Problem 9.61
A cylindrical specimen of a brass alloy
10.0 mm in diameter and 120.0 mm long is
pulled in tension with a force of 11750 N,
the force is subsequently released.
Compute the final length of the specimen
at this time. The tensile stress - strain
behavior for this alloy is shown in figure.