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European Journal of Teacher Education
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Professional development for teachers: a world of change
Vivienne Collinson
a
; Ekaterina Kozina
b
; Yu-Hao Kate Lin
c
; Lorraine Ling
d
; Ian Matheson
e
; Liz
Newcombe
f
; Irena Zogla
g
a
Michigan State University, Grosse Pointe Park, USA
b
Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
c
MingDao
University, Taiwan
d
La Trobe University, Australia
e
General Teaching Council for Scotland, Scotland
f
University of Wolverhampton, England
g
University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
Online publication date: 27 October 2010
To cite this Article Collinson, Vivienne , Kozina, Ekaterina , Kate Lin, Yu-Hao , Ling, Lorraine , Matheson, Ian ,
Newcombe, Liz and Zogla, Irena(2009) 'Professional development for teachers: a world of change', European Journal of
Teacher Education, 32: 1, 3 19
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/02619760802553022
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02619760802553022
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Professional development for teachers: a world of change
Vivienne Collinson
a
*, Ekaterina Kozina
b
, Yu-Hao Kate Lin
c
, Lorraine Ling
d
,
Ian Matheson
e
, Liz Newcombe
f
and Irena Zogla
g
a
Michigan State University, Grosse Pointe Park, USA;
b
Trinity College Dublin, Ireland;
c
MingDao University, Taiwan;
d
La Trobe University, Australia;
e
General Teaching Council for
Scotland, Scotland;
f
University of Wolverhampton, England;
g
University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
As the industrialised world shifted to an interdependent and global society,
formal schooling was quickly recognised as a major factor in achieving a
knowledge society of lifelong learners capable of transforming and revitalising
organisations. Teachers were encouraged to engage in learning together to
improve teaching and, by extension, improve learning for the children in their
care. This article identifies three emerging trends intended to broaden teachers
learning and enhance their practices through continuous professional develop-
ment: glocalisation, mentoring, and re-thinking teacher evaluation. The body of
the article indicates how these three trends are unfolding in Australia, England,
Latvia, the Republic of Ireland, Scotland, Taiwan, and the USA.
However, teachers cannot bring about necessary changes without organisa-
tional and systemic change; namely, collaboration with governmental agencies
and other institutions. The authors suggest that transforming schooling in the
twenty-first century depends on education policies being supported by expanded
teacher participation in education policy-making, more coherent governmental
policies across agencies, and collaborative, differentiated models for career-long
continuing professional development.
Keywords: professional development; educational policy; educational practices
The world witnessed profound changes during the last half of the twentieth century,
not the least of which involved a communications revolution and a rethinking of
how people learn, how a knowledge society needs knowledge workers and citizens
of the world (Drucker 1959, 1993), and why organisations must develop career-long
learning for their members. The education profession was not immune to these
global shifts in thinking as nations implemented policies to improve learning for
teachers and as local school systems began experimenting with new approaches for
teacher learning.
The article begins with an explanation of why global changes in teachers
professional development may be occurring. It is followed by a brief description of
three emerging trends designed to broaden and enhance teachers learning through
continuous professional development: glocalisation, mentoring (in the form of
induction), and re-thinking teacher evaluation. The body of the article indicates how
these three trends are unfolding in Australia, England, Latvia, the Republic of
Ireland, Scotland, Taiwan, and the USA.
The trends indicate that professional development, while a critical piece for
transforming education in the twenty-first century for teachers and their students, is
integrally connected to countries broader educational and social policies. The
authors suggest that different and differentiated professional development, along
*Corresponding author. Email: vrcollinson@yahoo.com
European Journal of Teacher Education
Vol. 32, No. 1, February 2009, 319
ISSN 0261-9768 print/ISSN 1469-5928 online
# 2009 Association for Teacher Education in Europe
DOI: 10.1080/02619760802553022
http://www.informaworld.com
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with a collaborative model for change involving expanded teacher participation in
policy-making and more coherent governmental policies across agencies, would
contribute to better understandings and improved implementation of educational
policies in schools.
Why is professional development changing?
Academics widely agree that the twentieth century marked a rare conceptual
revolution that has affected countries and individuals worldwide by reframing
peoples understandings of change. Gone are formerly accepted, modernist concepts
such as closed system models, stability and certainty, natural laws and order, and
linear thinking. They have been replaced with post-modern concepts such as organic
systems, unpredictability, interdependence, and constructed perspectives (e.g., Scott
2003). Dissemination of new concepts has been accelerated by a simultaneous
communications revolution and by increased global mobility of people.
The birth of the Information Era and the establishment of a knowledge society
(Drucker 1994) have transformed the world. Such a society requires people to have
a good deal of formal education and the ability to acquire and to apply theoretical
and analytical knowledge. Above all, they require a habit of continuous learning
(62). Drucker (1993) outlined a new role for education in a knowledge society:
learning and schools would not simply exist for children, but would extend through
adults lives, permeate society, and include knowledge creation and problem solving.
Learning, Drucker predicted, would be based on performance and results rather
than on rules and regulations.
The new thinking envisions systems [that] are self-regulating and capable of
transformation in an environment of turbulence, dissipation, and even chaos.The
teachers role [is] no longer viewed as causal, but as transformative.And learning
[is] an adventure in meaning making (Soltis 1993, x, xi). That means that individual
adult members (e.g., teachers, principals, support staff) and groups within the
organisation (e.g., a school, a department) require advanced continuous learning as
well as opportunities to engage in dialogue and inquiry to create new knowledge.
They need opportunities to work collaboratively, disseminate their learning, and
contribute to their own, their colleagues, and the organisations continuous
improvement (Collinson and Cook 2007).
Recruiting and retaining fresh streams of talented members, for example through
mentoring, plays a major role in strengthening the vitality of the organisation. Fresh
talent and diversity of members potentially contribute multiple ideas and
perspectives as well as encourage the questioning of norms that is the starting point
for error correction and innovation (Gardner 1963; Argyris and Scho n 1978).
Organisations have to innovate in order to respond to and survive rapid and
unpredictable changes in their environments (Preskill and Torres 1999; Kikoski and
Kikoski 2004). However, self-renewal can no longer rely on single-loop learning;
namely, tinkering around the edges by changing members behaviours (practices) but
not their thinking. Rather, individuals in organisations have to aim for double-loop
learning; that is, changes in thinking (beliefs and norms) as well as behaviours
(Argyris and Scho n 1978, 1996).
Society has already made an intellectual and conceptual shift, as have numerous
businesses and industries (e.g., Dixon 1999; Schwandt and Marquardt 2000).
4 V. Collinson et al.
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Education is slowly absorbing the new shift in thinking and is beginning to
implement changes that encourage teachers and principals to engage in learning
together for the purpose of improving teaching and, by extension, learning for the
children in their care. But changes as profound and rapid as todays changes
generally involve risk and, sometimes, fear. The risk for members of the education
profession is particularly strong because compulsory public education and
continuing professional development for adults have a relatively short history that,
for the most part, is thoroughly imbued with modernist concepts and language. Also
risky is the thought that pioneering practices are premised on new concepts and
therefore grounded mostly on faith that they should work (Doll 1993). Such is the
nature of innovation.
Emerging trends in professional development
This article focuses on three educational trends glocalisation, mentoring, and re-
thinking teacher evaluation that appear to have emerged in response to recent
global understandings of lifelong learning and innovation, organisational revitalisa-
tion via the development and retention of members, and continuous improvement
and transformation from within. Following is a brief explanation of these trends.
Glocalisation
Members of the teaching profession are, by now, very familiar with the word
globalisation, a convergence of increasing mobility, trade, and communication with
profound effects for almost every country. In fact, since ancient times, trade routes
helped spread religions, cuisines, ideas, and innovations across land and sea. Todays
globalisation is merely happening faster and creating greater interdependence among
peoples and nations.
Sometimes, products, processes, or practices move from the local to a global
market with little change. Recently, for instance, international fashion designers
incorporated into their collections Burmese fabrics that use local lotus plants and
local weaving patterns. In education, teachers anywhere may be using the lesson
study process from Japan or the reading recovery programme from New Zealand.
By contrast, theories and concepts that move from the global arena to a local
arena rarely stay exactly the same. For example, democratic governance looks
different in France than in the USA. To capture the phenomenon, Robertson (1995)
coined the term glocalisation. Drawing on a Japanese word and concept,
glocalisation originally referred to products with global reach or application being
altered to reflect local tastes or interests.
Today, glocalisation might be described as a blending of global and local, or an
adaptation of the global with a distinct local twist that represents a transformation
(e.g., incorporating local values, norms, culture, materials).
There are parallel, irreversible and mutually interdependent processes by which
globalisation-deepens-localisation-deepens-globalisation and so on.Neither the global
nor the local exists without the other. The global-local develops in a symbiotic, unstable
and irreversible set of relationships, in which each gets transformed through billions of
worldwide iterations evolving over time. (Urry 2003, 84)
The phenomenon is somewhat captured in the vernacular phrase, Think globally,
act locally. For example, in the 1970s, an international hotel chain known for its
European Journal of Teacher Education 5
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five-star high-rise hotels built a hotel complex in Bali that used local materials and
kept building heights below the height of the rainforest while maintaining its
standards of quality and service. In education, most curricula are a blend in that they
share universal concepts, but teachers and books likely emphasise local values,
culture, examples, and problems.
Mentoring
The concept of mentoring also has ancient roots, referring to Homers legendary
figure, Odysseus, who left his son and household under the care and tutelage of
Mentor. Over time, mentors have come to mean experienced, trusted advisors or
counselors, and mentoring can take many forms. In education, mentoring sometimes
serves as a sort of shorthand for induction programmes, most of which involve
significant mentoring.
In business and industry, informal mentoring has occurred for a long time.
Informal mentoring has also occurred in public schools for many decades as
experienced teachers voluntarily took novice teachers under their wing. In business
and industry, formal mentoring has generally taken the form of apprenticeships. For
instance, white-collar professions such as politicians, doctors, and lawyers have
embedded formal mentoring for novices in the roles of pages, interns, or law clerks.
More recently, the education community has embraced formal mentoring as a
necessary extension of learning about the highly complex role of teachers and as a way
to build habits of learning. Where organisations or countries have institutionalised
mentoring for teachers, the practice of pairing mentor and novice teachers generally
involves a one- to two-year induction programme. Induction programmes are
designed to help increase competence and confidence of novice teachers and to serve as
a link between teacher preparation programmes and continuous professional
development, creating a seamless three-part sequence of career-long learning.
1
Re-thinking teacher evaluation
Teacher evaluation may be called a variety of terms: annual performance review,
appraisal, assessment, inspection, or supervision. It became a fixture in twentieth
century schools, especially after the role of head teacher-as-teaching-colleague
became a non-teaching role of full-time manager or administrator/principal/director.
Patterned after industry, school administrators supervised subordinates (teachers)
who had clear-cut roles and responsibilities within a hierarchical bureaucracy.
The predominant model, called the clinical supervision model, generally involves
brief classroom observation(s) by the administrator followed by a written report or
checklist and perhaps some conferencing. But because teachers much prefer to learn
with and get ideas or advice from teachers (Wasley 1991; Rait 1995), the traditional
top-down model of teacher evaluation came to be known as a dog and pony show
and, rather than being perceived as constructive learning, was viewed as obtaining
someones subjective judgment of how good a teacher is, a judgment based on the
assumption that the judge knows what good teaching is and can recognize it when he
sees it (Stronge and Ostrander 1997, 131). Some teachers received remedial
assistance, few incompetent teachers achieved competency, and few teachers were
dismissed for instructional incompetence (Tucker and Kindred 1997), leaving
teachers and the public to wonder if the traditional behaviourist model was
6 V. Collinson et al.
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adequate for a post-modern world in which teachers roles and responsibilities, as
well as the professional culture, had already changed.
Also by the end of the twentieth century, the accountability purpose of
summative evaluation seemed at odds with the formative purpose of teacher
development and instructional improvement: the former is episodic whereas the
latter is continuous; one operates as a deficit model, the other as a growth model;
one acts as a stick, the other as a carrot; one represents teacher passivity, the other,
active teacher involvement; one is externally motivated, the other, internally
motivated (Collinson 2001, 151).
By the end of the twentieth century, academia belatedly perceived a need to
change the traditional evaluative process that treat[ed] teachers as supervised
workers rather than collegial professionals (Kumrow and Dahlen 2002, 238).
Practitioners were already exploring emerging alternatives like peer coaching, self-
evaluation, client surveys, teacher portfolios, action research, and study groups
(Glickman 1992; Stronge 1997). This shift embraces professional development and
better reflects the complexity of teaching (Kumrow and Dahlen 2002, 238).
Additional suggestions for reforms include strategies such as union participation,
altering the adversarial tone of evaluations, furthering collaboration and teamwork,
principal evaluation, and joint principal and teacher analysis of student learning
(Conley and Glasman 2008).
How is professional development changing in the twenty-first century?
In theoretical and conceptual visions of professional development during the last
several decades, the emphasis has shifted from teaching (as a set of skills or
competences) to teacher learning (e.g., Sparks 2002; Stoll, Earl and Fink 2003).
Nations typically try to institutionalise new ways of thinking and educational
innovations by means of policies. Policy implementation, however, is generally left to
practitioners although they may have had little or no communication with policy-
makers. Thus, even if policies represent desirable change, significant difficulties and
unintended consequences may surface during implementation in schools.
For instance, top-down policies may fail because practitioners are not given the
reasoning behind new policies or linkages to existing practices. Sometimes, an
educational policy is created in isolation from other supportive social agencies, or it
may be inconsistent with existing financial or social policies. Sometimes, short-term
political thinking weakens long-term social goals or aspirations. Sometimes, existing
structures and norms in schools are inadequate to support innovative thinking and
policies. In the practical world of schools, the following examples illustrate that this
shift is neither simple nor easy, but pioneering attempts in various countries around
the globe provide insights into how new thinking and global change have prompted
innovations in education.
Global ideas, local action
Taiwan is an example of an Asian country incorporating global thinking and
practices. For instance, the Taiwanese Ministry of Education overhauled its national
curriculum in 2004 with a view to encouraging a lifelong learning society and
cultivating its citizens knowledge, capabilities, and creativity. Examples of Taiwans
new core learning competences for students likely sound familiar to teachers on
European Journal of Teacher Education 7
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several continents: to develop abilities related to independent thinking and problem
solving, to promote abilities related to career planning and lifelong learning, and to
acquire the ability to utilise technology and information (Ministry of Education
2004). The new national curriculums inferred expectations for Taiwanese teachers
include teacher reflection, collaboration, knowledge management, creativity, and
lifelong learning in the form of school-based CPD (see Wu 2001; Huang 2003).
Lin (2006) noted that opportunities for teachers continuous professional deve-
lopment in the context of Taiwanese compulsory education generally include:
N seminars and workshops on Wednesday afternoons when teachers do not
have lessons. Topics and presenters are usually chosen in advance by
administrators, and teachers are often required to participate to accumulate
the compulsory 18 hours of points per year.
N professional dialogues about current practices and educational issues. These
occur during regular teacher team meetings;
N curriculum development meetings where teachers regularly work together on
designing the schools curriculum or lesson plans (Rao 1999; Chan 2000);
N peer clinical supervision in which a teacher observes, analyses, and discusses a
colleagues instruction with the goal of improving teacher performance (Lu
1998; Chang 1999);
N peer coaching which involves multiple teachers observations with the aim of
learning new teaching strategies and techniques (Chang 2001).
Countries like Taiwan usually choose to initiate changes in education. However,
countries like Latvia had little choice after the disintegration of the USSR forced
unprecedented and urgent change. Latvia had to cope simultaneously with a lengthy
Soviet legacy, exposure to the paradigm shift sweeping the globe, metamorphosis to
a democracy, and entry into the European Union all in the space of 15 years (see
Zogla 2006). Since 1991, Latvia has passed laws to decentralise education and create
new national standards. Schools that used Russian or minority languages have to
instruct in Latvian while managing multi-ethnic inclusion. Evaluation and
accreditation of schools have become a collaborative process of internal and
external input, and schools have begun to create professional learning communities,
build partnerships with other schools, and become cultural centres of communities.
Professional development plays an especially important role in helping Latvian
teachers and principals change both their thinking and their practices, and
glocalisation is evident in Latvias arrangements for CPD. In addition to strong
encouragement for certified teachers to continue toward a professional diploma or
masters degree, Latvia is experimenting with mentoring, communities of practice,
and networks. Because of a national emphasis on self-evaluation for teachers and
internal evaluation components for school accountability, Latvian CPD may include
critical friends (see Bambino 2002) and videotape analysis. For the many, broader
societal changes in Latvia (e.g., democratic values, inclusion, diversity, materialism,
educating a population for lifelong learning and a global market), the cascade model
has been used to help teachers (e.g., Wedell 2005). Predictably, so many concurrent
changes have meant that at the organisational level, CPD targeting and planning
have often suffered. Additionally, having to deal with so much double-loop learning
so quickly has understandably left many teachers feeling overwhelmed, unprepared,
or exhausted.
8 V. Collinson et al.
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The Australian version of glocalisation, by contrast, seems to have occurred in
response to supply and demand. Glocalisation is evident in increasing numbers of
international students taught in Australian universities and schools, increasing
numbers of offshore programmes run by Australian universities and schools, more
frequent staff/student exchange programmes, and outsourcing of teacher education
(e.g., Canada to Australia).
In 2006, researchers from two universities in Australia conducted a study in
which Canadian teacher education students were interviewed regarding their
perceptions of the outsourcing of teacher education and of engaging in teacher
preparation in Australia rather than in their own country (Ling et al. 2006). Some of
the interviewees perceived that Canadian universities are filled to capacity so the
government doesnt care if students study abroad. Some felt that teacher education
in Canada is not a priority and is not taken seriously enough. When asked in a
questionnaire why Canadian students came to study in Australia, one student wrote,
Because I couldnt get into [teacher education in the province of] Ontario; too many
applicants, not enough spots. Another student stated that in Ontario we are
encouraged to go elsewhere supply lags behind demand and they [provincial
politicians] are not looking ahead.
The study suggests a situation where it is cheaper for provincial governments to
outsource teacher education than to provide the number of places that are needed to
fill shifting demands for teachers. One explanation was that the government has not
been forthcoming with funding and as a consequence, the universities cannot train
enough teachers to meet the demand.
This situation seems to exemplify globalisation in that the Canadian government
appears to view the world as its training ground for teachers rather than exclusively
envisaging teacher education as a localised and parochial activity. Outsourcing of
teacher education and professional development could also increase where
governments, working within the constraints of resources or economic rationalism,
decrease funding to higher education. Personal or private sector funding for higher
education could encourage more students to study overseas in the hope of giving
themselves greater flexibility of employment while enjoying travel opportunities and
gaining a broader experience.
As outsourcing of teaching grows, university academics and schoolteachers may
increasingly find themselves dealing with students or colleagues who live in a
borderless world and who are truly glocalised cosmopolitans in their way of life and
attitudes. Cosmopolitans behaviors and attitudes, however, may represent a
challenge for some academics and teachers who continue to operate as
fundamentalists in a cosmopolitan world (Giddens 1999). Little professional
development appears to be provided to help educators mitigate the stress of coming
to terms with a new glocalised world and increasingly cosmopolitan students.
Induction: a transition phase in teacher learning
Regardless of the location of teacher preparation, educators increasingly agree that
induction into the profession is essential, both to improve teachers skills and to
extend the body of knowledge on effective teaching practices. At the same time, they
appear to believe that induction can enhance the profession while addressing public
accountability (A teaching profession for the twenty-first century 2001).
European Journal of Teacher Education 9
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For many decades, initial teacher education appeared to be an end rather than a
beginning. However, induction programmes represent a major and relatively recent
shift within the education community, and countries have taken various paths to
explore and institutionalise them. Thus, because mentoring does not yet have
universal definition or practices (Gold 1996), induction programmes may vary in
time, content, and structure. However, they generally include every novice teacher
and represent a transition phase within a career-long learning plan.
2
One of the longest and most carefully orchestrated pilot projects of induction has
occurred in Ireland, involving about one-third of current primary and post-primary
teachers (Killeavy and Murphy 2006). The pilot project, implemented in 2002,
recognized that the transition from initial preparation to newly qualified classroom
teacher is generally stressful and can have considerable significance for the
professional and personal development of the teacher (167).
Mentors play a significant role in the success of the Irish induction project. To
that end, mentors were carefully selected and specifically trained in areas such as
counselling, skill development, coaching, idea generation, support and encourage-
ment, giving advice and criticism, modelling/observation, and reflection. The project
has shown promising results and will provide recommendations on a national policy
of induction for newly qualified teachers. Continuous professional development
(CPD) is already provided by 21 full-time and six part-time Educational Centres
throughout Ireland.
Scotlands pioneering 2001 policy linking teacher preparation, an induction
programme, and CPD remains one of the most cohesive career-long learning policies
in any country.
3
With a contractual agreement that each teacher undertake 35 hours
of CPD per year, and that it represents a balance among personal professional
development, formal courses, and school-based activities, CPD is now woven into
the fabric of a teachers life in Scotland. Both teachers and employers must make a
commitment to CPD in recognition of a national acceptance that this is essential if
teachers are to be able to offer continuous improvement to the education of young
people in Scotland.
Following teacher preparation, newly qualified teachers in Scotland are provided a
one-year post in a school as they work toward the Standard for Full Registration.
During this induction year as probationer teachers, they work on a class contact
timetable of 0.7 full-time equivalent (FTE) and 0.3 FTE on professional development.
Supporters/mentors also have a reduced class contact of 0.1 FTE to enable them to
participate in weekly meetings with their probationer teacher and to conduct
classroom observations on a minimum of nine occasions over the school year.
4
The 2001 policy meant that for the first time, 35 hours of CPD per annum became
a contractual requirement for all teachers, providing a balance among personal
professional development, formal courses, and school-based activities. Each teachers
programme is recorded in an annual CPD plan and is designed to take account of
individual needs as well as school, local, and national priorities. Recognising that the
needs of teachers in their early years may differ from those of experienced teachers,
Aberdeen University and local authority partners are creating an extended teacher
education structure that will extend mentoring and support into a post-induction year.
After five years as a fully registered teacher, teachers may work toward an
advanced professional level, choosing one of two routes toward Chartered Teacher
status. This innovation is a means of valuing and recognising teachers who choose to
10 V. Collinson et al.
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develop their knowledge, understanding, and skills while remaining in the classroom.
It carries several benefits for teachers:
N taking their professional development to new levels;
N reviewing and improving their classroom practice;
N gaining confidence;
N providing a substantial improvement in salary.
One route toward Chartered Teacher status (the Programme Route) involves a
structured course of study (12 modules) with an accredited provider, most of which
are Scottish universities. The other route (the Accreditation Route, in effect until
August 2008 and then updated) is appropriate for experienced teachers who are
confident that their professional actions are already at Chartered Teacher level and
who have sufficient evidence and commentary to support their application.
5
After
successfully completing Module 1 (self-evaluation), this route allows teachers to
produce a reflective report supported and illustrated by a portfolio of evidence.
The reflective report represents a critical account of the teachers learning
through professional actions, supported by reference to reading of appropriate
literature, thus grounding the professional development in an enhanced knowledge
of theory. The reflective report should show that the teacher:
N has reflected on and demonstrated learning from the activities outlined in the
portfolio;
N can identify and analyse the central principles in relation to the professional
action;
N shows a critical knowledge of relevant literature;
N continually sets high standards for professional performance in the classroom;
N has demonstrated sustained enhanced practice.
6
Other forms of CPD for teachers include Professional Recognition which offers
teachers a certificate recording their development of expertise in a particular area of
teaching, such as supporting pupil learning, enterprise education, or mentoring and
coaching. Research is considered an integral part of teaching as well and teachers are
encouraged to access practitioner research funding or participation in an emerging
researcher network.
7
In sum, Scottish teachers have an expectation of continuous
improvement with an emphasis on evidence-based professional action and on
reflection, blending theory and practice.
Few countries have involved as many stakeholders or developed a CPD
continuum as comprehensive and integrated as Scotlands. However, numerous
countries have given strong support to the induction of teachers into the profession
through government policy. In Australia, for example, the State of Victoria recently
implemented an induction process with extensive mentoring as a requirement for full
teacher registration. Unlike Scotlands professional input and focus on students, the
Victorian adoption of induction acknowledged professional reasons for induction,
including recognition of beginning teachers needs, but strongly emphasised political
reasons, including a focus on global competition and the potential to improve
teacher retention (DEEWR 2003; Gillard 2008).
Motivation and policy appear to be the easy part; implementation of policies can
be much more difficult. Australia is not alone in having specific professional and
political contexts influencing the implementation of induction programmes. In the
European Journal of Teacher Education 11
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professional arena, new teachers are increasingly in short-term contract positions,
bouncing from school to school and sometimes staying only one term. Beginning
teachers, particularly at the secondary level, are also increasingly asked to teach
outside their area of subject expertise because of shortages (e.g., mathematics and
science). Additionally, new teachers are frequently sent to the most difficult schools
or relegated to teach the leftover classes; namely, students or classes that
experienced teachers have chosen not to teach. Such conditions do not support
the development of reflection, collaborative relationships, or regular dialogue,
observation, and feedback (Commonwealth of Australia 1998; Victorian
Department of Education 2008).
In the political arena, policies routinely embody state or party ideology and
goals. What is being questioned in Australia is the implication that induction might
infer an official knowledge and a common culture for teachers, thus encouraging
how to prescriptions of practice while inhibiting deeper questions and inquiry into
assumptions about school culture and teaching practices. Language, too, can be co-
opted by politicians. For instance, collegiality is generally perceived among
professionals to be a desirable relationship, but Smyth (2001) argued that in
Australia, collegiality is a policy option being wielded very effectively at the moment
to dramatically redefine what is meant by the notion of skill and competency in
teaching in light of national economic imperatives (101).
Professional growth, performance improvement
The emerging trend to change teacher evaluations is very different from national or
state adoption of induction programmes. This trend has just begun, it is still in a
quiet grass-roots experimentation phase, and it impacts experienced teachers instead
of novice teachers. Re-thinking teacher evaluation as professional learning and
growth represents a major break with the past.
Re-thinking teacher evaluation today may be following a path similar to the re-
thinking of student assessment during the last two decades. As national curricula
evolved to accommodate changes such as inclusion, increasing student diversity, and
growing understandings of how children learn, teachers and organisations sought new,
formative ways to assess students understanding and learning. To that end, teachers
attended numerous workshops on authentic assessment, portfolios, reading records,
student journals, projects, and performances (see Allen 1998; Fisher and Frey 2007).
Most of these alternatives emphasised formative growth of students.
During the last decade, however, formative assessment innovations for students
in some countries have co-existed with national policies that emphasise summative
assessment in the form of standardised tests (e.g., the US). The American policy was
designed to improve instruction and to narrow the student achievement gap,
especially for poor and minority children. England, on the other hand, adopted a
philosophy (DfES 2004) that embraces the concept of the whole child and integrates
different providers to support each child in a holistic way. Yet despite some
significant successes in both countries, many inequalities still persist, millions of
children in England and the USA live in poverty (Berliner 2006; Hirsch 2007), the
number of students who drop out of school is high (DfES 2006; Laird, Chapman,
and DeBell 2006), and social mobility fares poorly compared to other advanced
countries (Blanden et al. 2005).
12 V. Collinson et al.
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Part of recent criticism has focused on a lack of cohesion of public policies
supporting education policies (e.g., Berliner 2006). England, recognising that poverty
and educational disadvantage are intrinsically linked, and acknowledging a shift in
thinking to consider the holistic needs of children, has taken a multi-agency
approach by joining responsibility for schools, children, and families within a single
department the Department for Schools, Children and Families (DfSCF). CPD
provisions for teachers in England are now designed to break down traditional
boundaries and build collaboration among education, health, and social services
providers.
To tackle the drop-out issue, England intends to dramatically change curriculum
offerings and address currently limited vocational opportunities for 14- to 19-year-
old students. The government will introduce 14 specialised diplomas with a
vocational focus the first five diplomas in 2008, and the remainder in place by 2010
(DfES 2005). Here, too, CPD will be necessary for teachers, particularly in relation
to breaking down the boundaries that exist between school, further education, and
the workplace.
Shifts in thinking about relationships among curriculum, instruction, and
assessment, along with shifts in thinking about schools in society and interagency
collaboration, are paralleled by shifts in thinking about teacher evaluation and by
shifts in understandings about teacher collaboration. Collaboration, especially
through collective inquiry, is now widely accepted as necessary for teacher learning,
for effective mentoring, and for the improvement of instruction. The premise is that
with interactions between co-learners, professionals are able to use their knowledge
on behalf of others while further developing their own knowledge (Davis, Ellet and
Annunziata 2003, 290).
Pockets of innovation that recognise collaborative learning and the complexity
of teaching are beginning to occur, but like alternative assessments for students,
these innovations co-exist with efforts to judge teachers performance and base their
salaries on students annual results on standardized tests (e.g., Whoriskey 2006).
Although the innovations reflect increasing collaboration among administrators,
teachers, and local unions, most of the alternatives apply only to experienced
teachers, suggesting that CPD should be differentiated for novices and experienced
teachers.
A sample of alternatives to traditional teacher evaluation in the USA includes
the following innovations. Each alternative appears to encourage knowledge
construction and creation, improvement of teaching through improvement of
teacher learning, and the building of organisational capacity by establishing
expectations of professional collaboration among teachers.
8
N One school system uses state standards and a developmental continuum of
teacher competency (beginning, emerging, applying, integrating, innovating)
to offer three choices for evaluation: traditional clinical supervision by the
administrator, peer evaluation that includes a self-assessment component, or a
portfolio to demonstrate teaching proficiency (Palazuelos 2007).
N One school system offers experienced teachers an alternative resembling an
action research project. Teachers identify goals for improvement, develop and
implement an action plan, and share results with colleagues (Ray-Taylor et al.
2006, 24).
European Journal of Teacher Education 13
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N An elementary school has replaced traditional evaluation of tenured teachers
with lesson study. Lesson study involves teams of teachers conducting two cycles
of lesson study per year on a faculty-selected, school-wide theme (e.g., a new
curriculum, an innovation). The teams research, collaboratively plan a lesson,
observe and analyse the taught lesson, collect data on student learning, discuss
and refine the instruction, and share findings with colleagues (Lewis et al. 2006).
Alternatives such as these begin to blur the former line between evaluation and CPD.
Most alternatives are more complex and time-consuming than traditional teacher
evaluation, but they also provide richer feedback to teachers, and they focus closely
on teacher learning as a means to improving instruction. These innovations,
however, are too recently institutionalised to know how they will influence student
learning or teacher satisfaction.
Collaboration: a possibility for change
Nations around the world have recognised that learning, innovation, and continuous
improvement are necessary to their growth and prosperity. They understand that
the postmodern world is fast, compressed, complex and uncertain [and] is presenting
immense problems and challenges for our modernistic school systems and teachers
who work within them (Hargreaves 1994, 9). Nations also understand that
schooling plays a major role in creating knowledge workers and innovative societies
in the twenty-first century. Teachers learning, then, becomes a crucial piece of the
puzzle, but what appears necessary as well is teacher involvement in educational
policy-making coupled with coherent social and financial policies to support
educational policies.
Nations, it seems, have to find ways to effect local education policies that are
compatible with global thinking and application, and teachers have to find ways to
learn and teach increasingly cosmopolitan populations. Typically, teachers hear
about educational policies when they must implement them. This is contrary to the
collaboration and decentralised leadership and decision making that characterise
flexible, responsive, and innovative organisations (e.g., Rosenholtz 1989; Leithwood,
Jantzi, and Steinbach 1999; Pfeffer and Sutton 2000; Hargreaves and Fink 2006).
The Scottish and Irish models (described earlier) represent a promising break from
past thinking and offer new possibilities for involving local authorities and teachers
in collaborative educational policy making prior to implementation.
At the school level, too, the involvement of teachers is vital for successful change.
Shared leadership and collaboration require learning and behaviours for both
teachers and principals new social relationships, sharing of knowledge, blurred and
flexible roles, access to information, skills of questioning, inquiry, dialogue, and
argumentation learning that is appropriate to and differentiated for teachers/
leaders at various levels of knowledge and skills (Collinson 2008).
However, teachers cannot bring about necessary changes without organisational
and systemic change occurring alongside their changing attitudes, values and
approaches; namely, collaboration with governmental agencies and other institu-
tions (e.g., universities). In the absence of such collaboration, changes from within
the profession can only amount to little more than tinkering with the technical skills
of teaching, while the broader issues are defined and determined elsewhere (Smyth
2001, 7).
14 V. Collinson et al.
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Similarly, governments should by now understand that thinking about schooling
in the short term frequently subverts collaboration which is more time-consuming
and messy. For instance, in Taiwan, it was not enough to want a lifelong learning
society, and in Latvia, it was not enough to want democratic governance without a
full understanding of what that means for schools and society. Changes like these,
reflecting global changes already underway, demand discussions of shared values,
long-term visions of schools and society, new understandings about learning, and
examination of assumptions and outcomes.
Educational policies that are not coherent with or supported by social and
financial policies have a long history of failure and unintended consequences.
Teachers and principals, like other knowledge workers in a world of change, need
continuing professional development. The twenty-first century suggests that major
changes are already occurring in CPD, some from the top down, some from the
bottom up, and some through collaboration. Recent emerging trends for broadening
and enhancing teachers learning through CPD suggest that a collaborative model
for change can contribute to better understandings, stronger policies, and improved
implementation in schools.
Notes
1. The purpose of induction in the USA seems to focus on slowing teacher attrition rates or,
conversely, improving retention rates of novice teachers who for decades have left the
profession early and in alarmingly high numbers, especially those who begin teaching in
poor areas (Ingersoll and Kralik 2004).
2. A brief comparison of programmes within England, Wales, and Scotland may be found in
Earley and Bubb (2004). Induction efforts in Switzerland, Shanghai, New Zealand, Japan,
and France were summarised by Wong, Britton and Ganser (2005). In 2006, Ontario, Canada
implemented a New Teacher Induction Program for all novice teachers in the province.
3. More information is available from the General Teaching Council for Scotland website
(http://www.gtcs.org.uk/Home/home.asp).
4. Scotland has chosen to allow mentor reports to contribute to the head teachers
recommendation concerning full registration status. This evaluative role of mentors is a
contested aspect in the literature.
5. The original agreement indicated that the Accreditation Route for Chartered Teacher
would cease to be available in August 2008. On 7 June 2008, the Cabinet Secretary for
Education and Lifelong Learning announced that a new, flexible route to Chartered
Teacher will be piloted and evaluated.
6. American teachers may recognise the Accreditation Route as somewhat similar to the
requirements for National Board Certification.
7. Teachers who aspire to leadership roles must also show a similar commitment to CPD as
they undertake a programme of development leading to the Scottish Qualification for
Headship.
8. Changes in practice for alternative evaluations for principals and superintendents lag
behind implementation of alternative evaluations for teachers (e.g., Stufflebeam and Nevo
1993; Dipaola 2001).
Notes on contributors
Vivienne Collinson, education consultant; associate professor (retired), Michigan State
University, USA.
European Journal of Teacher Education 15
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Ekaterina Kozina, postgraduate student, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland.
Yu-Hao Kate Lin, assistant professor, MingDao University, Taiwan.
Lorraine Ling, dean and executive director, La Trobe University, Australia.
Ian Matheson, educational planning and research officer, General Teaching Council for
Scotland, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Liz Newcombe, senior lecturer, University of Wolverhampton (Walsall), England.
Irena Zogla, professor, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia.
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