Delay Reliability and Trust in MANETs

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
Santa Barbara
Delay, Reliability and Trust in Mobile Ad Hoc
Networks: A Space-Centric Approach to Routing
A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Electrical and Computer Engineering
by
Amir Aminzadeh Gohari
Committee in Charge:
Professor Volkan Rodoplu, Chair
Professor Michael Melliar-Smith
Professor Louise Moser
Professor Ben Zhao
July 2011
The dissertation of
Amir Aminzadeh Gohari is approved:
Professor Michael Melliar-Smith
Professor Louise Moser
Professor Ben Zhao
Professor Volkan Rodoplu, Committee Chairperson
July 2011
Delay, Reliability and Trust in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks:
A Space-Centric Approach to Routing
Copyright c 2011
by
iii
To my parents,
for their unconditional love and everlasting sacrice
To Diana,
for her support and encouragement
iv
Acknowledgements
I would like to begin by expressing my gratitude to my advisor Professor Volkan
Rodoplu for providing a productive academic environment and for his distinguishable
mentorship and guidance. His insightful, challenging and thought-provoking comments
and questions always pointed me to the right direction. Above all, I would like to thank
Volkan for being there and available for discussion and for his patience and exibility
throughout my Ph.D. studies.
My sincere appreciation goes to the members of my dissertation committee, Pro-
fessor Michael Melliar-Smith, Professor Louise Moser, and Professor Ben Zhao for
their suggestions and close collaboration. Particularly, I would like to thank Professors
Melliar-Smith and Moser for treating me like their own student and giving me wonder-
ful academic advice. My gratitude extends to Professor Zhao, for I learned so much in
his course, course project and other academic discussions.
During my stay at UCSB, I have had an amazing social life and was fortunate to nd
some of the best friends one could ask for. First, I would like to express my gratitude
to my housemates, Hamed Dadgour and William Robertson for their help and advice
upon my arrival to Santa Barbara. I was privileged to be a part of the International
Students Association (ISA), as I met many of my incredible friends there, including
Monica Fairwell, Solmaz Acar, Hamid Ghofrani, Mareike Enghusen, Nina Delhomme,
Nikhil Darshane, Nicola Boyd, Yasin Khatami, Karina Zaur, Azhar Soltanova, Arkadi
v
Pasternak, Diana Ramazanova, Adam Lugowski, and Jacob Serup. I will never for-
get our coffee hours, parties and of course our trips. I would also like to thank the
Persian community at UCSB, particularly Mehdi Nasr Azadani, Meysam Rezaei, Nilo-
ufar Pourian, Tad Dougherty, Farshad Pour Safaei, Saeed Shamshiri, Hadi Rasouli, Ali
Nabi, and anyone I might be forgetting, for our fun times together. It has been a privi-
lege knowing each and every one of you.
Of course, my deepest appreciation goes to my parents, my brothers Amin and
Omid and my sister Anahita for their unconditional love, and everlasting sacrice. I
will not forget the endless discussions and debates about everything and nothing with
Amin. I have always found Amins brilliant knowledge of mathematics fascinating and
learned a lot from his points of view on my research problems. Finally, there is no
doubt in my mind that my life here has been a truly fruitful one, because of Diana, her
support, encouragements and affection.
vi
Curriculum Vit
Education
09/2007 08/2011 Doctor of Philosophy in Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9560, USA.
09/2003 12/2005 Master of Science in Electrical Engineering,
Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, 11365-9363, Iran.
09/1999 09/2003 Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering,
Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, 11365-9363, Iran.
Honors and Recognitions
ECE Department Dissertation Fellowship, University of California, Santa Bar-
bara, Mar. 2011.
Session Chair, IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), Dec.
2010.
Session Chair, IEEE GLOBECOM Workshop on Mobile Computing and Emerg-
ing Communication Networks, Dec. 2010.
University of California Presidents Work Study Award, 2008 and 2009.
Ranked 11th in Nationwide Electrical Engineering Students Olympiad, Iran,
2003.
Ranked 10th in Nationwide Graduate School Entrance Examinations for Mas-
ters in Electrical Engineering, Iran, 2003.
Ranked 30th in Nationwide College Entrance Examinations in Math and Physics,
Iran, 1999.
Academic Experience
09/2007 08/2011 Graduate Research Assistant,
University of California, Santa Barbara.
06/2011 08/2011 Teaching Assistant, ECE 152A: Digital Design Principles,
05/2011 Guest Lecturer, ECE 250: Wireless Communications and Net-
working, University of California, Santa Barbara.
vii
01/2011 03/2011 Teaching Assistant, ECE 152A: Digital Design Principles,
05/2010 Guest Lecturer, ECE 250: Wireless Communications and Net-
working, University of California, Santa Barbara.
01/2006 08/2007 Research Engineer, Optical Networks Research Lab.,
Sharif University of Technology.
01/2004 07/2004 Head Teaching Assistant, EE 25-543: Microprocessors I,
09/2003 12/2003 Teaching Assistant, EE 225-504 Microprocessors Lab I,
Leadership Experience
09/2009 09/2010 Vice President, International Students Association,
09/2008 09/2009 Treasurer, International Students Association,
09/2002 09/2003 Member of the Board, Student Association,
09/2001 09/2002 President, Sharif Film Club,
Publications
Book Chapter
Volkan Rodoplu and Amir A. Gohari, MAC Protocol Design for Underwater
Networks: Challenges and New Directions, in Underwater Acoustic Sensor Net-
works, Ed. Yang Xiao, Auerbach Publications, Taylor and Francis, CRC Press,
May, 2010.
Journal Papers
Amir A. Gohari, Ryan Pakbaz, P. Michael Melliar-Smith, Louise E. Moser, and
Volkan Rodoplu, RMR: Reliability Map Routing for Tactical Mobile Ad Hoc
Networks, to appear in IEEE Journal of Selected Areas in Communications, Nov.
2011.
Amir A. Gohari and Volkan Rodoplu, Congestion Aware Spatial Routing in Hy-
brid High-Mobility Wireless Multihop Networks, submitted to IEEE Transaction
on Mobile Computing.
viii
Amir A. Gohari, M. R. Pakravan, S. Khazraei, Analysis of Power Control for
Indoor Optical Wireless CDMA Networks Using OOK and BPPM, accepted for
publication in IET Communications Journal.
Simin Khazraei, Mohammad R. Pakravan, Amir A. Gohari, Analysis of Power
Control for Indoor Optical Wireless Code-Division Multiple Access Networks us-
ing On-Off Keying and Binary Pulse Position Modulation, IET Communications,
vol. 4, pp. 1919-1933, Nov. 2010.
Conference Papers
Amir A. Gohari, Volkan Rodoplu, DMQR: A Spatial Routing Protocol to Enable
VoIP over High-Mobility Wireless Multihop Networks, in Proceedings of IEEE
GLOBECOM Workshop on Mobile Computing and Emerging Communication
Networks, pp. 1257-1262, Dec. 2010.
Volkan Rodoplu, Snehal Vadvalkar, Amir A. Gohari, John Shynk, Empirical
Modeling and Estimation of End-to-End VoIP Delay over Mobile Multi-hop Wire-
less Networks, in Proceedings of IEEE Global Communication Conference, Dec.
2010.
Amir A. Gohari, Ryan Pakbaz, and Volkan Rodoplu, RMR: Reliability Based
Multi-hop Routing in Wireless Tactical Networks, in Proceedings of Military
Communications conference (Milcom), pp. 1106-1112, Nov. 2010.
Volkan Rodoplu, Amir A. Gohari, Challenges: Automated Design of Network-
ing Protocols, in Proceedings of 14th ACM international Conference on Mobile
Computing and Networking (MobiCom), pp. 271-278, Sept. 2008.
Volkan Rodoplu, Amir A. Gohari, Wei Tang, Towards Automated Design of
MAC Protocols for Underwater Wireless Networks, in Proceedings of 3rd ACM
international Workshop on Underwater Networks (WuWNeT), pp. 67-74, Sept.
2008.
Amir A. Gohari, Mohammad R. Pakravan, Analysis of Power Control for Indoor
Wireless Infrared CDMA Communications, in Proceedings of 25th IEEE Inter-
national Performance Computing and Communications Conference, pp. 297-302,
Apr. 2006.
Amir A. Gohari, Mohammad R. Pakravan, Power Control to Enable QoS for
Indoor Wireless Infrared CDMA Networks, in Proceedings of IEEE International
Conference on Communications and Electronics, vol.1, pp. 246-252, Oct. 2006.
ix
Abstract
Delay, Reliability and Trust in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks:
A Space-Centric Approach to Routing
We establish a methodology for handling high mobility in wireless ad hoc networks.
We present a novel design framework for the development of scalable ad hoc routing
protocols that are capable of providing QoS guarantees (delay, reliability and trust) in
the high-mobility regime. In the rst part of this dissertation, we consider the problem
of providing delay guarantees for ad hoc routing protocols under high mobility. The
novel aspect of our work is the attribution of network and MAC layer congestion to
space, which enables congestion-aware routing and provides delay guarantees over a
much longer duration than that achieved by traditional ad hoc routing protocols. We
prove that, over the duration during which the node density and the offered trafc pat-
tern remain roughly constant, the spatial congestion of the network remains roughly
invariant. We present an accurate method of spatial delay estimation, named path
integration, between distinct locations, and derive an upper bound for the estimation
error. Furthermore, we develop a congestion-aware routing protocol to enable delay-
optimized routing for real-time applications. Through extensive QualNet simulations,
we perform a detailed evaluation of the presented framework in a realistic simulation
x
set-up. The simulation studies demonstrate that the proposed scheme provides substan-
tial improvements in the delivery of real-time applications such as Voice over IP (VoIP)
for a wide range of node densities, velocities and offered trafc.
In the second part of this dissertation, we turn our attention to the problem of reli-
able and trustworthy routing in mobile ad hoc networks. We consider the implications
of applying our spatial approach to improve routing reliability through difcult terrains
with possibly untrustworthy regions in tactical mobile ad hoc networks. The proposed
approach provides maps of spatial reliability and trust, that reect the probabilities for
nding trustworthy routes between distinct locations. We develop a routing protocol,
named Reliability Map Routing (RMR), which discovers routes over spatial cells
whose local reliability and trust metrics are distributed throughout the network via a
fast dissemination algorithm. Furthermore, the RMR protocol is capable of reliable
geocasting with low overhead. Via QualNet simulation studies, we compare the per-
formance of the RMR protocol in terms of packet delivery ratio, delay, and overhead,
and quantify the effects of node density, velocity, and trafc load on these performance
metrics.
xi
Contents
Acknowledgements v
Curriculum Vit vii
Abstract x
List of Figures xiv
1 Introduction 1
2 Congestion-Aware Spatial Routing in Hybrid Mobile Ad Hoc Networks 12
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Network Model and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Mathematical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 DMQR Routing Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.5.1 Call Admission Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5.2 Spatial Path Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5.3 Neighbor Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.5.4 Congestion Map Construction/Dissemination . . . . . . . . . 43
2.6 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.6.1 Mathematical Framework Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6.2 DMQR Protocol Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.6.2.1 Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.6.2.2 VoIP Performance of DMQR . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
xii
3 RMR: Reliability Map Routing for Tactical Mobile Ad Hoc Networks 71
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.3 Problem Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3.1 Spatial Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.3.2 Spatial Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.4 RMR: Reliability Map Routing Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.1 Reliability Map Measurement, Estimation, Dissemination . . 92
3.4.1.1 Measurement Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.4.1.2 Estimation Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.4.1.3 Dissemination Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.4.2 Reliable/Trustworthy Path Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.4.2.1 Reliable Geocast Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.4.3 Neighbor Node Lookup Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.5 Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.5.1 Maps of Reliability, Packet Delivery Ratio, and Delay . . . . . 103
3.5.2 Performance Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4 Conclusions and Future Directions 116
Bibliography 129
xiii
List of Figures
1.1 Node mobility affects wireless modules and networking protocols in
physical, MAC and network layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 Congestion attributed to spatial cells remains invariant longer than the
congestion levels of highly mobile individual nodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Effective region (interference range) of a wireless random access MAC
protocol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Construction of the local delay (congestion) map: The i
th
element of
the congestion map is dened as the average of the local delay of the nodes
located within cell C
i
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Construction of the end-to-end delay map: The i
th
element of the end-
to-end delay map
i
is the average of the end-to-end delay of the nodes
located within cell C
i
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 The -coherence time of the network variable (t), T
(,)
c
(t) is the max-
imum interval during which does not deviate by more than from its
expected value at time t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6 The network snapshot during T
()
c
(t). (a) R
20
is the set of cells for the
route from C
20
to C
1
. (b) The shaded area H
7
is the set of upstream cells for
C
7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.7 The high-level state diagram of the DMQR protocol. . . . . . . . . . 37
2.8 Network graph construction. (a) Network dynamics and local delay
values, (b) the weighted network graph of the center cell; note the values of
the cell without connectivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
xiv
2.9 Effect of small displacements and network parameters on the end-to-
end and local delays. (a) Effect of node velocity, N = 400, G(D, t) 3
Mb/s. (b) Effect of node density, v = 10 m/s, G(D, t) 1.6 Mb/s. (c) Effect
of the offered trafc N = 400, v = 10, (d) The standard deviation of local
delay with respect to changes in trafc and node velocity, N = 400. . . . . 49
2.10 (a) Delay map, (b) Congestion map of a network with N = 400, v = 10
m/s, and G(D, t) = 3 Mb/s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.11 Effect of network parameters on the relative error. (a) Effect of node
velocity, N = 400, (b) Effect of node density, v = 10 m/s. . . . . . . . . . 51
2.12 Simulated terrain with holes and sample node trajectories. . . . . . . . 52
2.13 Performance maps of a realistic network running DMQR protocol. (a)
Congestion (local delay) map, (b) PDR contour map, (c) end-to-end delay
map, (d) average delay estimate map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.14 Performance maps of AODV routing protocol. (a) Packet Delivery Ra-
tio (PDR) contour map, and (b) end-to-end delay map. . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.15 Performance maps of OLSR routing protocol. (a) PDR contour map,
and (b) end-to-end delay map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.16 DMQR performance comparison as a function of node velocity. N =
200 and G(D, t) = 1.6, 2.8 Mb/s. (a) Packet delivery ratio, (b) average delay
(logarithmic scale), and (c) routing overhead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.17 DMQR performance comparison as a function of node density. v = 10
m/s and G(D, t) = 2.44 Mb/s. (a) Packet delivery ratio, (b) average routing
delay, and (c) routing overhead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.18 DMQR performance comparison as a function of total offered trafc.
N = 200 and v = 10 m/s. (a) Packet delivery ratio, (b) average routing
delay, and (c) routing overhead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.19 Performance maps of the DMQR protocol carrying VoIP trafc. (a)
End-to-end delay map, and (b) PDR contour map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.20 The MOS quality maps of the network in Fig. 2.12 with (a) DMQR,
and (b) AODV routing protocol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.21 (a) Average delay, and (b) packet delivery ratio (PDR) of the VoIP packets 66
3.1 (a) In the space-centric approach, a route is thought of as a sequence
of node presences. (b) Selected route is still reliable even though the topol-
ogy has changed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2 It is essential that the routing protocol avoids untrustworthy regions. . 75
3.3 Different views of route reliability in MANETs. . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.4 Reliable geocasting with RMR. The geocast region is covered by two
sets of cells, solid black arrows indicate the unicast data transmission and the
curved dashed arrows are the data broadcasts to the target cells. . . . . . . . 100
xv
3.5 Deployment Region with holes. (a) Partitioned into cells. (b) Trajecto-
ries of nodes moving within the deployment region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.6 Contour plot of the reliability map of the network generated by the
RMR protocol; the darker the regions the less reliable they are. (a) N = 200,
v = 10 m/s, (b) N = 200, v = 40 m/s, (c) N = 400, v = 10 m/s, (d)
N = 400, v = 40 m/s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.7 Performance of the RMR protocol in the same set-up as Fig. 3.6(a). (a)
Spatial map of packet delivery ratio, (b) Spatial map of end-to-end delay. . . 107
3.8 Performance evaluation of RMR as a function of node velocity. 200
mobile nodes are deployed in D with a total load of 3.2 Mbps.(a) Packet de-
livery ratio comparison. (b) Average routing delay comparison. (c) Routing
overhead comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.9 Performance evaluation of RMR as a function of node density. Speed
of the nodes is set to v = 10 m/s and a total load of 3.2 Mbps is transmitted.
(a) Packet delivery ratio comparison. (b) Average routing delay comparison.
(c) Routing overhead comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.10 Performance evaluation of RMR as a function of total offered load.
There are 200 transmitting mobile nodes in D, moving with the speed of
v = 10 m/s. (a) Packet delivery ratio comparison. (b) Average routing delay
comparison. (c) Routing overhead comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.11 The RMR protocol switches to a longer (less reliable) route in order to
avoid the untrustworthy region that is agged by a distress signal. . . . . . . 113
3.12 The RMR protocol switches to a longer, less reliable route to satisfy the
trust requirement, as shown by (a) route hop count, and (b) packet delivery
ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.1 Cell size adaptation idea: the regions can vary and change dynamically
in size, depending on the node density in the network. . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.2 Node-centric and space-centric hybrid operation idea: the sparse re-
gions in the right side of the gure adopt a node centric routing protocol
until the packets reach the space-centric enabled areas. . . . . . . . . . . . 128
xvi
Chapter 1
Introduction
The wireless revolution is continuing, and wireless communication networks are
proliferating. The number of mobile subscribers has increased from 49% of the worlds
population in 2007 [1], to more than 70% of its population (5 billion mobile connec-
tions) in July 2010 [2]. The wireless penetration rate in the United States was reported
to be 93% in June 2010 [3] and has exceeded 100% in many of the western Euro-
pean countries, where there is more than one mobile connection per person [2]. As
a result, the design challenges of such networks have become the high rate data sup-
port in large-scale, high-mobility scenarios. As the fourth generation (4G) of wireless
networks is being deployed, the signicant demands of mobile users continues to be
ubiquitous connectivity, seamless mobility support, and the ability to roam between
different wireless networks, e.g., WiFi for local access, Bluetooth for short range data
exchange, ZigBee for personal area networks, and WiMax and LTE for urban broad-
band access [4, 5]. Mobility support is essential for providing uninterrupted access to
1
Chapter 1. Introduction
mobile content and for maintaining real-time connectivity with automatic switching be-
tween networks, protocols, and communication channels. Such requirements present a
number of research challenges including the design of scalable solutions that support
high node mobility, that range from physical layer communication schemes to network
layer protocols.
A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a self-conguring network of mobile de-
vices that are connected by wireless links. Each node in a MANET can freely move
in any direction and is expected to act as a router in the network if necessary. The
main goal of this dissertation is the design of scalable ad hoc routing protocols that are
capable of providing QoS guarantees (delay, reliability and trust) in the high-mobility
regime of network operation. Before we address the challenges of mobility support
in ad hoc routing, it is useful to review the state of the art of mobility management
approaches in the physical and Medium Access Control (MAC) layer of wireless net-
works. Fig. 1.1 illustrates various mobility management techniques in wireless net-
works and their cross-layer interactions. In the physical layer, node mobility causes
signicant frequency-selective, time-varying fading and decreases the coherence time
of the channel [6]. Digital multi-carrier modulation methods in general, and Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and its multiple access evolution, OFDMA,
are particularly robust against co-channel interference, intersymbol interference (ISI)
and fading due to node mobility [7, 8]. Spatial diversity techniques (e.g., MIMO sys-
2
Network Layer
MAC Layer
Physical Layer
Multicarrier Modulation
(OFDM)
Diversity Techniques
(MIMO)
Channel Monitoring
Power Management
Dynamic Bandwidth
Allocation
Horizontal Handoff
Decision
Route Discovery Route Maintenance
QoS Provisioning
Network
Discovery
QoS Metric
Measurements
Vertical
Handoff
Decision
Figure 1.1: Node mobility affects wireless modules and networking protocols in phys-
ical, MAC and network layers
tems) improve the range and capacity of wireless connections by taking advantage of
multipath rather than ghting it [9]. Mobility support in the MAC layer covers a wide
range of problems, from power management [1012] and dynamic bandwidth alloca-
tion [1315], to horizontal and vertical (a.k.a. media independent) handoff [1618].
Cross layer interactions between the physical layer, the MAC layer and the network
layer are necessary to achieve the above tasks [4], as shown in Fig. 1.1.
The effect of node mobility on network layer protocols could be even more crucial.
The reason is that unlike that of the physical and MAC layer protocols, the scope of net-
work layer protocols is expanded to the end-to-end connection between the source and
the destination. The performance of routing protocols in wireless networks is affected
3
not only by the mobility of the source and the destination but also by the mobility of
the relay nodes. There are two necessary requirements for a routing protocol that sup-
ports seamless mobility. First and foremost is the robustness of route discovery and
maintenance. Frequent network topology changes in high mobility scenarios make it
challenging and sometimes impossible to discover routes without interruption or to re-
establish the ones that have been broken due to node mobility. The second requirement
is the ability to provide accurate measures of Quality of Service (QoS). The end-to-end
QoS guarantees, such as reliability, timeliness, and throughput, are of paramount im-
portance in achieving acceptable quality of experience for the mobile users as well as
providing the comparative metrics for vertical handoffs, as shown in Fig. 1.1.
In this dissertation, our focus is on the design of scalable QoS-enabled routing pro-
tocols for high-mobility ad hoc networks. The primary challenges in achieving end-to-
end QoS over wireless mobile ad hoc networks are: (1) mobility of the nodes places
constraints on the success of reservation-based schemes; the predictions of the avail-
able resources at each node, made in mobile environments, can quickly become obso-
lete, and (2) mobility of the nodes poses signicant challenges for nding, tracking and
maintaining the routes over which data trafc will be transmitted. In such scenarios,
nding a QoS-guaranteed route between a source-destination pair might be impossible,
if there is not enough time to propagate the updates of the latest topology changes to all
of the pertinent nodes.
4
The behavior of a mobile ad hoc network is called combinatorially stable if the
topology changes that affect routing occur sufciently more slowly than the rate at
which information propagates across the network [19]. Combinatorial stability of an
ad hoc network is determined not only by the mobility patterns of the nodes but also by
the complexity and the capabilities of the routing protocol. As a result, the traditional
QoS ad hoc routing protocols [20, 21] that build routes from sequences of nodes and
attribute QoS metrics to the nodes do not remain combinatorially stable under high
mobility. The category of ad hoc routing protocols that build routes as sequences of
nodes are called node-centric in this dissertation.
Another category of ad hoc routing protocols are geographic protocols in which
relay nodes send the packets toward the geographic location of the destination node
instead of using the network address of the destination node. With accurate and inex-
pensive positioning devices, such as Global Positioning System (GPS) modules, that
are available to mobile users, geographic ad hoc routing (georouting) protocols have
gained much attention recently (cf. [22]). Geographic routing protocols are not node-
centric in the sense that in their routing algorithm, there is no notion of an end-to-end
route as a chain of individual nodes. Therefore, they are able to operate efciently in
high-density, high-mobility scenarios. However, georouting protocols come with the
disadvantage of low reliability and inability to provide QoS guarantees. The reason
5
is that in the geographic approach, the routes are only dynamically and locally deter-
minable and end-to-end routes do not exist
1
.
In this dissertation, we present a spatial solution to the combinatorial stability prob-
lem of routing protocols in mobile ad hoc networks. The novelty of this work is that we
consider the implications of a space-centric view of communication in which node
mobility is examined in the aggregate in order to provide QoS guarantees. Our space-
centric approach takes advantage of the fact that in achieving an end-to-end route, the
nodes on the route are interchangeable. If a particular node moves away from a loca-
tion and another node moves in its place or proximity, no change will have occurred
from an end-to-end route quality perspective [23]. Similar to georouting protocols, we
think of a route not as a sequence of nodes from the source to the destination, but rather
as a chain of regions each of which contains one or more nodes. We maintain that
signicant improvements in the design of a QoS routing protocol can be achieved by
attributing local QoS metrics to patches of space rather than to individual nodes (this
idea rst appeared in [23] in the context of energy minimization). In particular, we
present two scalable QoS routing protocols that take advantage of this novel idea to
deliver QoS guarantees (delay, reliability and trust) in high mobility ad hoc networks.
1
In general, georouting strategies rely on the greedy forwarding algorithm. This algorithm makes
locally optimal choices at each step (which is a heuristic), with the aim of nding the global optimum.
That is, it takes the packet towards the destination by using only local information. As a result, the
end-to-end route to the destination node is not known prior to data transmission.
6
In Chapter 2, we present a congestion-aware routing protocol, named Delay Map
QoS Routing (DMQR), which provides delay guarantees for multihop routing between
distinct locations. ITUs recommendation for next-generation mobile systems (IMT-
Advanced) requires a VoIP capacity of 30 active users/sector/MHz and a latency of at
most 100 ms in high-speed mobility environments (up to 350 km/h) [24]. These re-
quirements introduce unique opportunities that are not present in traditional voice and
data applications over wireless networks, when we focus on mobile VoIP as the tar-
get application. While mobile VoIP consumes only a fraction of the data bandwidth of
traditional data applications, it must meet stringent delay constraints of voice communi-
cation with a high Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR). Furthermore, to support mobile VoIP,
a gateway station is required to ensure connectivity to the outside world. In Chapter 2,
we consider such a hybrid mobile ad hoc network with a single xed gateway. The
DMQR protocol that is developed in that chapter estimates the end-to-end delay be-
tween physical locations in space by using a spatial map of network congestion called
a congestion map, which is the set of MAC and network layer congestion values at-
tributed to spatial regions. This map of network congestion can be stable over a much
longer duration than the congestion levels of the individual nodes.
In the rst part of Chapter 2, we prove that over the duration during which the net-
work node density and its trafc pattern remain roughly constant, the expected values
of local congestion and end-to-end delay remain roughly invariant. Then, we present
7
an accurate method of spatial delay estimation, named path integration, and derive an
upper bound for its estimation error.
Several questions arise in development of the DMQR protocol based on our math-
ematical model:
How will the mobile nodes utilize the spatial congestion information?
Where is the congestion map maintained and how long does it remain valid?
The number of measurements that need to be made and distributed might have a
large overhead. Howdoes DMQRapproximate this map with a minimumamount
of dissemination overhead?
The answers to these questions are presented in the second part of Chapter 2 and play
an important role in the design of the DMQR protocol.
In the second part of this dissertation, we focus on the implications of adopting this
space-centric view of node mobility in the context of reliable and trustworthy routing in
MANETs. Mobile ad hoc networks can be used wherever there is a need for establish-
ing a network environment where a communication infrastructure does not exist or is
difcult to establish. Military tactical command and control is one of the major applica-
tions of MANETs that demands attention [25]. In a military operation, different mobile
units (sensors, soldiers, and vehicles) are involved and need to maintain communication
with each other. Tactical MANETs differ from commercial wireless networks in their
8
security requirements, lack of centralized arbitration, and, most importantly, dynamic
topology changes due to node mobility. Furthermore, supporting seamless mobility
in tactical networks is not a matter of selecting the best wireless network to which to
switch, as usually there are not many alternatives for data transmission. Therefore, the
level of mobility support in tactical MANETs is determined by the robustness, relia-
bility, and security of the routing protocol in delivering mission-critical information.
Hence, the end-to-end guarantees of reliability and trustworthiness become essential in
achieving mobility support in tactical MANETs.
In Chapter 3, we attribute reliability measures directly to patches of space and keep
track of these measures in the network via a fast dissemination algorithm. Following
this idea, we construct reliability maps, which are maps of reliable communication
regions in an unknown territory where the nodes have been deployed. Furthermore, we
utilize the term spatial trust in the context of tactical MANETs to quantify whether
a region in the network has shown security vulnerabilities (e.g. malicious activities
such as cyber-attacks) or has been physically compromised (e.g. enemy contact or
misbehaving nodes) in the past. The trust management of our work is based on the
reputation of an area in the network. Hence, we employ monitoring signals to build a
trust map of the deployment region and update this map as information from different
nodes arrives. We then present a routing protocol, named Reliability Map Routing
(RMR), which uses the spatial reliability and trust maps of the deployment region and
9
reactively discovers spatial routes while it avoids unreliable or untrustworthy regions.
The RMR protocol acquires timely information about the network and the environment
for situation-awareness purposes (cf. [26]). It also reacts promptly to a distress signal
sent by a node or potential threats in some of the areas of the deployment region.
The distinguishing features of our work in Chapter 3 are:
The development of a reliability function by which the degree of reliability of
spatial locations over a new, unknown terrain can be characterized.
The introduction of a spatial trust management methodology based on monitoring
and making observations on possible environmental risks (such as enemy contact)
and networking attacks (such as denial of service and intrusion).
Efcient and reliable geocast [27] routing for geographic command and control
functionality.
The rest of this dissertation is organized as follows: In Chapter 2, we present a
method of delay estimation and the DMQR protocol based on our novel space-centric
approach to ad hoc routing. We perform a detailed evaluation of the presented frame-
work and of the DMQR protocol in a realistic simulation set-up and show that signi-
cant improvements in delay-sensitive routing are achieved.
In Chapter 3, we describe the building blocks of the RMR protocol for reliable and
trustworthy routing in tactical MANETs. Via QualNet simulations, we show that the
10
RMR protocol successfully nds routes through reliable regions, and avoids potentially
untrustworthy or compromised regions based on the trust management signals trans-
mitted by the nodes. The results of this section indicate that a high packet delivery
ratio and a reasonable average delay can be achieved end-to-end with minimum routing
overhead.
Finally, in Chapter 4, we summarize and discuss some of the broader impacts of
this dissertation: First, we argue that our space-centric idea can be extended to other
QoS metrics, such as throughput, to perform multi-objective routing. Second, we ex-
plain how our framework can be extended to the construction of QoS maps in cooper-
ative communication and networking, which allow cellular networks to move towards
seamless mobility support. Finally, we shed some light on future improvements to the
problem of routing in tactical mobile ad hoc networks.
11
Chapter 2
Congestion-Aware Spatial Routing in
Hybrid Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
In this chapter, we develop a space-centric framework to provide delay guarantees
in mobile multihop networks. As explained in Chapter 1, the novel aspect of this ap-
proach is the attribution of network and MAC layer congestion to space, which enables
congestion-aware routing and provides delay guarantees over a much longer duration
than that achieved by node-centric routing protocols. First, we discuss the challenge
of delay-optimized routing that can enable multihop extensions to cellular networks.
We discuss the related work in this area to emphasize the distinguishing features of our
approach. Second, we prove that, if the node density and the network trafc pattern
remain roughly constant, the expected values of local congestion and end-to-end delay
approximately remain invariant. In this scenario, the end-to-end routes encounter node
densities that change much more slowly than the positions of the nodes themselves. A
network of vehicles traveling in urban areas and city highways, pedestrians walking in
12
Chapter 2. Congestion-Aware Spatial Routing in Hybrid Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
shopping malls, museums, and campus areas are examples of networks with the above
characteristics.
We present a method of end-to-end delay estimation and derive an upper bound for
its estimation error. Third, we develop a congestion-aware routing protocol to enable
delay-optimized routing for real-time applications. Finally, we perform a detailed eval-
uation of the presented framework and the routing protocol through extensive QualNet
simulations.
2.1 Introduction
Multihop relaying and routing technologies have been actively studied for cover-
age extension and throughput enhancement in wireless mobile networks in the past
decade [28]. However, only recently have they emerged as an important research topic
for the next generation (4G) mobile wireless communication systems [2932]. For mul-
tihop communication, one paradigm is collaborative relaying in which a relay station
helps forward user information to a base station [30, 31]. Another paradigm, which is
the focus of this chapter, is using QoS-enabled ad hoc routing protocols over the set of
mobile users [20]. Heterogeneous characteristics of next generation networks make it
more attractive to utilize the latter paradigm to build an integrated heterogeneous access
13
network [33, 34]. Node mobility and high node density cause signicant performance
challenges in such networks.
In this chapter, we consider the implications of examining node mobility in the
aggregate to provide QoS. In particular, we examine how this could enable the opti-
mization of network congestion. Our proposition is that the congestion levels in spatial
cells remain invariant longer than the congestion levels (measured at the nodes MAC
and network layer buffers) of individual, erratic nodes. We suggest that signicant
improvements in the design of a delay-sensitive, high-mobility, multihop network can
be achieved if we attribute the local QoS metrics to space and maintain and rene the
end-to-end QoS metrics in the joint memory of nodes.
The main challenges in achieving end-to-end Quality of Service (QoS) over mobile,
wireless multihop networks are: (1) the mobility of nodes places constraints on the
success of reservation-based schemes; the predictions of the available resources at each
node, made in mobile environments, can quickly become obsolete, (2) the mobility of
nodes poses signicant challenges for nding, tracking and maintaining the routes over
which data trafc is transmitted, and (3) the queuing delays incurred at each hop add
up to quickly ll up the required delay deadline. We focus on the end-to-end delay
as our QoS metric, which has been known to be essential for multimedia trafc and
particularly difcult to achieve in mobile multihop networks [35, 36].
14
The novel idea of this chapter is the attribution of local delay to the patches of space,
e.g., cells, as shown in Fig. 2.1. This means that whenever a node transmits a packet in
a spatial cell, it makes measurements of the packet delay and associates that delay with
the cell location at which it was measured. We allow the nodes to collect measurements
of these local delays at each cell and efciently disseminate these among themselves.
In Section 2.4, we prove that the integration of these local delays over the spatial routes
accurately estimates the end-to-end average delay. We argue that when the node den-
sity and the trafc patterns are more stable than the individual erratic nodes, as shown
in Fig. 2.1, the space-centric method gives a better estimate of the end-to-end delay.
We then present a delay-aware routing protocol that adopts this mathematical frame-
work and operates over spatial cells rather than individual nodes. Extensive network
simulations show that the Delay Map estimation QoS Routing (DMQR) protocol of
this chapter provides signicant performance improvements over the existing routing
protocols for mobile multihop networks.
The rest of this chapter is organized as follows: In Section 2.2, we discuss the
related work. Section 2.3 states the assumptions for the network model that will be used
throughout this chapter. In Section 2.4, we present our mathematical framework. In
Section 2.5, we propose the DMQR routing protocol based on the ideas of Section 2.4.
Section 2.6 provides extensive simulation studies to validate the results of Sections 2.4
and 2.5. Finally, we summarize this chapter in Section 2.7.
15
0 0
0 0
Figure 2.1: Congestion attributed to spatial cells remains invariant longer than the
congestion levels of highly mobile individual nodes.
16
2.2 Related Work
The challenge of providing QoS delivery for delay-sensitive applications, such as
VoIP, over mobile wireless networks has received much attention in the past. It has been
shown that high latency and low packet delivery ratio are major shortcomings due to
the contention, congestion and user interference in wireless cellular networks [37, 38]
and 802.11 LANs [13, 39]. These issues tend to be more deteriorating for multihop
communications since the routing or scheduling issues have to be addressed [40]. Oth-
erwise, only a couple of VoIP sessions can be transmitted over three or more hops [41].
Hence, the choice of routing protocol plays an important role on network capacity and
performance.
In many of the past reactive and proactive QoS routing protocols, e.g., [4245],
the routes are conceived as sequences of individual, erratic nodes. Consequently, this
node-centric approach is sensitive to node mobility [20] because (1) the routes break
frequently and (2) the topology changes occur faster than the spreading period of QoS
information [19]. For instance, the Ad hoc QoS On-demand Routing (AQOR) [42]
protocol is vulnerable to both of the above issues, because it makes bandwidth and de-
lay measurements during route discovery, and route maintenance is performed by the
senders route discovery re-initiation. ADQR [43] aims to predict the route breaks via
power measurements of the received signals. However, the reservations are made in the
17
route discovery phase and what the data packets encounter in reality can be substan-
tially different because of node mobility. The location-based routing protocol of [45]
addresses these issues by attaining a global view of the network, which comes at the
high cost of overhead for mobility updates. Trigger-based distributed QoS routing [46]
limits the routing overhead by keeping its scope to a local neighborhood database.
However, all of the above node-centric approaches fail to achieve combinatorial sta-
bility [19] in medium-to-high node mobilities. Our work is also related to [47, 48] that
optimize the performance of routing for real-time applications via congestion control.
Again, these approaches work well only in stationary or low mobility scenarios as the
congestion is attributed to the nodes, and thus moves with the nodes.
In contrast, geographic routing protocols, e.g., [22, 49], operate efciently at high-
density, high-mobility scenarios. Nevertheless, they are unable to provide QoS guar-
antees, since the routes are only dynamically and locally determinable and end-to-end
paths do not exist. The rst space-centric approach to the delivery of QoS, to our
knowledge, was [23]. In [23], the authors demonstrated that the end-to-end energy
consumption over space is stable within a time period during which the node density
remains constant. Statistical QoS routing, presented in [50], enhances the GPSR pro-
tocol [49] by providing stochastic end-to-end delay guarantees. However, the delay
guarantees still rely on the individual nodes that have previously been discovered by
GPSR; that is, such guarantees soon become stale because of node mobility. Finally, a
18
geographic routing protocol with congestion avoidance is proposed in [51] to maximize
VoIP capacity. The routing protocol of [51] forwards data packets towards the locations
in which the number of busy nodes is less than a threshold. This protocol, however, is
unable to give any end-to-end delay guarantees.
In contrast, we inherit the advantages of geographic routing in our QoS provisioning
scheme in order to achieve soft delay guarantees for real-time applications. Our method
constructs, shares, and renes the more stable, spatial local delays, in the joint memory
of the nodes. The DMQR routing protocol of this chapter not only avoids the congested
regions with less overhead, but also provides average and stochastic delay guarantees,
in high-mobility and high density networks, without any end-to-end route discovery or
reservation requests.
2.3 Network Model and Assumptions
We constrain ourselves in this chapter to a hybrid mobile network, with a xed
gateway node, as shown in Fig. 2.1. We assume that the stationary gateway serves
as the destination for the trafc generated in the network. This assumption is made to
simplify the mathematical framework and to help avoid the need for location lookup
algorithms. Our formulation can be extended to multiple gateway nodes or to ad hoc
19
communication provided that the network is geographically addressed, similar to the
underlying assumption of geographical routing protocols.
Each user in the network is a location-aware mobile node that moves inside a con-
nected deployment region D R
2
, and potentially has data trafc destined for the
gateway. The deployment region D can contain obstacles and holes into which the
nodes cannot enter, however, over which the wireless signal can propagate. The mobile
nodes are usually energy constrained; hence, a multihop transmission scheme is used
to conserve energy, and further to limit the multiple access contention, thus forming a
multihop mobile network.
We partition D into M cells C
1
, . . . , C
M
D and assume that the partitioning
method is known by the nodes in advance. For instance, if Mis a set of known distinct
positions x
(i)
D, (i = 1, . . . , M), the Voronoi cells of the set M is a well-dened
set of cells. Our investigations in the following sections suggest that a cell diameter of
half the transmission range will provide an acceptable delay estimation accuracy while
keeping the complexity of the protocol limited.
The end-to-end delay of the packets in a wireless multihop network is comprised
of the following: (1) the sum of the network and MAC layer delays of all the relay
nodes, (2) the sum of wireless transmission delays at each hop, which is usually neg-
ligible when compared with the other sources of delay. It is further assumed that the
application layer delay, e.g., encoder/decoder/buffer delay for VoIP, is subtracted from
20
the delay budget in calculating the maximum tolerable networking delay. To enable
multihop operation, we assume that the nodes are deployed with IEEE 802.11 modules
used in their DCF mode of operation, possibly forming an integrated heterogeneous
mobile network [34]. However, the choice of the MAC layer protocol is not limited to
802.11, and the results of this chapter can be extended to any self-organizing wireless
MAC layer protocol that is capable of supporting multihop IP routing.
2.4 Mathematical Framework
In this section, we develop a framework to investigate the trackability of congestion
changes and the possibility of delay predictions in multihop networks. First, we dene
the spatial counterparts of the network variables that are usually attached to the nodes,
such as generated trafc and congestion. The spatial maps of network congestion and
end-to-end delay are introduced as the prime metrics of emphasis in this work. Then,
we show that under conditions that we will specify, these maps have bounded averages
and the expected value of end-to-end delay can be estimated with limited error. Third,
a stochastic delay guarantee is provided in addition to average delay estimation. This
framework will eventually lead to the design of a congestion-aware routing protocol in
Section 2.5.
21
We choose the Cartesian coordinate system such that the gateway is located at 0
def
=
(0, 0). Let N denote the set of N nodes moving over D. The mobile network is dened
by the trajectories of the nodes X
(k)
(t), k N, i.e., the locations of the nodes at time
t, and the generated trafc of the nodes G
(k)
(t), k N, i.e., the data generation rates
of the nodes in bits per second (bps) at time t.
To study the implications of our space-centric approach, we dene the spatial coun-
terparts of the network variables. Below, the node density and the spatial generated
trafc are presented as the spatial counterparts of node trajectories and generated traf-
c.
Denition 1 (Node Density)
Let the random process S(A, t) denote the density of the nodes on a bounded region
A D with area |A|, at time t; that is,
S(A, t)
def
=
N
k=1
1
[X
(k)
(t)A]
|A|
(2.1)
where 1
[X
(k)
(t)A]
, the indicator function, is equal to one if X
(k)
(t) A and zero other-
wise.
We are particularly interested in the average node density of the cells, i.e.,

S(C
i
, t), i
{1..M}.
Denition 2 (Spatial Generated Trafc)
The random process G(A, t) represents the trafc generation rate of the region A D
22
at time t; that is, G(A, t) is the sum of the rates G
(k)
(t) of the nodes that reside in A at
time t:
G(A, t) =
N
k=1
1
[X
(k)
(t)A]
G
(k)
(t). (2.2)
Let the random process (A, t) denote the cumulative trafc rate of region A
D. The cumulative trafc rate of region A is the generated data trafc in that region
G(A, t), plus the relay trafc that was forwarded to A and has not been sent out yet.
Note that, unlike the generated trafc, the total amount of data present in the region A
depends on the choice of the routing protocol, and so does (A, t). The expected value
of this process,

(A, t) = E[(A, t)], is the average rate that has to be transmitted out
of the region A toward the gateway.
Generally speaking, the congestion level of a node located at x depends on the node
density and the trafc generated in a region around that node. To be precise, let the
effective region of a location x be the area A
(x)
E
such that the network and MAC layer
delays of a node located at x depend only on the network dynamics inside A
(x)
E
. The
effective region of a wireless MAC layer, also known as the interference range, is the
range within which transmission from an interferer makes the signal to interference and
noise ratio (SINR) of the legitimate receiver smaller than is required by the receiver to
correctly receive the message from the transmitter, as shown in Fig. 2.2. For instance,
the effective region of 802.11 MAC layer is the union of the transmission range, and
23
Transmission
Range
In
te
rfe
re
n
c
e
ra
n
g
e
These nodes potentially affect
the data transmission to the
intended receiver.
Figure 2.2: Effective region (interference range) of a wireless random access MAC
protocol.
the hidden and exposed areas of a node located at x; i.e., the changes in S(A
(x)
E
, t) and
(A
(x)
E
, t) affect MAC layer delay.
The effect of node density, total offered trafc and network characteristics on the
packet delay has been investigated in the literature, e.g., [5254]. Even though it is
not straightforward to formulate the packet delay in a closed form, we can compute
it numerically as a function of the above parameters, based on simulation studies or
empirical models. Therefore, the local delay of a node k located at X
(k)
(t), denoted
by
(k)
L
(t), can be written as a function of X
(k)
(t), node density and cumulative trafc
within the effective area of X
(k)
(t).
(k)
L
(t) = f
L
_
X
(k)
(t); S
_
A
(X
(k)
(t))
E
, t
_
;
_
A
(X
(k)
(t))
E
, t
_
_
(2.3)
24
where f
L
is a non-linear and possibly random function (due to MAC layer random
access schemes, such as collision avoidance and random back-off) that returns the sum
of the network and MAC layer delays of successful packet transmission.
We now introduce the spatially attributed counterpart of the local and end-to-end
delays of the nodes as the important metrics in the space-centric view of the network.
Denition 3 (Local Delay Map (Congestion Map))
The local delay map (congestion map) of the network is dened as the average of the
local delay of the nodes located within the cells C
1
, C
2
, . . . , C
M
. We denote the conges-
tion map by (t) = [
1
(t),
2
(t), ...,
M
(t)]. The i
th
element of (t), namely
i
(t) is
dened as the average delay, faced by a data packet in the protocol stack of a node in
cell C
i
, in order to be transmitted to its next hop at time t. That is,
i
(t)
def
=
k:X
(k)
(t)C
i
[
(k)
L
(t)]
|{k : X
(k)
(t) C
i
}|
(2.4)
Unlike the end-to-end delay measurements that require the collaboration of the des-
tination node, the local delays can be measured locally to represent the congestion level
of cell C
i
, as shown in Fig. 2.3. In the example of Fig. 2.3,
i
(t) is calculated as the
average of the local delay of the three nodes that are located within cell C
i
at a time t.
Furthermore,

i
(t) = E[
i
(t)] is the expected value of the packet delay at a node in
cell C
i
, until the packet has been successfully transmitted out of that cell.
25
Local cell delay: The
expected value of the expected value of the
delay experienced by a
data packet inside the
i
=Av(
1
,
2
,
3
)
protocol stack of the
nodes located within a
cell.
APP
TL
NL
MAC
PHY
i
cell.
Measure average over
actual nodes, and
ib i f
APP
TL
NL
APP
TL
NL
attribute it to center of
the cell.
NL
MAC
PHY
MAC
PHY
C
i
8
Figure 2.3: Construction of the local delay (congestion) map: The i
th
element of the
congestion map is dened as the average of the local delay of the nodes located within
cell C
i
.
Denition 4 (End-to-end Delay Map)
The end-to-end delay from cell C
i
to the gateway at time t, denoted by
i
(t), is dened
as the end-to-end delay of sending a data packet, at time t, from cell C
i
to the gateway,
averaged over the nodes inside that cell, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
i
(t)
def
=
k:X
(k)
(t)C
i
(k)
E
(t)
|{k : X
(k)
(t) C
i
}|
(2.5)
where
(k)
E
(t), k N is the end-to-end delay of sending a packet, generated at time
t, from the mobile node k to the gateway. The end-to-end delay map of the network
is, therefore, denoted by (t) = [
1
(t),
2
(t), ...,
M
(t)], and

i
(t) = E[
i
(t)] is
the expected value of the end-to-end delay of a packet transmission initiated inside
26
=Av(1, 2, 3)
Figure 2.4: Construction of the end-to-end delay map: The i
th
element of the end-to-
end delay map
i
is the average of the end-to-end delay of the nodes located within
cell C
i
.
cell C
i
. Note that the end-to-end delay map is not locally measurable and requires the
collaboration of the destination node, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
Next, we shall dene the coherence time of the spatial network variables to quantify
and keep track of the topology changes. Park and Rodoplu [23] dened the coherence
time of a QoS map. To quantify the temporal changes in a network variable, we improve
upon that denition by generalizing it to -neighborhood variations.
Denition 5 (-coherence time)
Let (t) be a network variable
1
dened over D. The -coherence time of , T
(,)
c
(t), is
dened as the maximum time interval during which does not deviate by more than
1
From this point onwards in the chapter, whenever we say network variable, we are referring to a
spatial network variable; which can be any of the following variables: S, G, , , or .
27
) (t
) (
) , (
t T
c

) (t
t
t
2
t
33
Figure 2.5: The -coherence time of the network variable (t), T
(,)
c
(t) is the maxi-
mum interval during which does not deviate by more than from its expected value
at time t.
from its expected value at time t. That is t
(t

2
, t +

2
)
T
(,)
c
(t)
def
= arg max
(t
) (t)
< (2.6)
Note that T
(,)
c
(t) is a functional, i.e., it is a function of the function (t). The
-coherence time of the network, denoted by T
()
c
(t) is dened as the minimum of the -
coherence time of all the independent network variables, i.e., T
()
c
(t)
def
= min
{T
(,)
c
(t)}.
To satisfy the above equation for the network as a whole, the network characteris-
tics, such as node density and cumulative trafc rate, should remain roughly constant
for at least T
()
c
(t). For example, if we take a snapshot of the network during T
()
c
(t), a
route that is initiated by any node within C
i
goes through the same chain of cells. We
dene R
i
as the set cells that a route passes through from the cell C
i
to the gateway.
For example, Fig. 2.6(a) presents a sample snapshot of the network during T
()
c
(t); here,
28
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25
} ,
, , , {
1 7
13 19 20 20
C C
C C C R
(a)
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25
} , , , ,
, , , , , {
25 24 23 20 19
18 15 14 13 7 7
C C C C C
C C C C C H
(b)
Figure 2.6: The network snapshot during T
()
c
(t). (a) R
20
is the set of cells for the
route from C
20
to C
1
. (b) The shaded area H
7
is the set of upstream cells for C
7
.
R
20
= {C
20
, C
19
, C
13
, C
7
, C
1
} is the routing path from C
20
to the gateway located at
C
1
. Similarly, we dene H
i
as the set of cells that use C
i
as an intermediate cell along
the route to the gateway; that is, H
i
= {C
j
|C
i
R
j
}. For instance, the shaded area H
7
in Fig. 2.6(b) is the set of cells that use C
7
along their route in the snapshot of Fig 2.6(a).
Our goal is to show that during the -coherence time of the network, (1) the end-to-
end delay from each cell C
i
to the gateway has a bounded average, (2) the congestion
(local delay) map of the network also has a bounded average, (3) the average end-to-end
delay can be estimated by summation of the local delay map elements along the route
of the packet, and (4) a stochastic delay guarantee can be provided in addition to the
average delay estimation. Below, we provide two fundamental assumptions that relate
29
the experienced delay of a node to the spatial characteristics of the network. We discuss
the validity of these assumptions and also provide experimental results in Section 2.6.1
to support their claims.
Assumption 1
If the location of node k at time t is X
(k)
(t), then > 0, x
= x such that
E
_
(k)
L
(t)
X
(k)
(t) = x
_
E
_
(k)
L
(t)
X
(k)
(t) = x
< (2.7)
Given (2.3), equivalently,
E
_
f
L
_
x; S
_
A
(x)
E
, t
_
;
_
A
(x)
E
, t
_
__
E
_
f
L
_
x
; S
_
A
(x
)
E
, t
_
;
_
A
(x
)
E
, t
_
__
< (2.8)
Assumption 1 above claims that a small change in the position of a node will result
in a relatively small change in the delay of a packet in the nodes queue. The reason
is that a reasonably small change in the nodes location makes a small change in the
effective region of that node. Therefore, the change in the local delay of that node is
bounded by , as the delay function f
L
is a bounded function.
Corollary 1
r
c
> 0,
pe
(r
c
) > 0 where, >
pe
(r
c
), > 0 such that < r
c
,
|x x
| <
E
_
f
L
_
x; S
_
A
(x)
E
, t
_
;
_
A
(x)
E
, t
_
__
E
_
f
L
_
x
; S
_
A
(x
)
E
, t
_
;
_
A
(x
)
E
, t
_
__
< . (2.9)
30
The corollary of Assumption 1 is important because it limits the variation of the
local node delay by
pe
(r
c
), when the node moves no more than r
c
.
Assumption 2
Let Qbe the event that the position of node k at time t is equal to its position at time t
;
i.e., {X
(k)
(t) = X
(k)
(t
)}. Then, > 0,

1
,
2
> 0 such that
_
S(C
i
, t
) S(C
i
, t)
<
1
,
(C
i
, t
) (C
i
, t)
<
2
_
E
_
(k)
L
(t)
Q
_
E
_
(k)
L
(t
Q
_
< (2.10)
The assumption above claims that small changes in the node density and the cumu-
lative trafc will result in a relatively small change in the local delay of a xed node.
Even though the methods similar to the ones in [5254] do not give a closed form
equation for the average delay, we can still see that, for either single-hop or multihop
communication, the MAC layer delay does not change abruptly provided that the node
density and offered trafc do not change abruptly. Furthermore, the route discovery
delay is also a bounded function of the node density. Therefore, small changes in the
node density or offered trafc do not cause arbitrary large changes in the local delay of
the nodes.
Lemma 1
Let B
k
i
be the event {X
(k)
(t) C
i
}. Let r
i
c
be the maximum possible displacement of a
31
node in cell C
i
. Then C
i
D and k N,
pe
(r
i
c
) such that:
E
_
i
(t)
B
k
i
E
_
(k)
L
(t)
B
k
i
_
<
pe
(r
i
c
) (2.11)
Lemma 1 places an upper bound on the error between the actual local delays of
the nodes at cell C
i
and the local delay attributed to that cell. This error has a direct
relationship with the relative size of the cells in comparison with the transmission range
of the nodes. The trade-off here is that, while choosing smaller cells results in higher
accuracy, it also increases the estimation complexity and the convergence time of the
delay map construction. The proofs of all of the Lemmas and Theorems in this section
are given in the appendix of this chapter.
Let Kbe the event that there is at least one node in each cell; that is, {C
i
D,
{k :
X
(k)
(t) C
i
}
= 0}. Furthermore, let

1
,
2
> 0 and T
(
1
,G)
c
(t) = min{T
(
1
,G(C
i
,t))
c
(t) :
C
i
D}, T
(
2
,S)
c
(t) = min{T
(
2
,S(C
i
,t))
c
(t) : C
i
D}. Finally, let T
(
1
,
2
)
c
(t) =
min{T
(
2
,S)
c
(t), T
(
2
,G)
c
(t)}.
Lemma 2
t

_
t T
(
1
,
2
)
c
(t)/2, t + T
(
1
,
2
)
c
(t)/2
_
,
te
,
pe
> 0 such that C
i
D
E
_
i
(t
E
_
i
(t)
<
te
+ 3
pe
(2.12)
Lemma 2 suggests that if the node density and generated trafc remain roughly the
same over time, the local delay map of the network remains roughly the same. Here,
32
te
is a function of (
1
,
2
, max
C
j
H
j
) representing the error due to temporal variation
and
pe
is a function of r
i
c
which stands for the error that arises due to location changes.
Theorem 1
t

_
t T
(
1
,
2
)
c
(t)/2, t + T
(
1
,
2
)
c
(t)/2
_
,
te
,
pe
> 0 such that C
i
D
E[
i
(t
)|K] E[
i
(t)|K]
<
te
+
pe
(2.13)
Theorem 1 states that if the node density and the trafc generation rate of the cells
remain roughly close to their average over time, the expected value of the end-to-end
delay map of the network is approximately invariant during that time.
Theorem 2 (Path Integration)
Let

i
(t) =
C
j
R
i
j
(t). Then, t

_
t T
(
1
,
2
)
c
(t)/2, t + T
(
1
,
2
)
c
(t)/2
_
,
pe
>
0,
te
> 0, and
pe
> 0 such that C
i
D
E
_
i
(t)
K
_
E
_
i
(t)
K
_
<
pe
+ (
pe
+
te
) max
C
i
|R
i
| (2.14)
Theorem 2 states that the end-to-end delay of the cells can be approximated by
adding up the congestion map values along the spatial route R
i
. We call this method of
end-to-end delay estimation path integration (following [23]). To achieve an accurate
estimation of end-to-end delay in the high mobility regime, we need to make sure that
the routes do not change abruptly during the course of statistical measurements and
estimation. Therefore, a safe choice of routing protocol is geographic routing, where
33
the routes are selected as a chain of cells. More importantly, the routing protocol can
exploit the local delay map of the network to avoid congested areas, reaching a better
delay performance and capacity. This insight is the key motivation and fundamental
building block of the routing protocol presented in Section 2.5.
Most of the delay-sensitive applications of wireless networks can tolerate only a
limited amount of jitter. Therefore, besides the end-to-end average delay guarantees,
it is of great importance to provide an upper bound on the variations of the end-to-end
delay. The rest of this section is dedicated to the presentation of a statistical scheme to
determine the probability of delay violations. Similar to [50], we adopt and simplify
the effective capacity approach of [55]. The stochastic end-to-end delay guarantee for
the nodes located in cell C
i
is dened as:
Pr{
i
(t) > D
max
} (2.15)
where D
max
is the delay threshold requirement, and is the violation probability that
can be handled by the application.
The effective capacity approach, derived by [55] and extended to multihop and
parallel channels by [56], states that the delay at a node is exponentially bounded if the
data rate is limited to the effective capacity dened below. Let S(t) denote the service
process of the channel (either parallel or sequential) in bits over [0, t], i.e., the amount
of data that the channel can carry. The effective capacity function of the channel for
34
ergodic and stationary service process is dened as [56]:
() = lim
t
1
t
log(e
S(t)
) (2.16)
where () min
h
h
() or () =
h
() for h sequential and parallel channels,
respectively [56].
It is shown in [56] that the probability that the total experienced delay of node k
exceeds a threshold of D
max
is:
Pr{
(k)
E
(t) > D
max
} e
Dmax
(2.17)
where , the QoS exponent of the connection, is given by
=
1
() (2.18)
As stated in [55] and conrmed for VoIP trafc by [57], the distribution of end-to-
end delay is approximately exponential. Moreover, it is shown that the QoS exponent
of the connection is equal to the inverse of the delay average [55]. Therefore, for every
node k in cell C
i
, the QoS exponent can be estimated by using Theorem 2 as follows:
() =
1
E[
(k)
E
(t)]
C
j
R
i
j
(t)
(2.19)
The delay violation probability of (2.15) for each cell C
i
follows from (2.17) and
(2.19).
35
2.5 DMQR Routing Protocol
In the previous section, we showed that, during the coherence time of the network,
the congestion map has a bounded average and that the end-to-end delay map can be es-
timated by the path integration method. In this section, we develop a congestion-aware
routing protocol that utilizes such spatial maps of network congestion to enable delay-
optimized routing over high-density mobile multihop wireless networks. The main
procedures of the Delay Map QoS Routing (DMQR) protocol are those that help the
protocol make use of the space-centric framework. DMQR is a hybrid routing protocol
that constructs the congestion map of the network, as well as a neighbor lookup table in
a proactive fashion. However, it does not maintain an end-to-end route database for any
of the source/destination pairs. DMQR discovers a delay-optimized geographical path
(namely, a chain of cells) to the destination on demand, while it selects the individual
relay nodes proactively. To accomplish its mission, DMQR builds a distributed view
of the congestion map via dissemination of locally measured MAC and network layer
delays. This strategy can be exploited to (1) nd a delay-optimized route upon request
via path integration, (2) give a soft end-to-end delay guarantee while avoiding the con-
gested areas of the network, and (3) perform resource planning in a delay-sensitive,
high-density, and high-mobility network.
36
Initial
State
Spatial Path
Selection
Neighbor
Discovery
Call Admission
Control
Cong. Map
Construction &
Dissemination
Packet in Buffer
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

N
o
t

A
c
c
e
s
s
i
b
l
e

No Connectivity
P
a
c
k
e
t

T
x
Call Request
Neighbor Lookup
T
i
m
e
o
u
t

/
H
E
L
L
O

P
a
c
k
e
t

R
e
c
v
.
Figure 2.7: The high-level state diagram of the DMQR protocol.
The high-level state diagram of the DMQR protocol is shown in Fig. 2.7 and con-
sists of the following building blocks: (1) call admission, (2) spatial path selection,
(3) neighbor discovery, and (4) congestion map construction and dissemination. In
DMQR, whenever a node initiates a data session or a VoIP call, the call admission con-
trol (CAC) block of the routing protocol decides whether or not to admit the session or
not. However, the routing protocol does not keep any information about the admitted
sessions and treats all of the incoming and relay packets independently. That is, when a
node has a data packet to send, it uses its local copy of the congestion map to discover
the best chain of cells over which the sum of the local delays is a minimum. The path
integration theorem (Theorem 2, Section 2.4) implies that, if the average node density
37
and the trafc patterns remain roughly constant, the sum of the local delays estimates
well the average end-to-end delay. Spatial path selection is followed by a neighbor
selection scheme that locally selects a relay node along the path, as shown in Fig. 2.7.
We choose a proactive method of congestion map dissemination in order to keep the
spreading period of the information dissemination shorter than the coherence time of
the network. Furthermore, DMQR borrows the route maintenance and the queuing
scheme from other wireless routing protocols (e.g., [5860] with small modications,
as explained below. First, bacause DMQR does not discover an end-to-end route as
a set of individual nodes, route maintenance is performed by invalidating the inactive
neighbors in the case of unsuccessful transmission. Doing so ensures the availability
of active neighbors for future data transmissions. Second, the path to the destination is
updated during the course of a data or voice session, if necessary. Third, the data pack-
ets are preemptively dropped from the queue after D
max
seconds at each hop, because
of the delay limitations on data delivery.
2.5.1 Call Admission Control
We implement a statistical call admission control (CAC) algorithm that is run on the
node initiating the data session prior to routing. Even though the CAC procedures that
follow the route from source to destination are more precise in their decision making
process, they are unable to handle drastic topology changes due to high node mobility.
38
On the other hand, CAC based on the delay average performs only slightly worse than
the more precise CAC methods [61]. Therefore, we adopt a CAC algorithm that makes
its admission decisions based on the networks congestion map as follows: (1) Upon a
call admission request, the source node nds the delay optimized path to the destination
by calling the spatial path selection procedure. (2) The local delay values of the cells
along the discovered path are tweaked to reect the effect of incoming trafc; e.g.,
adding a single VoIP call will approximately increase the local delay by 5-10% in most
cases
2
. (3) The expected value of end-to-end delay of the selected path is estimated via
path integration. (4) The violation probability of the tolerable delay is derived by (2.17)
and (2.19). (5) The call is accepted if the estimated delay and its violation probability
are within the acceptable range.
Furthermore, in a more realistic scenario, there are possibly multiple gateways that
can be selected as the packets destination. This is the case when there are multiple base
stations in the cellular network that the packet can be routed towards or when there are
multiple base stations and wireless access points in a heterogeneous environment [34].
In such cases, an optimized choice of the gateway can exceptionally improve the per-
formance of the underlying network. In DMQR, the above CAC algorithm can simply
be amended to run the path selection algorithm for all the possible destinations and
choose the one with the best delay performance, with no additional routing overhead.
2
This assumption is valid as long as the network remains in the VoIP regime as dened in [57].
39
2.5.2 Spatial Path Selection
The spatial path selection algorithm constructs a graph in which the vertices repre-
sent the cells and the edges connect each vertex (cell) to its neighbor cells. The edges
of the network graph are weighted by the local delay (congestion) map values or a large
number (e.g., 10 seconds) if the local delay for a cell is undeterminable, as shown in
Fig. 2.8. Doing so helps the protocol avoid routing over the obstacles in D. The neigh-
bor cells here are considered as the adjacent cells, plus possibly further cells in the
transmission range, that contain at least one node. However, this extension of neigh-
boring cells is possible only locally and has to be repeated by the relay nodes along the
spatial route. There is also another piece of information fed back from the neighbor
discovery algorithm that overwrites the weights of those edges that do not contain a
node inside their connecting cells (to innity); i.e., it removes the connecting edge of
those two vertices. This feedback, which is available only for one hop, substantially
enhances the path selection performance as it adds real-time connectivity information
to the long-run average of delay measurements.
DMQR runs Dijkstras algorithm on demand, at each hop, to obtain the best set of
cells, over which the sum of the local delays, i.e., the estimated end-to-end delay, is
minimum. We clarify the operation of the path discovery procedure by the following
examples. Assume that the node of interest joins the network or the network is in
cold start mode, i.e., there is no congestion information available. Initially, each node
40
1ms 1.1ms 1.05ms
1.2ms 2ms 1.05ms
2ms 1.2ms 1.1ms
(a)
1
.
2
m
s
1
.
2
m
s
1
.
2
m
s
1.2ms
1.2ms
1
.
2
m
s
1
m
s
1
.
0
5
m
s
2
m
s
2ms
1.1ms
1
.
2
m
s
(b)
Figure 2.8: Network graph construction. (a) Network dynamics and local delay values,
(b) the weighted network graph of the center cell; note the values of the cell without
connectivity.
builds a network graph that is weighted by long delays as explained above. In this case,
the output of Dijkstras algorithm points to the cell along the geographic route to the
destination. As the congestion map becomes available, the node updates the path to
the delay optimized one. Furthermore, similar to geographic routing, the obstacles and
holes are avoided by the nodes close to them at the beginning, as the feedback from
the neighbor discovery module removes those edges. However, once the congestion
map becomes available, the path selection is done long before the packet gets close to
the holes. Therefore, unlike geographic perimeter routing protocols, DMQR does not
overload the nodes around the edges of the holes.
41
2.5.3 Neighbor Discovery
The output of the path selection algorithm points to the next cell along the optimal
route. So, the protocol has to nd a relay node as the recipient of the packet in that
cell. The challenge of fast neighbor discovery comes from the high-mobility, high-
density nature of the network. Note that here, a node is used as the next hop as long
as it remains in the desired region (cell). This approach is in contrast to the node-
centric protocols that use the same node until the route breaks. We employ a proactive
neighbor discovery algorithm that is similar to the one in the TDR protocol [46]. This
choice is made due to the fact that, in a high-mobility network, neighbor nodes change
frequently, so the packets cannot meet the end-to-end delay constraint if a neighbor
is found reactively. To achieve proactive neighbor discover, every node maintains a
neighbor database (lookup table). Each element of this lookup table holds the following
information: (1) neighbor node ID, (2) mobility information of the neighbor, i.e., the
location and velocity, (3) lifetime of that element, and (4) a validity ag. The lifetime
of an element is dened as the duration for which the neighbor node remains within
its current associated cell. The validity ag is used for route maintenance as explained
before. To update the neighbor lookup tables, nodes are required to periodically broad-
cast Hello packets that carry their location and mobility information (refer to Fig. 2.7).
Upon the reception of a Hello packet, the receiver updates the neighbor database by
calculating the lifetime of that piece of information. The transmission frequency of the
42
Hello packets plays an important role in the performance of the protocol. The shorter
the time period between the updates, the more recent the neighbor lookup database of
a node is, and the more likely that a node can nd a neighbor located in the desired
zone, albeit at the cost of increasing the control overhead. Once the nodes build their
neighbor lookup database, the routing protocol chooses the neighbor with the longer
lifetime to maintain continuous trafc ow, and to decrease the delay jitter.
2.5.4 Congestion Map Construction/Dissemination
Another novel aspect of DMQR is the construction and dissemination of the con-
gestion map by using local delay measurements by different nodes, at different times
and locations. It is required that we construct and maintain the congestion map in the
joint memory of the nodes in a time period (the spreading period) shorter than the co-
herence time of the congestion map. To do so, every node measures the network and
MAC layer delays of the actual data packets and attributes them to the cell at which it
is located. The local delay measurements of the packets build an enormous distributed
data set, that usually contains bursts of measurements by multiple nodes, each of which
becomes obsolete at some point. The challenge is to nd a minimum amount of dis-
semination overhead such that the nodes reach a consensus on the approximation of the
congestion map, with acceptable error.
43
To construct and retain the congestion map, a simple moving average (SMA) within
the coherence time window is used. In this algorithm, for each cell, a node keeps (1)
the moving average of the local delays, (2) the number of measurements (samples) over
which the average is taken, (3) the window start time and end time. Whenever a new
measurement is made, the node updates its local version of the congestion map includ-
ing the above variables. Furthermore, as the time passes, some of the measurements
become obsolete and the algorithm should remove them from the averaging process.
Even though we cannot remove the expired samples from the moving average one by
one, we can normalize the weight of the moving average with respect to the portion
of the window that has not expired. This method works without error if the samples
are distributed uniformly, but it causes some error because the measurements are made
in bursts. Finally, to make local measurements available to the network, the nodes
broadcast their local copies of the congestion map along with the periodic Hello packet
broadcasts. Every node consolidates the received map information with its own using
the timestamps and the weights mimicking the error and avoiding the measurement
duplicates.
44
2.6 Simulation Results
We perform a detailed evaluation of the mathematical framework and of the DMQR
protocol using the QualNet [62] simulator. First, we set up a simulation environment to
validate our mathematical framework and derive the estimation accuracy of the lemmas
and theorems presented in Section 2.4. Second, we examine the performance of a
multihop network running the DMQR protocol to carry data and voice trafc. The
simulation results are compared with a reactive routing protocol, AODV, and with a
proactive routing protocol, OLSR [60], as well as with a hybrid routing protocol. The
hybrid routing protocol is a modication of AODVthat uses Hello messages to maintain
connectivity with the neighbors [59].
In all the simulations, D is a 1 Km 1 Km square area and the gateway is placed
at its center. There are N mobile nodes distributed in D, each of which adopts the
802.11a MAC protocol with a raw channel bandwidth of 12 Mb/s and the transmission
range of 150 m. We made this choice because the capacity of an 802.11a enabled node
carrying VoIP trafc is considerably better than that of 802.11b, even when the channel
bit rates are chosen close to each other (12 Mb/s vs. 11 Mb/s) [39]. Furthermore, as
we discussed in Section 2.4, the cell size plays an important role in the accuracy and
complexity of the path integration algorithm. Our investigations suggest that a cell
diameter of half the transmission range will provide an acceptable estimation accuracy
45
while keeping the complexity and convergence time limited. Therefore, we partition D
into a 20 20 lattice, made up of 400 square cells.
2.6.1 Mathematical Framework Validation
In this subsection, we provide the results of detailed simulations to conrm the ac-
curacy and usefulness of the framework presented in Section 2.4. The aim here is to
conrm the assumptions and validate the lemmas and theorems of Section 2.4. Partic-
ularly, we are interested in the numerical values of error bounds in a controlled simula-
tion set-up. To minimize the effect of routing on the framework, in this subsection, we
implemented a geographic routing protocol over a at region similar to Greedy Perime-
ter Stateless Routing (GPSR) [49]. This routing protocol selects the shortest chain of
cells at each hop to forward the packets, while the neighbors are discovered proactively
using periodic Hello packets. Nodes move according to the Random WayPoint (RWP)
model with a constant speed of v and pause time of 0, at each interval; they also gen-
erate identical and independent Constant Bit Rate (CBR) trafc to the gateway, that is
relayed through the mobile network. One key issues here is that we need to approx-
imate the statistical averages of the mathematical framework with the time averages.
Therefore, throughout this subsection, the results are averaged over multiple runs of
10-minute-long simulations.
46
In the rst set of simulations, a stationary test node is selected and placed inside
a cell at least three hops away from the gateway. We run each simulation with the
same parameters, slightly changing the location of the test node in each run. Fig. 2.9(a)
shows the average end-to-end and local delay of a test node, placed at approximately
361 m, 382 m, 389 m, 396 m and 417 m from the gateway, as function of mobile
nodes velocity. There are N = 400 mobile nodes in D with a total aggregate trafc
of approximately 3 Mb/s. As predicted by Assumption 1 and conrmed by Fig. 2.9(a),
for a wide range of node velocities, the changes in the node location even up to 1/4
of the transmission range, result in very small variations of the local delay. Fig. 2.9(b)
and 2.9(c) illustrate the effect of node density and offered trafc on the end-to-end
and local delay for the same set-up. Here, we can see not only that small changes in
the location of the node result in small variations of the local delay (as predicted by
Assumption 1 in Section 2.4), but also that the local delay varies in a bounded range
as the node density and offered trafc vary. Furthermore, as implied by Theorem 1
in Section 2.4, the end-to-end delay of the test node shows slightly more sensitivity to
the changes in the location of the test node within the cell. To verify Assumption 2 of
Section 2.4, which states that the variations of local delay are bounded over time, we
plot the standard deviation of the local delay of the test node placed 389 m away from
the gateway. Fig 2.9(d) displays the standard deviation as a function of aggregate trafc
47
and node velocity. The gure illustrates that the deviation of the local delay from its
average is quite low when compared to the average delay.
Fig. 2.10(a) shows the constructed map of the end-to-end delay of a network with
N = 400 nodes moving with a speed of v = 10 m/s, each of which transmits data with
a rate of 8.5 Kb/s. The main result in Fig. 2.10(a) is that the end-to-end delay roughly
follows a cup shape, increasing as we move away from the gateway in the middle. The
ripples that occur farther away from the base station are due to the fact that not as many
samples can be collected for the boundary as for the middle, in the Random Waypoint
Model. The local delay (congestion) map of the network in Fig. 2.10(b) shows that,
even though the network topology is rapidly changing, the map of network congestion
forms a stable and smooth surface. Furthermore, as expected, the MAC layer delay is
higher in the middle of the network due to higher congestion while the network layer
delay is higher on the edges due to higher neighbor discovery delay.
Fig. 2.11 displays the average of relative error of end-to-end delay estimation via
path integration, compared to the average of actual end-to-end delay (Theorem 2). The
signicant result in this gure is that, even though the network is dense and highly mo-
bile, the percentage error is most of the time less than 15%. Fig. 2.11(a) demonstrates
the effect of node velocity on the estimation error for multiple values of offered trafc,
when N = 400. As expected, the estimation error demonstrates very low sensitivity to
the changes in speed of the nodes, supporting the fact that the space-centric approach
48
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Local and End-to-End Delay Variations
Speed of the Nodes (m/s)
D
e
l
a
y

(
M
i
l
l
i
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
)

src-dst distance=417
Local Delay
End-to-End Delay
(a)
100 200 300 400 500
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Number of the Nodes
D
e
l
a
y

(
M
i
l
l
i
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
)

Local Delay
End-to-End Delay
(b)
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Total Offered Traffic (Mbps)
D
e
l
a
y

(
M
i
l
l
i
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
)

End-to-End Delay
Local Delay
(c)
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Standard Deviation of Local Delay
Total Offered Traffic (Mbps)
D
e
l
a
y

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

D
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n

(
M
i
l
l
i
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
)
v=0m/s
v=5m/s
v=10m/s
v=15m/s
v=20m/s
v=30m/s
v=40m/s
(d)
Figure 2.9: Effect of small displacements and network parameters on the end-to-end
and local delays. (a) Effect of node velocity, N = 400, G(D, t) 3 Mb/s. (b) Effect
of node density, v = 10 m/s, G(D, t) 1.6 Mb/s. (c) Effect of the offered trafc
N = 400, v = 10, (d) The standard deviation of local delay with respect to changes in
trafc and node velocity, N = 400.
49
(a) (b)
Figure 2.10: (a) Delay map, (b) Congestion map of a network with N = 400, v = 10
m/s, and G(D, t) = 3 Mb/s.
of this chapter is more resilient to the changes in the network topology. Therefore,
it leads to a better combinatorial stability [19] than the node-centric approaches [20]
in a highly mobile network. Furthermore, the path integration error remains small and
bounded for a large selection of node densities and trafc rates, as shown by Fig. 2.11(b)
when v = 10 m/s. However, the error deviates from the acceptable range at very sparse
networks with low data trafc. The reason is that in this regime the coherence time of
the network is too short because the node density can dramatically change as the nodes
move.
50
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
5
10
15
20
Path Integration Relative Error (%)
Node Speed (m/s)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

E
r
r
o
r

G=4Mbps
G=3Mbps
G=2.5Mbps
G=2Mbps
G=1.3Mbps
G=1Mbps
(a)
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Path Integration Relative Error (%)
Number of Nodes
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

E
r
r
o
r

G=3.1Mbps
G=1.6Mbps
G=0.8Mbps
G=0.4Mbps
(b)
Figure 2.11: Effect of network parameters on the relative error. (a) Effect of node
velocity, N = 400, (b) Effect of node density, v = 10 m/s.
2.6.2 DMQR Protocol Simulation
In this subsection, we demonstrate the performance improvements of adopting our
space-centric approach in high mobility, high density networks. First, the effect of
node velocity, node density, and offered trafc on the routing metrics such as end-to-
end delay, packet delivery ratio, and control overhead is analyzed and compared with
AODV, OLSR and hybrid AODV. Second, the capacity improvements of using DMQR
to route delay sensitive trafc, e.g., VoIP, are demonstrated by introducing the quality
map of the network.
The simulations are performed over a realistic terrain where the deployment region
resembles a typical urban area that contains few buildings and obstacles, as shown in
Fig. 2.12. Routing over such regions is known to be particularly difcult because when
51
Gateway
Figure 2.12: Simulated terrain with holes and sample node trajectories.
the terrain contains obstacles or empty spaces, the routing has to take place over curved
distances; that is, the routes have to go around the large obstacles, or jump over the
small ones [49].
To achieve a higher degree of realism, a mobility model that is similar to [63] is
implemented. In this mobility model: (1) each node randomly selects a destination
that is not chosen inside the buildings, (2) the node selects the shortest path to reach
the destination, (3) the nodes trajectory does not cut, reect from or go through the
building areas, and as before, each node moves with a constant speed of v during its
course of travel. In our experiments, the node density is changed from N = 50 to
N = 500 nodes over D and the node velocities vary from 3.6 to 50 m/s to cover a
52
variety of scenarios from foot trafc to the nodes moving at vehicular speeds and to the
limits in the ITU recommendation.
The application agents in these simulations consist of either VoIP calls or CBR data
trafc. The VoIP encoder uses ITU G.711 codec with 20ms audio payload, i.e., 160
bytes, at a constant bit rate of 64 Kb/s. The data applications are CBR agents with
1024 bytes packets. Finally, to determine the optimum Hello message rate, we set
up a simple experiment with static nodes in which the nodes are distributed over two
non-overlapping paths, one of which is slightly better than the other. We observed the
performance of DMQR for different Hello message rates when the better path becomes
congested. We observed that the update periods of more than 700 ms can lead to insta-
bility and route apping in some cases. Therefore, to keep the spreading period of the
maps less than the coherence time while keeping the routing overhead low, the Hello
messages are sent every 500 ms in throughout the simulations.
2.6.2.1 Performance Evaluation
There are two phases in the more realistic simulations of this section. In the rst
one, the nodes are deployed onto an unknown terrain. In this transient regime, the local
delay map is being constructed and distributed. So, the routing protocol acts similar to
perimeter routing as discussed before. In the second phase, the network is in steady-
53
state in terms of mobility and trafc. In this phase, a more accurate congestion map is
built and used to nd the delay optimized routes to the destination.
Fig. 2.13(a) displays the congestion map plot of the network in steady state, as
constructed by the gateway at some point during the simulation. In the simulation that
generated this map, a total of 200 nodes move with the speed of 10 m/s in the terrain of
Fig. 2.12, which resembles a network of vehicles traveling in the urban areas. The nodes
each transmit 14.5 Kb/s of CBR data to the gateway. Note that, in addition to its main
task, i.e., local delay measurement and dissemination, the congestion map construction
module of DMQR achieves a precise view of holes and obstacles in D. As shown
in Fig. 2.13(a), data transmission in the areas with a low node density, e.g., behind
or between the buildings and on the edges of D, faces higher local delays because of
the longer neighbor discovery time. Moreover, the local delay of the areas within the
transmission range of the gateway is slightly higher than the cells just outside that range
as a result of MAC-layer congestion around the destination.
Fig. 2.13(b) displays the packet delivery ratio contour map of the above network
running DMQR protocol. Note that, except some for outage areas which are behind the
buildings and around the terrain edge, DMQR delivers 90 95% of the data packets;
as opposed to the packet delivery maps of AODV and OLSR protocols in Fig. 2.14(a)
and Fig. 2.15(a), respectively. The actual end-to-end delay map of the above DMQR
enabled network is presented in Fig. 2.13(c). Except some ripples around the edges,
54
(a)
Distance (m)
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
Map of Packet Delivery Ratio

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
(b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2.13: Performance maps of a realistic network running DMQR protocol. (a)
Congestion (local delay) map, (b) PDR contour map, (c) end-to-end delay map, (d)
average delay estimate map.
55
Distance (m)
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
(a) (b)
Figure 2.14: Performance maps of AODV routing protocol. (a) Packet Delivery Ratio
(PDR) contour map, and (b) end-to-end delay map.
the end-to-end delay roughly follows a cup shape similar to the case of geographic
routing over a at region in Fig. 2.10(a). This behavior is noticeably important because
it implies that DMQR is able to perform load balancing for a dynamic high mobility
network, over a difcult terrain.
A map of end-to-end delay estimates based on the congestion map of Fig. 2.13(a) is
plotted in Fig. 2.13(d). It is inferred that the delay estimation procedure of the DMQR
protocol gives a reliable estimate of average delay, when we compare the delay maps
of Fig. 2.13(c) and Fig. 2.13(d). In contrast, the end-to-end delay maps of AODV and
OLSR routing protocols, shown in Fig. 2.14(b) and 2.15(b), suggest that the node-
centric protocols of this simulation fail to predict delay variations caused by the topol-
ogy changes.
56
Distance (m)
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
(a) (b)
Figure 2.15: Performance maps of OLSR routing protocol. (a) PDR contour map, and
(b) end-to-end delay map.
To acheive a thorough evaluation of our method, we investigate the performance
and overhead of DMQR in comparison with AODV, OLSR and the hybrid variation
of AODV under various node motion speeds, node densities and offered trafc. The
reported graphs are averaged over all the successfully received data packets for multiple
simulation runs. First, the effect of node velocity is studied in Fig. 2.16, where the total
number of nodes is set to N = 200, each of which is sending either 8.4 or 14.5 Kb/s of
CBR trafc (1.6 and 2.8 Mb/s total) for a duration of 180 seconds to the gateway.
The average packet delivery ratio of Fig. 2.16(a) implies that the DMQR protocol
remains robust for a wide range of node velocities; i.e., PDR drops less than 10% when
the speed of the nodes is increased from 3.6 m/s to 50 m/s. On the other hand, both
variations of AODV achieve acceptable PDR only in the low trafc regime. Further-
more, OLSR has the fastest drop in the packet delivery rate as the nodes move faster;
57
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Packet Delivery Ratio
Velocity (m/s)
P
D
R

DMQR:1.6Mb/s
DMQR:2.8Mb/s
AODV:1.6Mb/s
AODV:2.8Mb/s
OLSR:1.6Mb/s
OLSR:2.8Mb/s
AODV-H:1.6Mb/s
AODV-H:2.8Mb/s
(a)
0 10 20 30 40 50
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
Average End-to-End Packet Delay
Velocity (m/s)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

D
e
l
a
y

(
M
i
l
l
i
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
)

DMQR:1.6Mb/s
DMQR:2.8Mb/s
AODV:1.6Mb/s
AODV:2.8Mb/s
OLSR:1.6Mb/s
OLSR:2.8Mb/s
AODV-H:1.6Mb/s
AODV-H:2.8Mb/s
(b)
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Velocity (m/s)
P
k
t
s
/
N
o
d
e
/
S
e
c
Routing Overhead

DMQR:1.6Mb/s
DMQR:2.8Mb/s
AODV:1.6Mb/s
AODV:2.8Mb/s
OLSR:1.6Mb/s
OLSR:2.8Mb/s
AODV-H:1.6Mb/s
AODV-H:2.8Mb/s
(c)
Figure 2.16: DMQR performance comparison as a function of node velocity. N = 200
and G(D, t) = 1.6, 2.8 Mb/s. (a) Packet delivery ratio, (b) average delay (logarithmic
scale), and (c) routing overhead.
58
the reason is that it gets harder and harder for its proactive scheme to keep track of
topology changes. The robustness of PDR in DMQR comes with the cost of a small
increase in the average end-to-end delay of the packets in some cases, as shown in
Fig. 2.16(b). However, this cost does not affect the routing overhead of the DMQR
protocol, as shown in Fig. 2.16(c). It seems that OLSR has the best end-to-end delay
performance in this set-up. To explain this behavior, rst notice that the majority of
the delay increase comes from the packets originating in less populated regions. OLSR
achieves lower delays because it keeps all of the possible routing options proactively;
it further drops most of the long buffered packets which eliminates their contribution
to the average delay of Fig. 2.16(b). The latter is also the reason behind the lower
end-to-end delay of AODV at high velocities.
Fig. 2.17 studies the effect of node density on the routing performance, while the
speed of the nodes is set to 10 m/s, and to be consistent, only 50 of the nodes transmit
CBR trafc with the rate of 50 Kb/s. While AODV reaches a better PDR than DMQR
in sparse scenarios, DMQR outperforms both variations of AODV at medium to high
node densities, as seen in Fig. 2.17(a). Again, this behavior results from the advantage
of discovering delay optimized routes over cells rather than individual nodes. How-
ever, similar to other geographic routing schemes, DMQR tends to have connectivity
issues in sparse cases, while AODV performs a full search to reach the destination. An
interesting observation in Fig. 2.17(b) is that the average end-to-end delay of DMQR
59
remains stable or shows a small linear increase as the number of the nodes increases
in comparison with the considerable degradation of AODV and OLSRs delay perfor-
mance. The reason is the considerable increase in overhead with respect to number of
nodes, as shown in Fig. 2.17(c); which makes DMQR a scalable routing candidate in
medium-to-high density scenarios.
Finally, we consider the effect of offered trafc load on the performance of the
DMQR protocol. In this scenario, N = 200 data transmitting mobile nodes are placed
in the deployment region, moving with the speed of 10 m/s. It is known that the per-
formance of the IEEE 802.11 standard is more sensitive to the packet rate than to the
packet length [64]. Hence, we set the packet length to 1024 bytes and vary the CBR
packet rate from low throughput to the saturated regime close to the network capacity.
Fig. 2.18 illustrates the performance of the above routing protocols as a function of the
aggregate offered trafc. While sensitive to the congestion caused by the offered trafc,
DMQR outperforms OLSR and both variants of AODV in terms of PDR, Fig. 2.18(a),
and routing overhead, Fig. 2.18(c). The main reason behind this behavior is that the
routing overhead of DMQR is independent of trafc load, as opposed to the overhead
of AODV. However, this performance comes at the cost of higher average delays for
the delivered packets, as in Fig. 2.18(b). Note that the CAC algorithm of DMQR is
disabled in these simulations to be consistent with the other protocols.
60
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Number of Nodes
P
D
R

DMQR
AODV
OLSR
AODV-Hybrid
(a)
0 100 200 300 400 500
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

D
e
l
a
y

(
M
i
l
l
i
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
)
Number of Nodes

DMQR
AODV
OLSR
AODV-Hybrid
(b)
0 100 200 300 400 500
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Number of Nodes
P
k
t
s
/
N
o
d
e
/
S
e
c
Routing Overhead

DMQR
AODV
OLSR
AODV-Hybrid
(c)
Figure 2.17: DMQR performance comparison as a function of node density. v = 10
m/s and G(D, t) = 2.44 Mb/s. (a) Packet delivery ratio, (b) average routing delay, and
(c) routing overhead.
61
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Aggregate Offered Traffic (Mb/s)
P
D
R

DMQR
AODV
OLSR
AODV-Hybrid
(a)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Aggregate Offered Traffic (Mb/s)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

D
e
l
a
y

(
M
i
l
l
i
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
)

DMQR
AODV
OLSR
AODV-Hybrid
(b)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Total Offered Traffic (Mb/s)
P
k
t
s
/
N
o
d
e
/
S
e
c
Routing Overhead

DMQR
AODV
OLSR
AODV-Hybrid
(c)
Figure 2.18: DMQR performance comparison as a function of total offered trafc.
N = 200 and v = 10 m/s. (a) Packet delivery ratio, (b) average routing delay, and (c)
routing overhead.
62
2.6.2.2 VoIP Performance of DMQR
Finally, we examine the performance of the DMQR protocol in the presence of
delay-sensitive VoIP trafc as the target application. In this case, it is not clear a priori
whether DMQR performs as required to achieve the acceptable Mean Opinion Score
(MOS) quality of the voice calls. MOS provides a numerical indication of the perceived
quality of VoIP sessions after reception. As mentioned before, the VoIP calls are 2-
minute-long sessions generated by a G.711 encoder. The deployment region is the
terrain of Fig. 2.12, and the mobility model is the same realistic model of the previous
subsection.
The rst set of simulations is dedicated to the presentation of the QoS maps of the
network. In this set-up, N = 200 nodes are moving with a speed of 10 m/s, and 20 of
them are randomly chosen to initiate VoIP calls. The simulation is run ten times, while
choosing different calling nodes and mobility realizations in every run. Fig. 2.19(a)
shows the end-to-end delay map of the network running DMQR, and implies that the
VoIP delay requirements are satised for the calls originating from most of the cells
within D. However, there are a few cells that show an average end-to-end delay of
more than 100ms. Next, the contour graph of PDR in Fig. 2.19(b) shows that more
than 85% of the packets generated in the network are received correctly. However,
there are a few cells for which more than 50% of the packets are dropped, mostly due to
lack of connectivity. To determine the areas that are in outage for VoIP transmission,
63
(a)
Distance (m)
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
Map of Packet Delivery Ratio for VoIP Traffic

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
(b)
Figure 2.19: Performance maps of the DMQR protocol carrying VoIP trafc. (a) End-
to-end delay map, and (b) PDR contour map.
the map of average MOS is plotted in Fig 2.20. We restricted ourselves to AODV
for comparison because it outperforms OLSR in our set-up (Fig 2.17). Fig. 2.20(a)
and 2.20(b) illustrate the call quality regions of DMQR and AODV protocols over D,
respectively. As expected, AODV is unable to provide acceptable VoIP call quality
for the locations more than 1 hop away from the gateway. In contrast, implementing
DMQR provides acceptable quality over the majority of D.
Lastly, to analyze the applicability of DMQR to multihop extensions of cellular
networks, we consider a simulation in which the VoIP-calling mobile nodes keep a
minimum distance from the gateway. In this set-up, in addition to the 200 or 300 relay
nodes, 25 mobile test nodes are deployed in the terrain of Fig. 2.12. The test nodes
follow a modied mobility model, in which their trajectories cover a range between 200
m and 650 m from the gateway. Fig. 2.21 displays the average performance of VoIP
64
Distance (m)
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
MOS Performance Map - DMQR

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
(a)
Distance (m)
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
MOS Performance Map - AODV

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
(b)
Figure 2.20: The MOS quality maps of the network in Fig. 2.12 with (a) DMQR, and
(b) AODV routing protocol.
sessions as a function of the number of calls. The callers are randomly selected from
the set of test nodes, and the reported results are the average of multiple simulations.
Fig. 2.21(a) shows the average delay that the VoIP calls experience in the network. The
main point here is that DMQR admits VoIP calls with a gradual delay degradation, until
the CAC algorithm rejects the new incoming calls. The dashed lines of these graphs
show how the protocol would perform without a CAC procedure. However, in some
cases, the CAC algorithm of DMQR admits one call more than it should have, due to
the fact that it is unable to predict exceptionally large leaps of the end-to-end delay.
For example, this behavior happens for N = 225 and v = 10 m/s, where the 19th
call causes the average delay to increase from 23 ms to 170 ms. The packet delivery
ratio graphs of Fig. 2.21(b) conrm the quality of admitted VoIP calls with a slight
degradation at high node velocities.
65
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Number of VoIP Calls
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

D
e
l
a
y

(
M
i
l
l
i
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
)
Average End-toEnd Packet Delay

N=225, v=10 m/s
N=225, v=10 m/s: CAC Disabled
N=225, v=30 m/s
N=325, v=10 m/s
(a)
5 10 15 20 25
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
Number of VoIP Calls
P
D
R

N=225, v=10 m/s
N=225, v=30 m/s
N=325, v=10 m/s
(b)
Figure 2.21: (a) Average delay, and (b) packet delivery ratio (PDR) of the VoIP packets
2.7 Summary
We have developed a novel approach to estimate the end-to-end delay in mobile
multihop networks by attributing congestion to space, and integrating local congestion
over space. The simulation results show that the local delay measurements can be used
for a reliable estimation of the average end-to-end delay. Based on our framework,
we developed DMQR, a congestion-aware routing protocol for delay-sensitive, high-
mobility wireless multihop networks. The novelty of DMQR comes from the fact that
it searches for the delay optimized routes, examining the node mobility in aggregate.
Particularly, DMQR constructs and maintains the networks congestion map which is
used to discover a suitable route and to provide stochastic delay guarantees. The simula-
66
tion results show that DMQR is a scalable routing protocol which achieves low latency
and high packet delivery ratio in a high-density mobile wireless network.
Appendix
Proof of Lemma 1: The event B
k
i
ensures that {k
: X
(k
)
(t) C
i
} is not an empty set.
E
_
i
(t)
B
k
i
E
_
(k)
L
(t)
B
k
i
_
=
E
_
:X
(k
)
(t)C
i
[
(k
)
L
(t)]
|{k
: X
(k
)
(t) C
i
}|

(k)
L
(t)
B
k
i
_
=
1
|{k
: X
(k
)
(t) C
i
}|
:X
(k
)
(t)C
i
E[
(k
)
L
(t)
(k)
L
(t)]
<
|{k
: X
(k
)
(t) C
i
}|
|{k
: X
(k
)
(t) C
i
}|
pe
(r
i
c
) =
pe
(r
i
c
)
where the last step above follows by the corollary of Assumption 1, noting that k, k

{k
: X
(k
)
(t) C
i
}, |X
(k)
(t) X
(k
)
(t)| < r
i
c
.
Lemma 3
Let R
i
be xed C
j
D. Let |G(C
i
, t
) G(C
i
, t)| < . Then C
j
D,
|(C
j
, t
) (C
j
, t)| < max
C
j
|H
j
|
Proof: (C
j
, t) is the sum of the trafc of cells C
i
H
j
:
(C
j
, t) =
C
i
H
j
G(C
i
, t
ij
) (2.20)
67
where
ij
is the time that it takes for the trafc generated at cell C
i
to reach cell C
j
.
Therefore,
|(C
j
, t
) (C
j
, t)| =
C
i
H
j
(G(C
i
, t
ij
) G(C
i
, t
ij
))
< max
C
j
|H
j
|
Proof of Lemma 2: Let k and k
be any two nodes, that are selected from the sets

{k : X
(k)
(t) C
i
} and {k : X
(k)
(t
) C
i
}, respectively. The event K guarantees that
these sets are not empty. It further guarantees the validity of the events B
k
i
at time t and
B
k
i
at time t
. Therefore, Lemma 1 implies that
E
_
i
(t)
E
_
(k)
L
(t)
K
_
<
pe
(r
i
c
)
E
_
i
(t
E
_
(k
)
L
(t
K
_
<
pe
(r
i
c
)
Hence,
_
E
_
i
(t
E
_
i
(t)
K
_
_
E
_
(k
)
L
(t
K
_
E
_
(k)
L
(t)
K
__
< 2
pe
(r
i
c
) (2.21)
On the other hand,
E
_
(k
)
L
(t
K
_
E
_
(k)
L
(t)
K
_
E
_
(k)
L
(t)
(k)
L
(t
K
_
+E
_
(k)
L
(t)
(k
)
L
(t
K
_
E
_
(k)
L
(t)
(k)
L
(t
K
_
E
_
(k)
L
(t)
(k
)
L
(t
K
_
<
te
+
pe
(r
i
c
)
(2.22)
68
where the last step above follows fromLemma 3 and the corollary of Assumptions 1 and
Assumption 2. Note that
te
is a function of
1
,
2
, and max
C
j
|H
j
|. Equations (2.21)
and (2.22) imply that,
E
_
i
(t
E
_
i
(t)
<
te
+ 3
pe
(2.23)
Proof of Theorem 1: Note that every packet that is sent from C
i
is relayed by a set
of nodes along R
i
. Then, by steps similar to those in the proof of Lemma 1, the result
follows.
Lemma 4
Under the assumptions of Lemma 1, C
i
D,
pe
(r
i
c
) such that:
E
_
i
(t)
B
k
i
E
_
(k)
E
(t)
B
k
i
_
<
pe
(r
i
c
) (2.24)
Proof of Theorem 2: Let k
j
be a node that is randomly selected from the nodes within
C
j
; i.e., k
j
{k : X
(k)
(t) C
j
}. Note that every packet that is sent from C
i
is relayed
by a set of nodes, each of which is located within a cell C
j
R
i
. Then,
(k
i
)
E
(t) =
C
j
R
i
(k
j
)
L
(t +
ij
)
69
Hence,
E
_
i
(t)
K
_
E
_
i
(t)
K
_
<
pe
+
E
_
k
i
E
(t)
K
_
E
_
i
(t)
K
_
pe
+
C
j
R
i
E
_
(k
i
)
L
(t
K
_
E
_
i
(t)
<
<
pe
+|R
i
|(
pe
+
te
)
pe
+ (
pe
+
te
) max
C
i
|R
i
|
70
Chapter 3
RMR: Reliability Map Routing for
Tactical Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
In the previous chapter, we introduced a space-centric framework and a routing
protocol (DMQR) to provide delay guarantees in mobile ad hoc networks. In this chap-
ter, we turn our attention to mobile tactical ad hoc networks in which the users move
through terrains with possibly compromised or insecure regions. First, we elaborate the
importance of reliability and trust in tactical MANETs and review the current state of
the art ad hoc routing protocols that are suitable for such networks. Then, we dene the
spatial counterparts of network reliability and trust which are the building blocks of the
novel space-centric routing protocol, named Reliability Map Routing (RMR), pre-
sented in this chapter. The RMR protocol uses end-to-end quality metrics that include
spatial reliability and trust, and reactively discovers routes over spatial cells whose local
reliabilities are distributed throughout the network via a fast dissemination algorithm.
By using a spatial approach where reliability and trust are attributed to space rather than
71
Chapter 3. RMR: Reliability Map Routing for Tactical Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
to nodes, RMR is able to nd reliable routes through space that persist for longer du-
rations than those discovered by node-centric protocols. Furthermore, RMR is capable
of reliable geocasting with low overhead. We compare the performance of the RMR
protocol via QualNet simulations, in terms of packet delivery ratio, delay and overhead,
and quantify the effects of node density, velocity, and trafc load on these performance
metrics.
3.1 Introduction
Recent advances in tactical mobile ad hoc networks show only modest improve-
ments over the original generations of self-organizing tactical ad hoc networks, espe-
cially when compared to the signicant progress of commercial wireless networks in
the past decade [65]. The reason is that tactical networks differ from their commercial
counterparts in their security requirements, lack of centralized arbitration, and, most
importantly, dynamic topology changes due to node mobility.
As discussed in Chapter 1, the end-to-end guarantees of reliability, timeliness,
and trustworthiness over difcult terrains are of paramount importance in achieving
mission-critical tasks. In the scope of the network layer of MANETs, these guarantees
are quantied by the answers to the following questions:
72
1. Is the routing protocol able to establish a route between a given source and des-
tination pair in a timely manner? Or better said, what is the probability that the
routing protocol can accomplish this task?
2. What is the performance of the routing protocol in maintaining (keeping alive)
the routes that have been discovered, given the rate of network topology changes?
3. How secure are the established routes in the network? Equivalently, can the rout-
ing protocol quantify its trust in the established routes based on the given security
metrics?
While answers to the rst two questions determine the reliability of route discovery
and maintenance, the answer to the last question quanties the trustworthiness of the
routes. As expected, it becomes very challenging to quantify the route reliability and
trustworthiness even as soft guarantees. The reason is that the requirement of combi-
natorial stability poses fundamental restrictions on routing in high-mobility multi-hop
networks [19].
Traditional routing protocols for military MANETs are node-centric [6674] and
cannot tolerate node failures. In this chapter, we consider the implications of a space-
centric view of the network in developing a routing protocol. The main idea of our
approach in quantifying route reliability is illustrated in Fig. 3.1. This gure shows
that, in achieving an end-to-end route, the nodes on the route are interchangeable. If a
73
0 0
Figure 3.1: (a) In the space-centric approach, a route is thought of as a sequence
of node presences. (b) Selected route is still reliable even though the topology has
changed.
particular node moves away from a route and another node comes in its place (or prox-
imity), no change will have occurred from an end-to-end route reliability perspective.
Therefore, as introduced in Chapter 1, the space-centric allows us think of a route not
as a sequence of nodes from the source to the destination, but rather as a chain of
regions (each containing one or more nodes) as shown in Fig. 3.1.
To understand the trust issues in routing, consider the following scenario. Assume
that the enemy has just taken control of a node, which had a chance to send a distress
signal before its communication equipment was compromised. Then, not only should
the compromised node be removed from the set of available relay nodes, but also the
area surrounding that node should be agged as potentially untrustworthy, because it
74
In a tactical network the In a tactical network, the
routing protocol should
Avoid untrustworthy nodes
(compromised, etc.)
Avoid routing through the
areas that are potentially
untrustworthy. (Higher
possibility of attack, etc.)
Attribute a trust metric to Attribute a trust metric to
the cells.
RMR Routing in Wireless Tactical Networks
Presented by: Amir A. Gohari
4
Figure 3.2: It is essential that the routing protocol avoids untrustworthy regions.
might have been compromised as well. In such scenarios, we would like the routing
protocol is avoid the regions that are potentially untrustworthy and re-establish another
route, as shown in Fig. 3.2.
Following the above ideas, we develop a routing protocol in this chapter based on
reliability maps, which are maps of reliable communication regions in an unknown
territory where military units have been deployed. In this setting, it is critical to ac-
quire timely information about the network and the environment for situation aware-
ness purposes [26] and possibly relay this information to Operations Command (OC)
for command and control decisions. In our set-up, the nodes require reliable routes to
the Operations Command which is a stationary node located in the deployment region.
Furthermore, it is crucial to react promptly to a distress signal sent by a node or po-
75
tential threats in some areas of the deployment region. In addition, each node might
periodically send an alive signal to indicate its location and additional information.
We utilize such signals to build a reliability map of the entire deployment region and
update it as information from the nodes changes. This map is then used to make optimal
routing decisions that avoid unreliable or untrustworthy regions.
The distinguishing features of our work over the past literature are: (1) its emphasis
on a space-centric approach in which maps and routes are built over spatial cells, (2)
its emphasis on route reliability, (3) its notion of spatial trust, and (4) its potential to
enable efcient geocast [27] for geographic command and control functionality.
The rest of this chapter is organized as follows: In Section 3.2, related work is dis-
cussed. Section 3.3 states our assumptions for the network model used in this chapter
and presents a mathematical model of spatial reliability and trust. In Section 3.4, the
details of the Reliability Map Routing (RMR) protocol are described. In Section 3.5,
we perform an evaluation of the RMR protocol through QualNet simulations. We sum-
marize this chapter in Section 3.6.
3.2 Related Work
In many past reactive and proactive routing protocols suitable for MANETs, e.g., [66
74], routes are conceived as sequences of individual nodes. Consequently, this node-
76
centric approach is sensitive to node mobility and node failures. The performance
degradation of node-centric routing protocols due to node mobility has been one of
the key challenges of military tactical networks [75]. Prior node-centric approaches to
routing in tactical ad hoc networks have included routing based on a combination of
QoS metrics [66], team-oriented routing [67], routing in the presence of multiple orga-
nizations [68], proactive multi-path routing based on link quality diversity [69], as well
as Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) routing,
and their variants [70, 71]. The rst of these approaches selects paths based on a com-
bination of QoS metrics; however, it does not emphasize connectivity in high-mobility
scenarios, which is the main emphasis of our work. Team-oriented routing [67] works
well when nodes move together, and organization-aware routing [68] works well when
it is important to minimize trafc across organizational boundaries; however, both build
routes as sequences of nodes and do not address high node mobility. Furthermore, [72]
improves organization-aware routing for QoS and security requirements via a subopti-
mal solution to an optimization program, but the protocol has high complexity and does
not handle high node mobility.
The reliable hybrid multi-path routing protocol [69] proactively discovers multiple
routes to any destination to be more robust with respect to node failures and route
breaks due to node mobility. This protocol is efcient under low node densities and low
degrees of node mobility (30 m/s with a 5 kmtransmission range.) The same conclusion
77
holds for other proactive routing protocols, such as those presented in [70] and [71], as
their performance is highly dependent on node mobility and the number of nodes in
the network. The reason is that the routing overhead increases exponentially as the
rate of topology changes increases. Our work is also related to [74] which proactively
builds a small number of spanning trees to build routes quickly on-demand. This hybrid
approach between proactive and reactive routing is efcient; however, because it is
node-centric, the coherence time of the routes it nds is lowfor high-mobility networks.
Geographic routing protocols, e.g. [22], operate efciently in high-density, high-
mobility scenarios. Nevertheless, they are unable to provide QoS guarantees such as
reliability and trust because the routes are only dynamically and locally determinable
and end-to-end routes do not exist. In [23], the authors demonstrate that the end-to-end
energy consumption over space is stable within a time period during which the node
density remains stationary. The idea of attributing QoS metrics to patches of space was
extended to delay in [76] and in Chapter 2. There, we presented a congestion-aware
routing protocol for high-mobility scenarios that utilizes spatial maps of network con-
gestion to enable delay-optimized routing for real-time applications. However, for a
tactical mobile ad hoc network, reliable and trustworthy routing have a higher level
of importance as long as the end-to-end delay remains in an acceptable range. Fur-
thermore, it is shown that the node mobility becomes more restrictive in the case of
MANET internetworking [77]. Therefore, the authors of [78] proposed an improved
78
geographic routing protocol that selects inter-domain gateways based on the number of
active neighbors. This protocol can handle velocities up to 50 m/s with 375 m transmis-
sion range; however, it is not able to provide reliability or trust guarantees. The spatial
approach of this chapter can be extended to reliable regions of gateways between do-
mains.
Lastly, our work is related to trust-based routing protocols, such as [79]. The term
trust has been used in the communications and networking literature based on evi-
dence or reputation [80]. It can refer to QoS trust, which includes reliability or social
trust based on honesty, privacy, and reputation (e.g., misbehavior, malicious activities,
etc.). In general, we use the term spatial trust in the context of military networks; that
is, to quantify whether an area in the network is potentially compromised or has shown
security vulnerabilities in the past. Therefore, our work is different from trustworthy
routing protocols like [79] in that our work selects an end-to-end path that does not
go through untrustworthy regions rather than considering the trust issues of individual
relay nodes.
3.3 Problem Description
We constrain our work in this chapter to a network of N location-aware mobile
nodes over a deployment region D with many holes as shown in Fig. 3.1. We assume
79
that the network is geographically addressed, i.e., either the approximate location of the
intended receiver is known or the sender wishes to initiate communication with all the
nodes in a dened geographic area, even when the sender has no knowledge of which
nodes currently occupy the area [27].
To measure reliability over space, we need to have a certain spatial resolution. To
this end, we partition the deployment region D into M cells {C
ij
|
i,j
C
ij
= D} and
assume that the partitioning method is known by the nodes. The shape of these cells
does not affect the validity of our approach; however, it is required that the nodes in
each cell be able to communicate with adjacent cells. Therefore, the cell diameters are
limited to half the transmission range. In this section, we develop a spatial framework
to investigate the trackability of end-to-end route reliability and trust in a tactical mobile
multi-hop network. First, we dene the spatial counterparts of network reliability and
trust that are usually attached to the nodes. These spatial maps of network reliability
and trust are introduced as the prime metrics of concern in this work. We show that
the expected value of end-to-end reliability can be estimated using the map of network
reliability which is constructed using only local measurements.
3.3.1 Spatial Reliability
A reliable routing protocol provides an end-to-end route over which information
is delivered to the intended destination(s) with high probability. The networks terminal
80
reliability is dened as the probability of successful communication between a speci-
ed pair, some, or all of the nodes (referred to as terminals) within the network [81].
The reliability analysis of mobile ad hoc networks in [82] suggests that maintaining
reliable routes in a high-mobility multi-hop network is costly due to frequent route
breaks and link/node failures. The reason is that each route is constructed as a chain of
individual nodes; therefore, the probability of successful packet delivery decreases as
the nodes move out of each others transmission ranges. Furthermore, the probability
of successful delivery shows multiplicative degradation as the number of relay hops
increases.
Our novel idea is to examine node mobility in the aggregate by attributing the rout-
ing reliability of individual relay nodes to patches of space. We use locally observable
metrics to estimate local network reliability, and attribute this reliability to that patch
of space (called a cell) to construct a distributed view of the spatial reliability in the
network as was performed for energy in [23] and delay in [76]. This distributed view
is then used to estimate the probability of end-to-end connectivity (terminal reliability)
between two cells in the network. Hence, we discover the routes over regions of higher
local reliability. This idea and its difference from node-centric terminal reliability is
shown in Fig. 3.3.
A reliability map is a spatial map that assigns a reliability function to each cell C
ij
in D. We assume that obstacles, or holes, are not known a priori; hence, the network
81
(b) Spatial reliability between patches of
space. Path reliability is affected by the
node presences along the path.
(a) Two-terminal reliability between a pair
of nodes. Route reliability is affected by the
topology changes in the network.
Figure 3.3: Different views of route reliability in MANETs.
starts out with the reliability map set to 0 (unreliable) for all cells. As information is re-
ceived from the nodes in the network, the reliability map is accordingly updated and the
location of holes becomes clearer. The reliability attributed to each cell comprises the
product of the following: (1) routing reliability, i.e., the probability of nding a relay
node within that cell, and (2) physical communication and medium access reliability,
which is not the scope of this work. Generally speaking, the physical layer reliability
is enhanced and controlled by means of error detection/correction codes, and the reli-
ability issues of the link layer are addressed by advanced variations of retransmission
request algorithms.
82
The spatial reliability of a route is determined as the product of the reliability of
each of the cells through which the route passes. In the following, we examine a certain
spatial path from cell C
ij
to C
i
j
during some time interval T
c
, denoted by path P
iji
of L contiguous cells. To simplify the notation, we refer to C

ij
as the source cell,
denoted by C
s
and C
i
j
as the destination cell, denoted by C
d
. We re-index the cells
in path P
iji
j
(equivalently P
sd
) as an ordered set of L cells from C
s
to C
d
:
P
sd
def
= {C
k
|(C
k1
<
a
C
k
), (C
s
<
a
C
1
), (C
L
<
a
C
d
)}
(3.1)
where the binary operator <
a
is dened such that (C
k1
<
a
C
k
) is true iff C
k1
and
C
k
are adjacent cells and C
k1
appears before C
k
on the path P
sd
from C
s
to C
d
. In
the rest of this chapter, we use double indexed cell C
ij
to refer to a cell in D and single
indexed cell C
k
to a cell in a path.
We dene the spatial reliability f
sd
r
of the path P
sd
as the two-terminal reliability
of the terminals in C
s
and C
d
given that the route R
sd
remains in P
sd
during T
c
. In
other words, f
sd
r
is the probability that there exists at least one node in each cell of
P
sd
to ensure connectivity. That is,
f
sd
r
= P{ R
sd
P
sd
} = P{C
k
P
sd
, X
k
1} (3.2)
where the random process X
k
denotes the number of mobile nodes in cell C
k
. We note
that the stochastic characteristics of node density play a crucial role in developing the
analytical model for the spatial reliability function f
sd
r
. However, unlike the node-
83
centric reliability models [82], the location of individual relay nodes does not affect
the reliability function of Equation (3.2). Our goal is to estimate the reliability of the
path P
sd
based on the past measurements of X
k
. We show that under a realistic model
of node mobility, this estimate of spatial reliability can be used to distinguish between
different paths in terms of their reliability. Below, we provide a model of node mo-
bility in tactical networks which is used to compute the spatial reliability function of
Equation (3.2).
A realistic model of node mobility in tactical networks assumes that the node trajec-
tories in D are (1) temporally correlated (i.e., there are groups of mobile nodes moving
together), and (2) spatially correlated (i.e., the trajectories are not randomly selected
and roughly follow spatial patterns). This behavior implies that the number of nodes
in a cell is highly correlated with the number of nodes close to that cell. Furthermore,
military units often move in groups (e.g., squads) and do not randomly leave their group
or join other groups. Therefore, in our model, we assume that the nodes are members
of xed mobility groups and remain with the group during the course of action. We
assume that the node density patterns over spatial cells has the Markov property, i.e.,
the node density in a cell is independent of the node densities two or more cells over,
given the node densities in all of the cells adjacent cells. Based on these assumptions,
84
the spatial reliability of the path between C
s
and C
d
in Equation (3.2) is written as:
f
sd
r
= P{X
1
1}
L
k=2
P{X
k
1|X
k1
1} (3.3)
where the conditional probabilities of the above product are the local reliability of cell
C
k
given the path P
sd
. The next step is to estimate the local reliability of cells during
network operation. Let the random variable G denote the number of nodes in each
mobility group. Then, there are N/

G independent mobile groups in D. Because every
node belongs to a group, if there exists at least one node in a cell, then there exists
at least one group in that cell. This observation provides the motivation to model the
group count in a given cell, which are not correlated, rather than the highly correlated
node count.
Let the random variable X
g
k
denote the number of groups that visit cell C
k
during
T
c
. For any two adjacent cells C
k
and C
k
, during T
c
, the following events are mutually
exclusive: (1) a group visits C
k
and does not visit C
k
, (2) it visits C
k
and does not
visit C
k
, or (3) it visits both of these cells. (The third event can occur, for example, if
the group enters C
k
at t
1
, and crosses over to C
k
at time t
2
> t
1
within the time T
c
.)
Let the random variable Y
g
kk
denote the number of groups that visit only C

k
, and let
Z
g
kk
denote the number of groups that visit both C

k
and C
k
. Then, the total number of
groups that visit cell C
k
during T
c
is Y
g
kk
+ Z
g
kk
. In other words, for any two adjacent

85
cells C
k
and C
k
:
X
g
k
= Y
g
kk
+ Z
g
kk
X
g
k
= Y
g
k
k
+ Z
g
k
k
(3.4)
where Z
g
k
k
= Z
g
kk
because they are two different ways of counting the number of nodes
that have visited both cells. The above equations hold regardless of the distribution of
the groups trajectories in the network. Now, given that the size of each cell is very
small compared with the size of the deployment region, the probability that any one
group enters 2-cells (C
k
,C
k
) during T
c
is small. Because we assume that the number
of the groups in the network is large, each of the terms on the right hand sides of
Equations (3.4) can be approximated by a Poisson random variable. Hence, X
g
k
and
X
g
k
are bivariate Poisson processes

1
. Three parameters are needed for such 2-cells,
i.e., the parameters of the Poisson processes Y
g
kk
, Y
g
k
k
and Z
g
kk
:
k,k
,
k
,k
and
k,k
,
respectively. Then, the conditional probabilities of Equation (3.3) are computed as
follows [84]:
1
The extension of this argument to more than two cells is possible, with the limitation that the number
of cells not be too large, for which the argument that the probability of entrance into the set of cells is
small, would fail. Each new cell that is introduced adds a new parameter which is a degree of freedom to
the model. Even though the explanatory power of a many-parameter model would be large, its predictive
accuracy would be low as each parameter has to be estimated within a limited time. The choice of 2-cells
reects this trade-off, increasing its accuracy over the single Poisson model of [83].
86
f
k1k
r,l
= P{X
k
1|X
k1
1}
= P{X
g
k
1|X
g
k1
1} = 1 P{X
g
k
= 0|X
g
k1
1}
= 1
_
(e
(
k,k1
+
k,k1
)
)
(1 e
k1,k
)(1 e
(
k1,k
+
k,k1
)
)
1
_
(3.5)
where f
k1k
r,l
is the directional local reliability function from C
k1
to C
k
. The rst
step above derives from the fact that there exists at least one node in the desired cell iff
there is a group of nodes in that cell. The last step follows from the joint distribution
function of the bivariate Poisson process [84]. The spatial reliability of path P
sd
is ob-
tained by replacing the conditional probabilities of Equation (3.3) with Equation (3.5).
Finally, we show that the parameters of these Poisson processes can be estimated for
the network during operation. Given sample realizations of X
k
and X
k1
(measured by
the nodes), we estimate the parameters of the mobility model with a low computation
and delay cost. We note that:
k,k1
= E[Y
g
k,k1
] = E
_
X
g
k
Cov
_
X
g
k1
, X
g
k
_
k1,k
= E[Y
g
k1,k
] = E
_
X
g
k1
Cov
_
X
g
k1
, X
g
k
_
k,k1
= E[Z
g
k,k1
] = Cov
_
X
g
k1
, X
g
k
_
(3.6)
where the moments of X
g
k
and X
g
k1
are derived by the moments of the random vari-
ables X
k
and X
k1
and the average group size

G. Further, the expected values and
87
covariances of the equation above are simply estimated using the empirical mean and
sample covariance of the given realizations.
The spatial reliability dened in Equation (3.3) is a product of local reliabilities.
However, additive quantities are more desirable when we try to make a comparison be-
tween the reliability of two paths. Hence, we express the logarithm of spatial reliability
as the reliability function:
ln
_
f
sd
r
_
= ln
_
1 e
E[X
1
]
_
+
L
k=2
ln
_
f
k1k
r,l
_
(3.7)
where f
k1k
r,l
is given by Equations (3.5) and (3.6). Equation (3.7) states that the
logarithm of reliability of a path is the sum of the logarithms of the local reliability
functions assigned to the cells along the route. This way of presenting reliability makes
it possible to employ a shortest path algorithm to nd the most reliable path among
many candidates.
3.3.2 Spatial Trust
As discussed in Section 3.1, one example to support the importance of trust in route
selection is when a node sends a distress signal in case of enemy contact. In such
cases, the area surrounding that node might have been compromised and should be
avoided by the routing protocol, as shown in Fig. 3.2. Another example arises when the
monitoring module of a node, such as its intrusion detection system, reveals an intrusion
88
or a potential cyber attack. Similarly, a high risk level should be assigned to the area
surrounding that node and routing the packets through that region should be avoided
until it becomes trustworthy again. Hence, a region being potentially untrustworthy
is different from a region being unreliable. In the latter case, if a packet is sent into
the region, the packet is simply dropped, but in the former case, the packet might be
compromised. Hence, the routing measure that we develop must reect this difference.
Similar to [80] and [85], we employ the key principles and terminology of trust and
reputation systems in ad hoc networks; however, we dene a spatial trust metric for a
patch of space to construct a spatial trust map of the network. In measuring the spatial
trust, we use monitoring-based trust management that makes observations on possible
environmental risks (enemy contact, etc.) and networking attacks (denial of service,
intrusion, etc.). The distributed trust map can be used with the reliability map to form
a multi-objective spatial routing protocol.
To this end, we attribute a spatial trust metric T
ij
to cell C
ij
that takes values be-
tween T
ij
= 0 for complete distrust in a cell and T
ij
= 1 for complete trust. The initial
value of spatial trust is an adjustable parameter, e.g., T
i
= 0.5 for ignorance. Simi-
lar to the map of network reliability, the idea is to build a spatial trust model with a
mechanism to evaluate the trust level for each cell. In this model, we assume that the
nodes are equipped with behavior monitors, actively observing the current status of the
network. The output of the behavior monitor passes through a direct trust calculator,
89
which classies and weights the observations according to their levels of importance.
The output of the trust calculator E
ij
, is the level of the nodes trust in cell C
ij
based
on its direct experience. We note that, in reality, negative experiences should not be
weighted similar to positive feedback. For example, when a node receives a distress
signal from cell C
ij
, it should aggressively decrease the spatial trust value T
ij
, whereas
each subsequent positive observation about the same cell should only slightly increase
the cells trust value. Therefore, employing a moving average, a greater weight
1
is
given to experiences that show a low level of trust than the weight
2
that is assigned
to good experiences.
T
new
ij
=
1
E
ij
+ (1
1
)T
ij
for E
i
< E
thr
T
new
ij
=
2
E
ij
+ (1
2
)T
ij
for E
i
E
thr
(3.8)
where 0 <
2
<
1
< 1 and T
new
ij
is the new value of T
ij
including the direct expe-
rience. The next step is to make direct trust measurements available to the network.
We use a simple spatial exchange algorithm in which the nodes broadcast their map of
spatial trust only to their neighbors. Once a node receives an indirect trust advertise-
ment T
in
ij
, it updates T
ij
using a weighted sum of the nodes current trust level and the
indirect trust metric received, similar to [85].
T
new
ij
= (1 )T
ij
+ T
in
ij
(3.9)
where 0 < < 1 and T
in
ij
is the indirect trust metric received.
90
As explained above, the routing protocol is required to establish routes with a trust
greater than a minimum level. Note that the spatial trust of a path P
sd
is not an additive
or a multiplicative metric, and is determined by the minimum of the trust value of the
cells C
ij
in P
sd
. Therefore, we can think of a binary indicator b
ij
for each cell C
ij
which is 0 if T
ij
is less than the required minimum trust level T
min
, and 1 otherwise.
The set of these indicators for the cells reect the regions through which a route can be
selected. Hence, we tweak the reliability function of Equation (3.7) to reect whether
the path satises the minimum trust requirement.
ln
_
f
sd
rt
_
= ln
_
b
1
(1 e
E[X
1
]
)
_
+
L
k=2
ln
_
b
k
f
k1k
r,l
_
(3.10)
where f
sd
rt
is the reliability/trust function of path P
ij
.
3.4 RMR: Reliability Map Routing Protocol
We showed that the end-to-end reliability of a route can be estimated by a local
reliability metric that is attributed to patches of space. Furthermore, we dened a spatial
trust metric to make sure that the constructed routes do not pass through untrustworthy
regions in the network. In this section, we present a routing protocol that is based on
the spatial maps of network reliability and trust to enable reliability-optimized routing
over high-mobility multi-hop networks. The main procedures of the Reliability Map
Routing (RMR) protocol are those that enable the protocol to make use of the space-
91
centric approach. RMR constructs and disseminates the local reliability and trust maps
of the network by periodic advertisements while it discovers an optimized end-to-end
path, i.e., a chain of contiguous cells to the destination on demand. The reliability map
of the network is built in a distributed fashion in the distributed memory of the nodes,
avoiding any centralized or hierarchical coordination. RMR employs periodic Hello
packets to maintain a neighbor database as well as reliability and trust map distribution.
However, simple ooding may be employed to broadcast critical information, such
as distress signals or security red ags. RMR has three core modules: (1) reliability
map measurement, estimation, and dissemination, (2) reliable route discovery, and (3)
neighbor discovery. In RMR, whenever an originating or relay data packet enters the
network layer, the routing protocol uses its own copy of the reliability and trust maps to
discover the best set of cells to the destination. Here, the best set of cells is the most
reliable choice among the possible choices that satisfy a minimum trust level, i.e., the
path over which the trust/reliability function of Equation (3.10) is maximized.
3.4.1 Reliability Map Measurement, Estimation, Dissemination
A novel aspect of RMR is the construction of the reliability map using local obser-
vations made by nodes in the network. To estimate the reliability of a cell, as dened
by Equation (3.5), RMR estimates the expected value of the number of nodes in that
cell as well as its covariance with the number of nodes in adjacent cells. Under the
92
condition that these values remain roughly invariant during the period that is required
to construct and disseminate the reliability map, the expected value and covariance can
be calculated by moving time averages (see [23]). To accomplish this task, each node
periodically transmits a timestamped Hello packet which contains its location at the
time of transmission. Because the rate of Hello packet transmissions is xed for every
node, the total number of the nodes that are located within each cell is represented by
the rate at which Hello packets are received from that cell. For example, assume that
the nodes are sending Hello packets with a rate of two packets per second. Now, if
we receive 12 Hello packets from a specic cell over a period of two seconds, we can
assume that there were on average three active nodes within that cell during that time
period.
The reliability metric estimation for the entire network would have been straight-
forward if there were a single global entity that could listen to all of the Hello packets
and calculate the expected values and covariances. However, due to the limited trans-
mission range of the nodes and the lack of such an entity, RMR requires a distributed
algorithm with minimal overhead to acquire the reliability map approximation with an
acceptable error. Here, we adopt a simple algorithm that combines the local recep-
tions of Hello packets, estimates the parameters of the reliability model for its adjacent
cells, and disseminates this locally obtained information to the other nodes. To control
the dissemination overhead, we put a one hop limit on the penetration range of each
93
broadcast packet, i.e., the regular announcements of reliability maps by a node are not
rebroadcast further by the neighbors. Instead, on reception of such advertisements, the
receiver merges the advertised reliability map with its local copy of the map using a
moving average. The node later advertises this updated version of the reliability map
at its local broadcast rate. In other words, local observations of Hello packets and the
received reliability advertisement are combined together to make an updated version of
the reliability map which in turn is broadcast regularly. Moreover, to limit the overhead
further, RMR piggybacks the map advertisements on the periodically transmitted Hello
packets.
We split the above algorithm into three separate procedures that run concurrently on
every node: measurement, estimation, and dissemination. The measurement procedure
is responsible for sampling the random process X
ij
for the current cell and its adjacent
cells, i.e., to determine the number of nodes in those cells by listening to Hello pack-
ets. The estimation procedure computes the empirical mean and sample covariance of
the adjacent cells. As new measurements are made, the empirical mean and sample
covariances become better approximations of mobility model parameters. However, as
time passes, some of the measurements become obsolete and the estimation procedure
should eliminate their effect in the averaging process. The dissemination procedure is
responsible for periodic distribution of the local reliability map to the neighbors and
consolidation of the received maps with its own.
94
3.4.1.1 Measurement Procedure
The measurement procedure obtains sample measurements of the random process
X
ij
for the current nodes associated cell and its adjacent cells. Whenever a new Hello
packet is received from a cell, the node updates the number of Hello packets for that
cell. After some reasonable period of time, an accurate sample of the random process
X
ij
is obtained for a cell by dividing the total number of Hello packets received from
that cell by the duration over which the measurements were made. An appropriate
choice for this time period is 3-5 times the Hello packet transmission interval, because
it is long enough to give reasonable accuracy and short enough to track the changes in
node density.
3.4.1.2 Estimation Procedure
The estimation procedure keeps the following variables for each cell around the cur-
rent location: (1) the empirical mean and covariances of the current cell and its adjacent
cells, (2) the number of sample measurements for each cell, and (3) the timestamps of
the rst and last sample measurement made by the measurement procedure. Adopt-
ing simple statistical tools, this procedure estimates the parameters of node mobility
in Equation (3.6) by keeping the empirical mean and sample covariances updated as
the new measurements are made available. Even though we cannot remove the expired
samples from the averages and covariance one by one, it is possible to normalize the
95
number of samples with respect to the portion of the averaging window that has not
expired. However, this method works ideally only when the samples have equal accu-
racy; thus, it adds a small averaging error to the constructed reliability maps. Using
the estimated parameters, this procedure constructs a map of local reliabilities for the
current cell and its adjacent cells.
3.4.1.3 Dissemination Procedure
The nodes broadcast their local copies of the reliability map to their neighbors pe-
riodically. The dissemination procedure consolidates the received information with its
own copy of map, using an exponential moving average and mimicking the error. The
moving average parameter should be selected such that the reliability map follows the
changes in spatial reliability while placing enough weight on the past. Each value in
the reliability map is timestamped with the last time it was updated and will be set to
unreliable after some time if no updates arrive for that cell. Furthermore, the dis-
semination procedure distributes and maintains the map of spatial trust, as discussed
in Section 3.3.2. However, the urgent distrust indicators, such as distress signals, cy-
ber attack indicators, and security red ags are ooded using a full broadcast method
with duplicate pruning throughout the network to inform the units about the untrust-
worthy regions quickly. No additional routing handshaking or relay packets are sent
or accepted from the regions that have a trust level less than a threshold until the pos-
96
itive trust indicators enable the region to become trustworthy slowly. However, RMR
keeps routing the data packets that have originated from the untrustworthy areas after
encapsulation and agging.
3.4.2 Reliable/Trustworthy Path Discovery
The reliable/trustworthy path discovery module of RMR is responsible for discov-
ering a reliable end-to-end spatial route on request. To perform its task, this module
constructs a network graph in which the vertices represent the cells, and the edges
connect a cell to its adjacent cells. The edges of this network graph are directionally
weighted by the spatial reliability/trust metric of Equation (3.10) in the sense that the
edge from cell C
k
to its neighbor cell C
k
has a weight of ln(b
k
) ln(f
kk
r,l
). The
module then nds the most reliable chain of contiguous cells between any pair of cells
by applying Dijkstras algorithm to the above graph
2
.
There is also another piece of information that is made available to the nodes to
enhance the path discovery algorithm. Each node in the network maintains a database
of its neighbors, i.e., a database that contains a list of its current neighbor nodes in
addition to their current associated cells. This information is used to overwrite (make
unreliable) the weights of those edges that currently do not contain a neighbor node
inside their endpoint cells. Furthermore, it extends the set of neighbor cells to include
2
Here, the metric is the negative of the metric in Equation (3.10), as Dijkstras algorithm nds the
minimum cost path on a graph of positive weights.
97
not only the adjacent cells, but also the cells farther away if there is currently a node in
the distant cell. However, this feedback is available for only a single hop and results in
inconsistencies between the local copies of the reliability map; hence, the existence of
routing loops at this module is an issue. To solve this problem, we implement a two-step
path discovery method. First, we calculate a path candidate by running the shortest path
algorithm over the primary network graph without extra information. To avoid loops
using the revised graph, we prune the graph such that each cell is connected to only the
cells that are geographically closer to the destination. The shortest path algorithm is
run over the revised network graph to nd the second path candidate, which might not
be optimal. Finally, the optimal path is the better one of the two candidates according
to Equation (3.10).
3.4.2.1 Reliable Geocast Routing
The goal of geocasting in ad hoc networks is to deliver the data packets to a set of
destinations identied by their geographical locations (geocast region). Even though
a geocast region is not necessarily connected, it can be represented by a set of cells
(geocast set) to which the packet should be delivered.
RMR employs the following algorithm to deliver geocast data packets with mini-
mum duplication. On reception of a geocast data packet:
98
1. If any of the nodes adjacent cells is in the geocast set, remove that cell from
the set; broadcast a copy of the packet to that cell; and repeat until there are no
adjacent cells in the geocast set.
2. For each cell in the geocast set, run the path discovery algorithm and determine
the next geographic hop.
3. If multiple next hops are found, split the geocast set into multiple sets each of
which has the same next geographic hop.
4. Duplicate the packet and send a copy of it to the common next hop of the split
sets (unicast). Note that the set that appears in the header of each duplicate packet
is different.
5. Drop the packet if the geocast set is empty.
In the above algorithm, broadcast to an adjacent cell is performed simply by putting
the adjacent cells ID in the packet header. The recipients drop the packet if they are
not located in that cell. The above algorithm adds only a minimum overhead for the
necessary packet duplicates, as shown in the example of Fig. 3.4. In this gure, the
geocast region is covered by two disjoint sets of geocast cells, shown with red borders.
The solid black arrows indicate the unicast data transmission and the curved dashed
arrows are the broadcast instances to the cells.
99
Figure 3.4: Reliable geocasting with RMR. The geocast region is covered by two sets
of cells, solid black arrows indicate the unicast data transmission and the curved dashed
arrows are the data broadcasts to the target cells.
3.4.3 Neighbor Node Lookup Table
The output of the spatial route discovery module provides the next cell along the
optimized reliability route to the destination. There still exists the need to nd an in-
dividual relay node within that cell. There are several methods for doing so: one is to
broadcast the data packet to the nodes within the desired region, another is to perform a
reactive neighbor discovery, or nally, maintain a proactively updated neighbor lookup
table. In our case, it is possible to use the Hello packets that are sent by the reliability
map estimation module to construct an accurate neighbor database (lookup table) with
no additional overhead. Each element in this lookup table holds the following infor-
mation about a neighbor: (1) the neighbor node ID, (2) the mobility information of the
neighbor (location and velocity), and (3) the lifetime of that element. The lifetime of an
element in the lookup table is dened as the duration that the neighbor node will remain
100
within its current associated cell. On reception of a Hello packet, the receiver records
the location of the neighbor, its mobility information, and calculates the lifetime of that
information, i.e., the estimated time that the node remains within its associated cell.
The lookup table is then used to nd a relay node located within the desired neighbor
cell, as well as to provide the reliable path discovery module with the extra information
explained above.
3.5 Performance Evaluation
We present a detailed evaluation of the RMR protocol using the QualNet simulator.
The RMR protocol is implemented on top of the standard IEEE 802.11a MAC protocol
with a channel rate of 12 Mbps. The 802.11a standard is chosen because it provides
a larger number of non-overlapping channels and a better capacity than 802.11b. We
set the transmission range of each node to a reasonably small value, i.e., 150 m, to
limit the possibility of eavesdropping by unwanted listeners. Note that, the shorter the
transmission range, the more severe the effect of node mobility on the performance
of the routing protocol. Furthermore, we assume that the deployment region D is a
1km 1km square area with a stationary Operations Command located at the center.
The deployment region Dis divided into a 2020 lattice of cells as shown in Fig. 3.5(a).
Even though the size of the deployment region and the cell boundaries are assumed to
101
(a) (b)
Figure 3.5: Deployment Region with holes. (a) Partitioned into cells. (b) Trajectories
of nodes moving within the deployment region.
be known by the nodes, the location and size of possible holes (barriers and obstacles)
are not assumed to be known a priori. Every node in the network is equipped with a GPS
device and broadcasts timestamped Hello packets with a period of 500ms. Moreover,
to keep track of the changes in the network, the reliability measurements are assumed
to expire after 3 minutes. Finally, the nodes transmit Constant Bit Rate (CBR) trafc to
the Operations Command site and the reported results are averaged over multiple runs
of the simulation each of which lasts 300 seconds.
We developed the following group mobility model to model a variety of fast de-
ployments of military units onto a new, unknown terrain. In a military scenario, it is
likely that the movement of the units is based on available tracks in contrast to random,
unconstrained movement in models such as Random Waypoint. In this mobility model,
102
a mesh is created between the obstacles and the groups of nodes choose a track at each
junction (rendezvous point or target), based on a pre-dened probability and continue
their journey. These probabilities of branching at the junctions are key to our model
because a variety of different mobility scenarios can be generated by changing these
parameters. Each group of mobile nodes contains an adjustable number of nodes mov-
ing in a diamond formation, similar to [86]. The nodes do not move in direct lines;
instead, we introduce a diffusion process so that their motion is not exactly along the
arc. The diffusion process is similar to that of a real deployment with freedom be-
ing greater between junctions, and less when nodes move closer to junctions. Many
formations of group mobility can be combined to add a high degree of realism to the
simulations; e.g, we perform a simulation with groups of vehicles traveling at high
speed, groups of soldiers traveling at walking speed, and individual nodes that act as
scouts or unmanned vehicles. A sample of the trajectories of the mobile units is shown
in Fig. 3.5(b). In our experiments, we vary the number of nodes from 50 to 400 and the
node velocities from 1.5 to 50 m/s to cover a variety of scenarios from foot trafc to
vehicular nodes moving at high speeds.
3.5.1 Maps of Reliability, Packet Delivery Ratio, and Delay
In the simulations, there are two phases. In the rst phase, the military units are
being deployed into the unknown terrain. In this transient regime, the reliability map
103
changes fast. In the second phase, the network has reached some stability in terms of
node density; that is, as military units move out of a given region between the holes
(mountains), new military units move into that region. In this phase, a more accurate
reliability map can be built.
Fig. 3.6 displays the contour plot of the reliability maps of the network in the latter
phase, as constructed by the reliability estimation and dissemination modules of RMR,
described in Section 3.4. As shown in Fig. 3.6, the reliability map estimation module is
able to approximate the location of the holes precisely. In the simulations that generated
the maps of Fig. 3.6(a) and 3.6(b), 200 nodes are deployed in the terrain moving at the
speed of 10 and 40 m/s, respectively. Note that, as suggested by the mathematical
analysis of Section 3.3, the spatial reliability of the network shows minimum variations
even for substantial changes in the node mobility from 10 m/s in Fig. 3.6(a) to 40 m/s in
Fig. 3.6(b). The same argument holds for a network with 400 nodes moving at the speed
of 10 m/s and 40 m/s as shown in Fig. 3.6(c) and Fig. 3.6(d), respectively. Furthermore,
as predicted by Equation (3.5), the local reliability metric that is assigned to the cells
increases when the number of available nodes in the network increases from 200 to
400. The robustness of reliability maps in the presence of high node mobility makes
RMR combinatorially stable to provide reliability guarantees.
Fig. 3.7(a) and 3.7(b) display the maps of packet delivery ratio and average end-
to-end delay in the same set-up as Fig. 3.6(a), respectively. These are important QoS
104
Distance (m)
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
Reliability Map (N=200, v=10 m/s)

50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950
50
150
250
350
450
550
650
750
850
950
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
(a)
Distance (m)
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)

50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950
50
150
250
350
450
550
650
750
850
950
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
(b)
Distance (m)
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)

50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950
50
150
250
350
450
550
650
750
850
950
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
(c)
Distance (m)
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)

50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950
50
150
250
350
450
550
650
750
850
950
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
(d)
Figure 3.6: Contour plot of the reliability map of the network generated by the RMR
protocol; the darker the regions the less reliable they are. (a) N = 200, v = 10 m/s, (b)
N = 200, v = 40 m/s, (c) N = 400, v = 10 m/s, (d) N = 400, v = 40 m/s.
105
measures for reliable and timely transmission of mission-critical information. There
are 200 nodes moving in deployment region D with a speed of 10 m/s. Each node
transmits 16 Kbps of CBR trafc, resulting in a total aggregate load of 3.27 Mbps. We
designed the mobility model above such that some regions in D, close to 0 = (0, 0),
become less populated than the rest of the network. This is done to resemble the node
movements in dangerous situations or difcult missions, and to study the performance
of the routing protocol in such scenarios. We see that RMR is able to maintain a packet
delivery ratio of 95% or more on most of the terrain, as shown in Fig. 3.7(a), with an
average delay of less than 500 milliseconds as illustrated in Fig. 3.7(b). However, as
was predicted by the reliability map of Fig. 3.6(a), a few unreliable cells face a packet
delivery ratio of less than or around 60% with an average delay of 3-5 seconds. With the
help of reliability maps, the nodes are able to become aware of the networks situation
in real-time.
3.5.2 Performance Comparison
Now, we investigate the performance and overhead of RMR under various speeds,
node densities, and offered trafc load in comparison with a reactive routing protocol
(AODV), a proactive routing protocol (OLSR), and a hybrid routing protocol. The
hybrid routing protocol is a modication of AODV that uses Hello packets to maintain
connectivity with neighbors [59]. The effect of node velocity is displayed in Fig. 3.8,
106
Distance (m)
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
Spatial Map of Average PDR (N=200, v=10 m/s)

50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950
50
150
250
350
450
550
650
750
850
950
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
(a)
Distance (m)
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
Spatial Map of Average End-to-End Delay Map

50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950
50
150
250
350
450
550
650
750
850
950
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
(b)
Figure 3.7: Performance of the RMR protocol in the same set-up as Fig. 3.6(a). (a)
Spatial map of packet delivery ratio, (b) Spatial map of end-to-end delay.
where the total number of nodes is set to N = 200, each of which sends 16 Kbps of
CBR trafc for a duration of 300 seconds to the Operations Command site.
The average packet delivery ratio of Fig. 3.8(a) implies that RMRremains robust for
a wide range of node velocities; i.e., packet delivery ratio varies less than 10% when
the speed of the nodes changes from 1.5 m/s to 50 m/s. This behavior is due to the
discovery of the reliability optimized route over cells rather than individual nodes. On
the other hand, both AODV and OLSR achieve an acceptable packet delivery ratio only
in the low mobility regime. OLSR shows the fastest drop in the packet delivery ratio
as the nodes speed increments makes it increasingly more difcult for the proactive
scheme to keep track of topology changes. Furthermore, the hybrid variation of AODV
is able to repair the route breaks locally with the help of its neighbor database. The
107
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
20
40
60
80
100
Average Packet Delivery Ratio (N=200)
Node Speed (m/s)
P
a
c
k
e
t

D
e
l
i
v
e
r
y

R
a
t
i
o

(
%
)

RMR
AODV
OLSR
Hybrid AODV
(a)
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Average End-to-End Packet Delay (N=200)
Node Speed (m/s)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

D
e
l
a
y

(
s
)

RMR
AODV
OLSR
Hybrid AODV
(b)
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Average Routing Overhead (N=200)
Node Speed (m/s)

O
v
e
r
h
e
a
d

(
P
c
k
t
s
/
N
o
d
e
/
S
e
c
)

RMR
AODV
OLSR
Hybrid AODV
(c)
Figure 3.8: Performance evaluation of RMR as a function of node velocity. 200 mo-
bile nodes are deployed in D with a total load of 3.2 Mbps.(a) Packet delivery ratio
comparison. (b) Average routing delay comparison. (c) Routing overhead comparison.
108
reliability improvement of RMR comes with the cost of a slight increase in the average
end-to-end delay of the packets, as shown in Fig. 3.8(b). Notice that most of the delay
increase comes from the packets originating in less populated regions. AODV achieves
lower delays because it searches all of the possible routes by ooding the route requests
in the network, and OLSR by maintaining the routes proactively. Further, both AODV
and OLSR drop most of the long buffered packets which eliminates their contribution
to the average delay of Fig. 3.8(b). In addition, due to the spatial nature of RMR,
the packets might travel via more relay nodes to reach the destination. High routing
overhead of AODV and OLSR protocols is conrmed by Fig. 3.8(c); where AODVs
overhead is orders of magnitude greater than RMRs overhead.
Fig. 3.9 shows the effect of node density on routing performance, when the speed of
the nodes is set to 10 m/s. To be consistent, only 50 of the nodes transmit CBR trafc at
the rate of 64 Kbps. While comparable to the AODVvariants for sparse scenarios, RMR
performs better than both variants of AODV as the network becomes more populated,
as shown in Fig. 3.9(a). An interesting observation in Fig. 3.9(b) is that the average
end-to-end delay of RMR decreases sharply as the number of nodes increases. The
reason is that the routing overhead (which is the main source of congestion) increases
linearly for RMR in comparison with the exponential increase of AODV and OLSR
routing overheads.
109
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Number of Nodes
P
a
c
k
e
t

D
e
l
i
v
e
r
y

R
a
t
i
o

(
%
)
Average Packet Delivery Ratio (v=10 m/s)

RMR
AODV
OLSR
Hybrid AODV
(a)
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Number of Nodes
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

D
e
l
a
y

(
s
)
Average End-to-End Packet Delay (v=10 m/s)

RMR
AODV
OLSR
Hybrid AODV
(b)
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Number of Nodes

O
v
e
r
h
e
a
d

(
P
k
t
s
/
N
o
d
e
/
S
e
c
)
Average Routing Overhead (v=10 m/s)

RMR
AODV
OLSR
Hybrid AODV
(c)
Figure 3.9: Performance evaluation of RMR as a function of node density. Speed of
the nodes is set to v = 10 m/s and a total load of 3.2 Mbps is transmitted. (a) Packet
delivery ratio comparison. (b) Average routing delay comparison. (c) Routing overhead
comparison.
110
We consider the effect of offered trafc load on the performance of the RMR pro-
tocol, where 200 data transmitting mobile nodes are in the deployment region moving
at the speed of 10 m/s. Fig. 3.10 shows the performance comparison of the routing pro-
tocols above as a function of the aggregate offered load. It is inferred from Fig. 3.10(a)
that, unlike AODV and OLSR, RMR is much more scalable with respect to load and
is able to deliver 50-60% of the data packets in the saturated regime, whereas AODV
and OLSR cannot deliver more than 20% of the offered load at high trafc load. Fur-
thermore, even though the average end-to-end delay of the packets routed by RMR is
greater than other protocols, it remains under one second, as shown in Fig. 3.10(b). The
main reason behind this behavior is that the routing overhead of RMR is independent
of trafc load (as is the overhead of OLSR), in contrast with the overhead of AODV, as
illustrated in Fig. 3.10(c).
Finally, to address the operation of RMR over untrustworthy regions, we set up
an experiment in which different types of military units are deployed in the terrain of
Fig. 3.5(a). In this simulation, there are 150 soldiers in groups of ve moving at the
speed of 1.5 m/s, 150 vehicles in groups of two, moving at the speed of 10 m/s and
40 independent high speed vehicles (e.g., scouts) moving at the speed of 20 m/s. As
shown in Fig. 3.11, we assume that at t = 100s, one of the nodes detects a physical
or cyber attack and broadcasts a distress signal, thus making the area in its proximity
111
1 2 3 4 5 6
0
20
40
60
80
100
Aggregate Offered Load (Mbps)
P
a
c
k
e
t

D
e
l
i
v
e
r
y

R
a
t
i
o

(
%
)
Average Packet Delivery Ratio (N=200, v=10 m/s)

RMR
AODV
OLSR
Hybrid AODV
(a)
1 2 3 4 5 6
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Average End-to-End Packet Delay (N=200, v=10 m/s)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

D
e
l
a
y

(
s
)

RMR
AODV
OLSR
Hybrid AODV
(b)
1 2 3 4 5 6
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
O
v
e
r
h
e
a
d

(
P
k
t
s
/
N
o
d
e
/
S
e
c
)
Average Routing Overhead (N=200, v=10)

RMR
AODV
OLSR
Hybrid AODV
(c)
Figure 3.10: Performance evaluation of RMR as a function of total offered load. There
are 200 transmitting mobile nodes in D, moving with the speed of v = 10 m/s. (a)
Packet delivery ratio comparison. (b) Average routing delay comparison. (c) Routing
overhead comparison.
112
Most reliable route without
trust consideration
Most reliable route that passes
through trustworthy regions
The region that was made
untrustworthy by the
distress signal
Figure 3.11: The RMR protocol switches to a longer (less reliable) route in order to
avoid the untrustworthy region that is agged by a distress signal.
untrustworthy. The weights and thresholds of the trust management module is set such
that this region becomes trustworthy again, at t = 200s.
As discussed in Section 3.3.2, the RMR protocol avoids routing through this un-
trustworthy region and takes a longer, less reliable route to satisfy the trust require-
ments, as shown by Fig. 3.11. Fig. 3.12(a) and 3.12(b) show the average hop count and
packet delivery ratio of packets that are affected by this decision. It is implied by the re-
sults of Fig. 3.12(a) and conrmed by Fig. 3.12(b), that the RMR protocol successfully
selects a longer, less reliable route and avoids untrustworthy regions until the security
issues of those regions are resolved.
Once the security issues of the untrustworthy region is resolved by the positive trust
signals, the trust management module of RMR lets the protocol switch back to the
113
0 50 100 150 200 250
4
6
8
10
12
14
Simulation Time (s)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

H
o
p

C
o
u
n
t
Trustworthy Route Selection

Reliability +Trust
Relibility Only
Distress Signal
is sent at t=100s
(a)
0 50 100 150 200 250
0
20
40
60
80
100
Simulation Time (s)
P
a
c
k
e
t

D
e
l
i
v
e
r
y

R
a
t
i
o

(
%
)Trustworthy Route Selection

Reliablity +Trust
Reliability Only
Distress Signal
is sent at t=100s
(b)
Figure 3.12: The RMR protocol switches to a longer, less reliable route to satisfy the
trust requirement, as shown by (a) route hop count, and (b) packet delivery ratio.
most reliable route. The results of Fig. 3.12(a) and Fig. 3.12(b) conrm this behavior
and show that the RMR protocol is successfully able to combine reliability and trust
metrics in the right context.
114
3.6 Summary
We have described the Reliability Map Routing (RMR) routing protocol for tactical
mobile ad hoc networks that require high reliability. We have developed a reliability
function by which the degrees of reliability of spatial locations over a new, unknown
terrain can be characterized. Our results indicate that the spatial maps of network re-
liability that are employed by RMR show low sensitivity to node mobility. The RMR
protocol successfully nds routes through reliable and trustworthy regions, avoiding
potentially untrustworthy or compromised regions based on trust management signals
transmitted by the nodes. The results of this chapter indicate that a high packet delivery
ratio and a reasonable average delay can be achieved end-to-end. The RMR proto-
col performs well in high mobility, high density scenarios due to its controlled routing
overhead and spatial approach, and is intended for tactical mobile ad hoc networks.
115
Chapter 4
Conclusions and Future Directions
In this dissertation, we have addressed the challenge of seamless mobility support
for QoS routing in wireless ad hoc networks. The results of our work suggest that
the spatial approach to node mobility provides a powerful tool for QoS support in high-
mobility scenarios. In particular, we considered the implications of applying this idea to
solve the problem of delay-optimized routing in Chapter 2, and the problem of reliable
and trustworthy routing in Chapter 3.
The novel design framework in Chapter 2 enables delay-aware routing in high-
mobility, dense wireless networks. The requirement of combinatorial stability [19]
is essential for providing quality of service (QoS) in any distributed network. Combi-
natorial stability means that the rate of topology changes that affect routing should be
sufciently slow so that the QoS estimates remain valid long enough to be used by the
application. Therefore, if a QoS routing protocol is node-centric (i.e., if the routes
are constructed as chains of nodes), it should keep track of nodes movements and their
116
Chapter 4. Conclusions and Future Directions
link metrics. This is the case for traditional QoS ad hoc routing protocols. In contrast,
we presented a spatial approach to QoS provisioning, where the routing protocol en-
counters node densities instead of individual nodes; that is, we do not care about the
nodes identities; rather, we care only about their presence. In Chapter 2, we showed
that, because the node densities change more slowly than the positions of the nodes
themselves, our spatial framework is combinatorially stable over much longer dura-
tions than the node-centric approach. A network of vehicles traveling in urban areas
and city streets, pedestrians walking in shopping malls, museums, and campus areas
are examples of networks with this characteristic.
To quantify the temporal changes of the spatial network variables, such as node
density and trafc patterns, in Chapter 2, we extended the denition of coherence
time (which was rst dened in [23]) of the network variables. By denition, the -
coherence time of a network variable is the maximum time interval during which that
variable does not deviate by more than from its expected value. We further used
the notion of -coherence time and derived an upper bound on the variations of spatial
congestion
1
and proved that, if the node density and generated trafc remain roughly
constant with respect to time, the local delay map of the network remains roughly con-
stant. More importantly, we showed that, if the routing patterns (i.e., the end-to-end
1
We called the set of the spatially attributed congestion metrics the congestion map or equivalently
the local delay map.
117
spatial paths of the packets) do not change
2
, the spatially attributed end-to-end routing
delay
3
remains roughly invariant for the time period that the congestion map is roughly
invariant. Finally, one of the key contributions of Chapter 2 is an end-to-end delay
estimation algorithm named path integration. The path integration theorem (Theo-
rem 2 in Chapter 2) states that the expected value of the spatial end-to-end delay can
be approximated by adding up the local delay map values along a given spatial route
that the packets traverse. We note that, to achieve an accurate estimation of end-to-end
delay, we need to ascertain that the routes do not change abruptly during the course of
statistical measurements and estimation. Therefore, a safe choice of routing protocol
is geographic routing, where the routes are selected as chains of contiguous regions.
More importantly, this novel idea gives the routing protocol the ability to exploit the
local delay map of the network to avoid congested areas, thus reaching a better delay
performance and capacity. This is the key motivation and fundamental building block
of the Delay Map based QoS Routing (DMQR) protocol presented in the second part
of Chapter 2.
The contribution of this dissertation in Chapter 2 is not limited to the mathematical
framework of the space-centric approach. We also developed DMQR, a congestion-
aware routing protocol that utilizes the spatial maps of network congestion to enable
2
This means that each packet travels the same geographical path from its source to its destination,
which requires that the transport of the packet with the nodes (a.k.a. message ferrying) is not signicant.
3
Similar to the denition of congestion maps, the end-to-end delay map of the network is the set of
the average end-to-end delay of the packets for each cell of the deployment region.
118
delay-optimized routing over high-density mobile multi-hop wireless networks. We ad-
dressed the technical challenges of designing a routing protocol based on our approach.
As such, the main procedures of the DMQR protocol are those that aid the protocol
make use of the space-centric framework and include:
Congestion map construction and dissemination: Anovel aspect of the DMQR
protocol is the construction and dissemination of the congestion map, using lo-
cal delay measurements by different nodes, at different times and locations. We
developed a distributed algorithm which gives the routing protocol the ability
to approximate accurately the local delay map of the network with a minimum
amount of dissemination overhead by rening the local measurements.
Call admission control: The DMQR protocol is provided with a statistical call
admission control (CAC) algorithm that is run on the node initiating the data
session prior to the routing. The admission decisions of this CAC algorithm are
based on the end-to-end delay estimates given by the path integration algorithm.
Spatial path selection: The output of the path selection algorithm points to the
next cell along the optimal path. This delay optimized path is determined by
running a shortest path algorithm over a network graph that is weighted by the
values of the congestion map.
119
Neighbor discovery: The DMQR protocol maintains an up-to-date database of
the neighboring nodes by using periodic Hello packets. This database is used for
fast forwarding of the data packets along the reactively discovered optimal path.
In the last section of Chapter 2, we validated the proposed mathematical framework
and evaluated the performance of the DMQR protocol in a realistic simulation set-up.
The simulation results of that section show that DMQR is a scalable routing protocol
that achieves low latency and high packet delivery ratio in a high-density mobile wire-
less network. The scalability of the DMQR protocol results from the fact that its routing
overhead increases linearly with the number of nodes, while the majority of traditional
proactive and reactive routing protocols encounter exponential overhead increase in the
same scenario.
The applicability of the presented space-centric approach for delay optimization is
not limited to the DMQR protocol. The spatial approaches to modeling of wireless
networks has become increasingly more relevant for the dense, high mobility complex
wireless networks [87]. Therefore, the main idea of examining node mobility as a
whole and basing the planning decisions on the node density behavior of the network,
can provide the required tools to move towards seamless mobility in such networks.
For instance, for the challenge of multihop extensions to cellular networks, instead of
xed and expensive relay stations, we can think of optimal relay regions within which
the nodes relay the data packets with roughly the same performance.
120
The future directions for research in this area include incorporating other QoS met-
rics such as throughput to provide multi-objective routing based on the application and
system requirements. In wireless networks, channel occupancy time and transmission
power are two fundamental resources. Here, the trade off is that the supported data rate
increases as the transmission power or the channel occupancy time increases. However,
this increase comes at the high price of interference with other nodes in the network,
thus preventing them from using the channel occupancy time, and the power resources.
The challenge of throughput guarantees in ad hoc networks is that (1) unlike delay
and energy, throughput is not an additive metric; therefore, some extensions to the
analytical model that was presented in this dissertation are essential. (2) In multihop
networks, the wireless packet transmission can cause interference over a much greater
radius than the transmission range of the nodes. For example, in 802.11 networks, the
interference region of a node is approximately equal to its carrier sensing range, which
is 2 - 2.5 times the transmission range [88]. Therefore, the node-centric approaches to
bandwidth reservation and throughput guarantees are more sensitive to node mobility
than those of delay and energy.
Cooperative communication and network coding have shown promising results in
the past few years [8991]. However, similar to the traditional node-centric protocols,
these approaches are sensitive to node mobility as cooperation requires enough stability
in the medium to reach its promise. Hence, another future research opportunity is to
121
consider the implications of spatial cooperation and network coding between different
regions of the network. We can think of this idea as virtual diversity between the areas
in the deployment region. This method can potentially handle higher node mobilities,
considering that every node that enters a certain region would react similarly to the
behavior of the other nodes in that region according to what is recommended by the
spatial cooperation algorithm.
In the second part of this dissertation, we turned our attention to the problem of
reliable routing in tactical mobile ad hoc networks. Tactical MANETs differ from their
commercial counterparts in their security requirements, lack of centralized arbitration,
and, most importantly, dynamic topology changes due to node mobility. The novel
routing design framework in Chapter 3 enables reliable and trustworthy routing in high-
mobility tactical networks. In this chapter, rst, we dened the spatial reliability in
a MANET as a directional eld between adjacent patches of space (called cells).
This spatial reliability function reects the probability of nding a relay node in a cell
given that there is a need to route a packet from its adjacent cell. We showed that it is
possible to estimate efciently this spatial reliability function by counting the number
of nodes in each cell and using appropriate statistical tools. Furthermore, we showed
that the end-to-end reliability of a geographic route between any two locations can be
written as a directional product of these local reliability estimates along the spatial path
from the source to the destination. In this set-up, the end-to-end routes encounter node
122
densities which, as we showed via simulation, change more slowly than the positions
of the nodes themselves. Hence, we can provide end-to-end reliability guarantees that
are valid over longer durations than the node-centric reliable routing approaches.
Similarly, we developed a spatial trust metric for a patch of space to construct a
spatial trust map of the network. In measuring spatial trust, we used monitoring-based
trust management that makes observations on possible environmental risks (such as
enemy contact) and networking attacks (such as denial of service (DoS), and intrusion).
We noted that a regions being potentially untrustworthy is different from a regions
being unreliable. In the latter case, if a packet is sent into the region, the packet is
simply dropped, but in the former case, the packet might be compromised. The routing
measure that we developed in Chapter 3 reects this difference and avoids sending the
data packets through untrustworthy regions.
Based on this innovative view of network reliability and trust, we developed the
Reliability Map Routing (RMR) protocol that reactively discovers routes over spatial
regions whose local reliability and spatial trust metrics are distributed throughout the
network via a fast dissemination algorithm. Similar to the DMQR protocol of Chap-
ter 2, the RMR protocol is equipped with the following procedures:
Reliability Map Measurement, Estimation, and Dissemination: A novel as-
pect of the RMR protocol is the construction of the reliability map using local
observations made by the nodes. The main design challenge of this procedure
123
originates from the interdependency of the measurements, the estimation of the
local reliability function and the dissemination of the reliability maps. We ad-
dressed this issue by splitting these tasks into three separate procedures that run
concurrently on every node while each of them provide the information that is
required for the others to function.
Reliable/Trustworthy Path Discovery: The RMR protocol presents an elegant
method of discovering reliable routes while avoiding untrustworthy regions. In
addition to the local reliability estimates, this procedure builds a real-time neigh-
bor database that is available for one hop to enhance the reliability of the path
selection. Furthermore, it adopts a two fold algorithm to avoid possible routing
loops which are common in geographic routing schemes.
Neighbor Node Lookup Table: Similar to the DMQR protocol, RMR maintains
an up-to-date lookup table of the neighboring nodes for fast forwarding of the
data packets along the reactively discovered optimal path.
Reliable Geocast Routing: Another distinguishing feature of the RMR protocol
is its capability to deliver the data packets to a set of destinations identied by
their geographical locations (geocast region).
In the second part of Chapter 3, we described detailed simulations of the RMR
protocol in a difcult terrain with many holes. Our simulations, which are based on
124
a realistic mobility model for tactical networks, indicate that the spatial maps of net-
work reliability show low sensitivity to node mobility. As desired, the RMR protocol
routes through reliable and trustworthy regions, avoiding potentially untrustworthy or
compromised areas.
One of the broader impacts of our design paradigm in Chapter 3 is that it can pro-
vide us with a solution to the combinatorial stability problem of tactical mobile ad hoc
networks, where there are mountains or other obstacles in the deployment region. Note
that, in military tactical networks, the transmission range should be kept as low as pos-
sible to decrease the possibility of eavesdropping and observability by the enemy. This
requirement would make multihop routing more challenging in the presence of node
mobility. Hence, our spatial solution for mobility support would confer signicant ad-
vantages to a military tactical network.
As we showed in Chapter 3 suggest, the RMR protocol performs very well in the
medium to high density regime. However, it is not advantageous for sparse scenarios
where the node-centric protocols perform slightly better. The reason is that our space-
centric approach to reliable routing requires that we split the deployment region into
patches of space, i.e., cells. This structure is assumed as a grid of cells with xed
dimensions, as discussed in Chapter 3, so the node density becomes very small in each
cell in the sparse regime. Therefore, a future improvement to this framework can be
dynamic adaptation of the size of the regions, as shown in Fig. 4.1. The idea here is
125
1 0 2
Figure 4.1: Cell size adaptation idea: the regions can vary and change dynamically in
size, depending on the node density in the network.
that the nodes within a cell can increase the size of their region (merge the cells) when
the node density of their surrounding region is not high enough to maintain reliable
communication with neighboring cells. Increasing the size of a cell requires an increase
in transmission power (and results in an increase in interference), but can increase the
ability to communicate and, thus, result in a greater packet delivery ratio. Similarly, the
nodes within a cell can decrease the size of their cell (by splitting the cell) when the
node density of is high. Decreasing the size of a cell decreases the required transmission
power (and possibly decreases the interference) and also decreases observability by the
enemy. The major requirement of this proposal is that adapting the size of the region
should operate locally and in a distributed fashion (i.e., without any centralized control).
There is another scenario in the military tactical networks that requires attention
as a future extension to our spatial approach. Assume that the military units are not
126
able to increase their transmission range because of observability/detectability reasons
or power limitation. In this scenario the above cell size adaptation idea does not aid
us in achieving the required reliability in the sparse operation regimes. It is also plau-
sible that the overhead or convergence time of the cell adaptation algorithm becomes
too high in very sparse regions of the network. Consequently, we can think of a hy-
brid framework that specializes to the space-centric view of the network in the high
node density, high-mobility regions, and at the same time switches to the node-centric
view of network communication in the sparse regions. The switch between these two
operation states can be made based on only local information and the reliability map
of the network. Hence, the nodes in the low-density regions can automatically switch
to a node-centric approach of node discovery while nodes in the high-density regions
can use the space-centric protocol, and these different parts of the network (which can
change dynamically) should connect seamlessly with each other. We note that the node-
centric route discovery (possibly using route request broadcasts) is only required to
reach a space-centric region of the network and not all the way to the destination; at
which point the routing protocol resumes the spatial routing. This method will limit the
broadcast domain of the route requests/replies to the sparse regions and substantially
decreases the routing overhead. Fig. 4.2 illustrates this idea and shows how each part
of the network can switch on-demand, locally, based on local node density and node
trafc, and still connect seamlessly with other parts of the network.
127
Figure 4.2: Node-centric and space-centric hybrid operation idea: the sparse regions in
the right side of the gure adopt a node centric routing protocol until the packets reach
the space-centric enabled areas.
In conclusion, the results of this dissertation indicate that the space-centric approach
to routing, provides a powerful tool to attack the combinatorial stability problem of
high-mobility ad hoc networks. The introduced routing protocols (DMQR and RMR)
that are based on this approach are able to deliver QoS guarantees (delay, reliability,
and trust) with controlled overhead. These characteristics make this approach a unique
candidate for seamless mobility support in mobile ad hoc networks.
128
Bibliography
[1] Global ICT developments: drawn from ITUs world telecommunication/ICT
indicators database, http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/ict/index.html, Dec.
2007.
[2] Wireless intelligence - analysis: Global mobile connections surpass 5
billion milestone, http://www.wirelessintelligence.com/analysis/2010/07/global-
mobile-connections-surpass-5-billion-milestone, July 2010.
[3] CTIA semi-annual wireless industry survey: U.S. wireless quick facts,
http://www.ctia.org/advocacy/research/, June 2010.
[4] N. Golmie, Seamless mobility: are we there yet? IEEE Wireless Communica-
tions, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 1213, Aug. 2009.
[5] C. Makaya and S. Pierre, An architecture for seamless mobility support in IP-
Based next-generation wireless networks, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Tech-
nology, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 1209 1225, Mar. 2008.
[6] U. Madhow, Fundamentals of Digital Communication. Cambridge, UK: Cam-
bridge University Press, 2008.
[7] S. C. Yang, OFDMA System Analysis and Design. Norwood, MA USA: Artech
House, 2010.
[8] A. R. S. Bahai, B. R. Saltzberg, and M. Ergen, Multi-carrier Digital Communi-
cations: Theory And Applications Of OFDM. New York, NY USA: Springer,
2004.
[9] E. Biglieri, R. Calderbank, A. Constantinides, A. Goldsmith, A. Paulraj, and H. V.
Poor, MIMO Wireless Communications. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press, 2010.
129
Bibliography
[10] C. Cicconetti, L. Lenzini, E. Mingozzi, and C. Vallati, Reducing power consump-
tion with QoS constraints in IEEE 802.16e wireless networks, IEEE Transactions
on Mobile Computing, vol. 9, no. 7, pp. 1008 1021, July 2010.
[11] Y. Zhang, Y. Xiao, and V. Leung, Energy management analysis and enhancement
in IEEE 802.16e WirelessMAN, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology,
vol. 58, no. 7, pp. 3738 3752, Sept. 2009.
[12] K. Ghaboosi, M. Latva-aho, Y. Xiao, and Q. Zhang, eMAC - a medium-access
control protocol for the next-generation ad hoc networks, IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology, vol. 58, no. 8, pp. 4476 4490, Oct. 2009.
[13] C. So-In, R. Jain, and A.-K. Tamimi, Scheduling in IEEE 802.16e mobile
WiMAX networks: key issues and a survey, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas
in Communications, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 156 171, Feb. 2009.
[14] M. Wang and T. Ji, Dynamic resource allocation for interference management
in orthogonal frequency division multiple access cellular communications, IET
Communications, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 675 682, Apr. 2010.
[15] H. Tung, K. Tsang, L. Lee, and K. Ko, QoS for mobile WiMAX networks: Call
admission control and bandwidth allocation, in Proceedings of 5th IEEE Con-
sumer Communications and Networking Conference, Jan. 2008, pp. 576 580.
[16] S. Ray, K. Pawlikowski, and H. Sirisena, Handover in mobile WiMAX networks:
The state of art and research issues, IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials,
vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 376 399, 2010.
[17] R. Y. Kim, I. Jung, X. Yang, and C.-C. Chou, Advanced handover schemes in
IMT-Advanced systems [WiMAX/LTE update], IEEE Communications Maga-
zine, vol. 48, no. 8, pp. 78 85, Aug. 2010.
[18] M. Kassar, B. Kervella, and G. Pujolle, An overview of vertical handover deci-
sion strategies in heterogeneous wireless networks, Computer Communications,
vol. 31, no. 10, pp. 2607 2620, June 2008.
[19] A. Mishra, Security and Quality of Service in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks. New
York, NY USA: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
[20] L. Chen and W. Heinzelman, A survey of routing protocols that support QoS in
mobile ad hoc networks, IEEE Network, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 3038, Nov.-Dec.
2007.
130
Bibliography
[21] L. Hanzo-II and R. Tafazolli, A survey of QoS routing solutions for mobile ad
hoc networks, IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 50 70,
2007.
[22] C.-H. Lin, S.-A. Yuan, S.-W. Chiu, and M.-J. Tsai, Progressface: An algorithm
to improve routing efciency of GPSR-like routing protocols in wireless ad hoc
networks, IEEE Transactions on Computers, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 822834, June
2010.
[23] M. K. Park and V. Rodoplu, Energy maps for mobile wireless networks: Co-
herence time versus spreading period, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing,
vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 778791, June 2009.
[24] ITU-R Rep. M.2134, Requirements related to technical performance for IMT-
Advanced radio interface(s).
[25] S. K. Sarkar, T. G. Basavaraju, and C. Puttamadappa, Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless
Networks: Principles, Protocols and Applications. Boca Raton, FL USA: Auer-
bach Publications, 2008.
[26] M. Preuss and S. Thomas, Wireless, mesh & ad hoc networks; military convoy
location and situation awareness, in Proceedings of IEEE Sarnoff Symposium,
Apr. 2008, pp. 15.
[27] R. Hall, An improved geocast for mobile ad hoc networks, IEEE Transactions
on Mobile Computing, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 254266, Feb. 2011.
[28] X. J. Li, B.-C. Seet, and P. H. J. Chong, Multihop cellular networks: Technology
and economics, Computer Networks, vol. 52, no. 9, pp. 18251837, June 2008.
[29] K. Loa, C.-C. Wu, S.-T. Sheu, Y. Yuan, M. Chion, D. Huo, and L. Xu, IMT-
advanced relay standards [WiMAX/LTE update], IEEE Communications Maga-
zine, vol. 48, no. 8, pp. 40 48, Aug. 2010.
[30] S. Peters and R. Heath, The future of WiMAX: Multihop relaying with IEEE
802.16j, Communications Magazine, IEEE, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 104111, Jan.
2009.
[31] Y. Yang, H. Hu, J. Xu, and G. Mao, Relay technologies for WiMax and LTE-
advanced mobile systems, Communications Magazine, IEEE, vol. 47, no. 10, pp.
100105, Oct. 2009.
131
Bibliography
[32] R. Schoenen, Multihop extensions to cellular networks the benet of relaying
for LTE, in Long Term Evolution: 3GPP LTE Radio and Cellular Technology,
B. Furht and S. A. Ahson, Eds. Auerbach Publications, 2009, pp. 265303.
[33] H. Fathi, S. S. Chakraborty, and R. Prasad, Voice over IP in Wireless Heteroge-
neous Networks. Netherlands: Springer, 2009.
[34] Y. Wu1, K. Yang, and H.-H. Chen, QoS aware routing in heterogeneouswireless
access networks, in Heterogeneous Wireless Access Networks, E. Hossain, Ed.
Springer, 2009, pp. 127.
[35] W. He, K. Nahrstedt, and X. Liu, End-to-end delay control of multimedia appli-
cations over multihop wireless links, ACM Transactions on Multimedia Comput-
ing, Communications, and Applications, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 120, Nov. 2008.
[36] K.-C. Wang and P. Ramanathan, End-to-end delay assurances in multihop wire-
less local area networks, in Proceedings of IEEE Global Communication Con-
ference, Dec. 2003.
[37] D. Jiang, H. Wang, and X. Che, Uplink VoIP performance in E-UTRAN TDD
mode, in Proceedings of IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference, May 2008, pp.
24822486.
[38] F. Wang, A. Ghosh, C. Sankaran, P. Fleming, F. Hsieh, and S. Benes, Mobile
WiMAX systems: performance and evolution, IEEE Communications Magazine,
vol. 46, no. 10, pp. 4149, Oct. 2008.
[39] S. Shin and H. Schulzrinne, Measurement and analysis of the VoIP capacity in
IEEE 802.11 WLAN, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, vol. 8, no. 9, pp.
12651279, Sept. 2009.
[40] M. Andrews and L. Zhang, Satisfying arbitrary delay requirements in multihop
networks, in Proceedings of IEEE The 27th Conference on Computer Communi-
cations, Apr. 2008, pp. 116120.
[41] S. Ganguly, V. Navda, K. Kim, A. Kashyap, D. Niculescu, R. Izmailov, S. Hong,
and S. Das, Performance optimizations for deploying VoIP services in mesh net-
works, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 24, no. 11, pp.
21472158, Nov. 2006.
[42] Q. Xue and A. Ganz, Ad hoc QoS on-demand routing (AQOR) in mobile ad
hoc networks, Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing, vol. 63, no. 2, pp.
154165, Feb. 2003.
132
Bibliography
[43] Y. Hwang and P. Varshney, An adaptive QoS routing protocol with dispersity
for ad-hoc networks, in Proceedings of the 36th Annual Hawaii International
Conference on System Sciences, Jan. 2003, p. 302a.
[44] H. Badis and K. A. Agha, QOLSR, QoS routing for ad hoc wireless networks
using OLSR, European Transactions on Telecommunications, vol. 16, no. 5, pp.
427442, 2005.
[45] S. Shah and K. Nahrstedt, Predictive location-based QoS routing in mobile ad
hoc networks, in Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Communica-
tions, vol. 2, 2002, pp. 10221027.
[46] S. De, S. K. Das, H. Wu, and C. Qiao, Trigger-based distributed QoS routing in
mobile ad hoc networks, ACM SIGMOBILE Mobile Computing and Communi-
cations Review, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 2235, July 2002.
[47] L. Chen, S. H. Low, M. Chiang, and J. C. Doyle, Cross-layer congestion control,
routing and scheduling design in ad hoc wireless networks, in Proceedings of
25th IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications. INFOCOM,
Apr. 2006, pp. 113.
[48] L. Popa, C. Raiciu, I. Stoica, and D. Rosenblum, Reducing congestion effects
in wireless networks by multipath routing, in Proceedings of 14th IEEE Interna-
tional Conference on Network Protocols, Nov. 2006, pp. 96105.
[49] B. Karp and H. T. Kung, GPSR: greedy perimeter stateless routing for wireless
networks, in Proceedings of the conference on Mobile Computing and Network-
ing, 2000, pp. 243254.
[50] A. Abdrabou and W. Zhuang, Statistical QoS routing for IEEE 802.11 multihop
ad hoc networks, IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 8, no. 3,
pp. 15421552, Mar. 2009.
[51] M. Al-Rabayah and R. Malaney, A high capacity scalable routing protocol for
VoIP in wireless ad hoc networks, in Proceedings of IEEE Wireless Communica-
tions and Networking Conference, Apr. 2010, pp. 16.
[52] O. Tickoo and B. Sikdar, Queueing analysis and delay mitigation in IEEE 802.11
random access MAC based wireless networks, in Proceedings of IEEE Interna-
tional Conference on Computer Communications. INFOCOM, vol. 2, Mar. 2004,
pp. 14041413.
133
Bibliography
[53] L. Dong, Y. Shu, H. Chen, and M. Ma, Packet delay analysis on IEEE 802.11
DCF under nite load trafc in multi-hop ad hoc networks, Science in China
Series F: Information Sciences, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 408416, Apr. 2008.
[54] Q. Zhao, D. Tsang, and T. Sakurai, A simple and approximate model for non-
saturated IEEE 802.11 DCF, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, vol. 8,
no. 11, pp. 15391553, Nov. 2009.
[55] D. Wu and R. Negi, Effective capacity: a wireless link model for support of
quality of service, IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 2, no. 4,
pp. 630643, July 2003.
[56] , Effective capacity-based quality of service measures for wireless net-
works, Mobile Networks and Applications, vol. 11, pp. 9199, Feb. 2006.
[57] V. Rodoplu, S. Vadvalkar, A. A. Gohari, and J. Shynk, Empirical modeling and
estimation of end-to-end VoIP delay over mobile multi-hop wireless networks, in
Proceedings of Global Telecommunications Conference, Dec. 2010.
[58] Location-aided routing (LAR) in mobile ad hoc networks, Wireless Networks,
vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 307321, 2000.
[59] C. E. Perkins, E. M. Belding-Royer, and S. Das, Ad hoc On-Demand Distance
Vector (AODV) Routing, RFC 3561 (Informational), July 2003. [Online].
Available: http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3561.txt
[60] P. Jacquet, P. Muhlethaler, T. Clausen, A. Laouiti, A. Qayyum, and L. Viennot,
Optimized link state routing protocol for ad hoc networks, in Proceedings of the
5th IEEE International Multi Topic Conference, 2001, pp. 6268.
[61] A. Abdrabou and W. Zhuang, Stochastic delay guarantees and statistical call ad-
mission control for IEEE 802.11 single-hop ad hoc networks, IEEE Transactions
on Wireless Communications, vol. 7, no. 10, pp. 39723981, Oct. 2008.
[62] QualNet simulator, http://www.scalable-networks.com.
[63] A. Jardosh, E. Belding, K. Almeroth, and S. Suri, Towards realistic mobility
models for mobile ad hoc networks, in Proceedings of the International Confer-
ence on Mobile Computing and Networking, 2003, pp. 217229.
[64] G. Bianchi, Performance analysis of the IEEE 802.11 distributed coordination
function, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 18, no. 3, pp.
535 547, Mar. 2000.
134
Bibliography
[65] G. Elmasry, A comparative review of commercial vs. tactical wireless networks,
IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 48, Oct. 2010.
[66] P. C. Khuu, R. Ghanadan, J. Hsu, J. Gu, L. Le, B. Loop, G. S. Sadosuk, and M. J.
Weber, Integrating local neighborhood congestion and path stability into QoS
routing for tactical networks, in Proceedings of IEEE Military Communications
Conference, Oct. 2007, pp. 17.
[67] E. Egbogah, A. Fapojuwo, and N. Chan, Scalable team oriented reliable multi-
cast routing protocol for tactical mobile ad hoc networks, in Proceedings of IEEE
Military Communications Conference, Nov. 2008, pp. 17.
[68] Y. Chen and L. Qian, Organization-aware routing in mission critical networks,
in Proceedings of IEEE Military Communications Conference, Oct. 2009, pp. 17.
[69] R.-W. Lee, J. Y. Choi, K. W. Lim, Y.-B. Ko, and B. hee Roh, A reliable and
hybrid multi-path routing protocol for multi-interface tactical ad hoc networks,
in Proceedings of IEEE Military Communications Conference, vol. 1, Nov. 2010,
pp. 15311536.
[70] J. Fang, T. Goff, and G. Pei, Comparison studies of OSPF-MDR, OLSR and
composite routing, in Proceedings of IEEE Military Communications Confer-
ence, vol. 1, Nov. 2010, pp. 11001105.
[71] R. Song and P. C. Mason, ROLSR: A robust optimized link state routing protocol
for military ad-hoc networks, in Proceedings of IEEE Military Communications
Conference, vol. 1, Nov. 2010, pp. 11131121.
[72] L. Qian and Y. P. Chen, Optimized routing in organization-aware multihop wire-
less networks (ORION), in Proceedings of IEEE Military Communications Con-
ference, vol. 1, Nov. 2010, pp. 10521057.
[73] P. Holliday, NOMAD - a mobile ad hoc and disruption tolerant routing protocol
for tactical military networks, in Proceedings of 29th IEEE International Con-
ference on Distributed Computing Systems Workshops, June 2009, pp. 488492.
[74] B. Awerbuch, D. Holmer, H. Rubens, and R. G. Cole, Beacon-based routing for
tactical networks, in Proceedings of IEEE Military Communications Conference,
Oct. 2007, pp. 18.
[75] J. Burbank, P. Chimento, B. Haberman, and W. Kasch, Key challenges of mil-
itary tactical networking and the elusive promise of MANET technology, IEEE
Communications Magazine, vol. 44, no. 11, pp. 3945, Nov. 2006.
135
Bibliography
[76] A. A. Gohari and V. Rodoplu, DMQR: A spatial routing protocol to enable VoIP
over high-mobility wireless multihop networks, in Proceedings of IEEE Globe-
com Workshop on Mobile Computing and Emerging Communication Networks,
Dec. 2010.
[77] C. E. Fossa and T. Macdonald, Internetworking tactical MANETs, in Proceed-
ings of IEEE Military Communications Conference, vol. 1, Nov. 2010, pp. 1034
1039.
[78] Y. Lu, B. Zhou, I. Ku, and M. Gerla, Connectivity improvement for inter-domain
routing in MANETs, in Proceedings of IEEE Military Communications Confer-
ence, vol. 1, Nov. 2010, pp. 10401045.
[79] M. Yu and K. Leung, A trustworthiness-based QoS routing protocol for wireless
ad hoc networks, IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 8, no. 4,
pp. 18881898, Apr. 2009.
[80] J.-H. Cho, A. Swami, and I.-R. Chen, A survey on trust management for mobile
ad hoc networks, IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials, vol. PP, no. 99, pp.
122, 2010.
[81] I. B. Gertsbakh and Y. Shpungin, Models of Network Reliability: Analysis, Com-
binatorics, and Monte Carlo. Boca Raton, FL USA: CRC Press, 2009.
[82] J. L. Cook and J. E. Ramirez-Marquez, Mobility and reliability modeling for a
mobile ad hoc network, IIE Transactions, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 2331, Jan. 2009.
[83] A. A. Gohari, R. Pakbaz, and V. Rodoplu, RMR: Reliability based multi-hop
routing in wireless tactical networks, in Proceedings of IEEE Military Commu-
nications Conference, Nov. 2010, pp. 11061112.
[84] N. L. Johnson, S. Kotz, and N. Balakrishnan, Discrete Multivariate Distributions.
New York, NY USA: Wiley-Interscience, 1997.
[85] P. Velloso, R. Laufer, D. de O Cunha, O. Duarte, and G. Pujolle, Trust manage-
ment in mobile ad hoc networks using a scalable maturity-based model, IEEE
Transactions on Network and Service Management, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 172185,
Sept. 2010.
[86] L. Ning, G. Yan, D. Chao, and W. Jinlong, Diamond group mobility model for
ad hoc network in military, in Proceedings of 9th International Conference on
Signal Processing, Oct. 2008, pp. 27542756.
136
Bibliography
[87] J. Andrews, R. Ganti, M. Haenggi, N. Jindal, and S. Weber, A primer on spatial
modeling and analysis in wireless networks, IEEE Communications Magazine,
vol. 48, no. 11, pp. 156 163, Nov. 2010.
[88] L. Chen and W. Heinzelman, QoS-aware routing based on bandwidth estimation
for mobile ad hoc networks, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications,
vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 561 572, Mar. 2005.
[89] K. J. R. Liu, A. K. Sadek, W. Su, and A. Kwasinski, Cooperative Communications
and Networking. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
[90] J. Yackoski, L. Zhang, C.-C. Shen, L. Cimini, and B. Gui, Networking with co-
operative communications: Holistic design and realistic evaluation, IEEE Com-
munications Magazine, vol. 47, no. 8, pp. 113 119, Aug. 2009.
[91] M. Medard and A. Sprintson, Network Coding: Fundamentals and Applications.
San Fransisco, CA USA: Academic Press, 2011.
137

Delay Reliability and Trust in MANETs

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Delay Reliability and Trust in MANETs

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

)}. Then, > 0,

= 0}. Furthermore, let

be any two nodes, that are selected from the sets

. Therefore, Lemma 1 implies that

of L contiguous cells. To simplify the notation, we refer to C

denote the number of groups that visit only C

denote the number of groups that visit both C

. In other words, for any two adjacent

are bivariate Poisson processes

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen