Sie sind auf Seite 1von 205

ASTRONOMY COACHES HANDBOOK

TABLE OF CONTENTS


Part I Rationale and Correlation to National Standards.3-4
Introduction to Astronomy Teaching Guide... 5

Part II Deep Sky Objects (DSOs)
How to Search and Organize Images and Information... 6
How and What to Study . 7
Practice Questions with Answers 7
Materials on CD-ROM and Additional Internet Resources 8

Multiwavelength Images
How and What to Study..... 9
Practice Questions with Answers10
Materials on CD-ROM and Additional Internet Resources11

Spectroscopy & Spectra
Electromagnetic Radiation... 12-13
Black Body Radiation & the Radiation Laws.. 13-14
Spectral Classifications & Spectra....14-16
Stellar Bar Code Classification Activity...17-21
Practice Questions with Answers.. 21
A Stellar Classification Activity22-36
Materials on CD-ROM and Additional Internet Resources... 37

Stellar Evolution
Introduction to Stellar Evolution & the H-R Diagram......38-42
Proto-stars and T-Tauri Stars.. 43-44
Brown Dwarfs and Low Mass Stars 44-45
Mid-Size Stars, Planetary Nebulae & White Dwarfs.. 45-46
White Dwarfs & Type Ia Supernovae..46-47
Massive Stars & Type II Supernovae.. 47-50
Neutron Stars, Pulsars, Magnetars & Black Holes...50-53
Chandra X-Ray Observatory and Stellar Evolution.54-58
How and What to Study 59
Practice Questions with Answers 60-62
Materials on CD-ROM and Additional Internet Resources.. 63

Variable Stars & Light Curves
Cepheid Variable Stars.. 64
Light Curve Plots of Magnitude & Julian Day .64-66
RR Lyrae & Mira Variable Stars.. 66-67
Cataclysmic Variable Stars.67
Eclipsing Binary Stars & Phase Diagrams... 68-69
How and What to Study. 70
Practice Questions with Answers..71-79
Materials on CD-ROM and Additional Internet Resources..80-81

1


AAVSO Citizen Sky Project..82-86

H-R Diagrams
Introduction to the H-R Diagram 87-89
Stellar Evolution on the H-R Diagram 89-91
Spectra and the H-R Diagram92
Globular Clusters, Luminosity and the H-R Diagram.....93-94
How and What to Study..... 95-97
Practice Questions with Answers.. 98-108
Materials on CD-ROM and Additional Internet Resources.109

Cosmological Distances
Parallax.... 110
Spectroscopic Parallax..110-111
RR Lyrae and Cepheid Variables (The Distance Modulus). 111-112
Type Ia Supernovae..113
Tully-Fisher Relationship. 113-114
Hubble's Law.114
How and What to Study.....115-116
Practice Questions with Answers...116-118
Materials on CD-ROM and Additional Internet Resources..119

Part III Mathematical Equations & Relationships
Important Equations.. 120-121
Derivations and Sample Problems.. 122-131

Part IV DS9 Image Analysis Software
DS9 Tutorial ......132-143
DS9 Investigations 3-Color Composites.144-147
DS9 Investigations Star Formation & U/HLXs ..148-155
DS9 Investigations Estimating Ages of Supernova Remnants156-166
DS9 Investigations Supernova Remnants & Spectroscopy.....167-192
DS9 Investigations Analyzing Two Pulsating X-ray Sources..193-204

Part V Resources. 205

Permission is granted by the Chandra X-Ray Center (CXC), the American
Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO), and Donna L Young for the use
of the activities and materials included in this Coaches Handbook.

ASTRONOMY COACHES HANDBOOK
Written by
Donna L Young, Chandra E/PO Office, SAO, Cambridge, MA
National Astronomy Event Supervisor donna.young@tufts.edu

ds9 Activities written by Pamela Perry, Lewiston HS, Lewiston, ME
tangerine_reflections@yahoo.com
Derivations and Sample Problems contributed by Dustin Schroeder,
Co-National Astronomy Event Supervisor dschroed@gmail.com

2



Rationale:
Approximately 15 billion years ago the space and time we call the universe came into
existence, along with hydrogen, helium, and lithium. During the first 10 billion years
galaxies were formed and stars were born. Many generations of massive stars underwent
catastrophic core collapse and left behind supernovae remnants, neutron stars, pulsars and
black holes. Elements heavier than lithium were synthesized during this process. Before
the final collapse, these massive stars fused hydrogen to helium to carbon, oxygen,
silicon, sulfur and iron. Elements heavier than iron were produced in the outer envelopes
of the stars during the supernovae explosions and the resulting shock waves from the core
collapse. The shockwaves traveled through the remnants, carrying the heavier elements
from the interior of the star into the surrounding interstellar medium, enriching the
medium with the newly created elements. The interstellar medium - the gas and dust
between the stars - provided the raw materials for the formation of a new generation of
stars. Some five billion years ago, the shockwave from a local galactic neighborhood
supernova event triggered the beginning of the collapse of a cloud of gas and dust into the
stellar nursery that gave birth to our Sun and the Solar System.

Supernovae explosions, white dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes and all celestial events
are governed by the same laws of physics that describe motions on Earth, and through
nucleosynthesis create the elements that we study in chemistry. The residue of the
maelstrom of stellar cycles of life and death is incorporated into the molecular structure
of every life form on this planet. The ground we walk on, the objects we touch,
everything we see - contains elements that were created during the death of massive stars.
Astronomy is the study of physics, chemistry, biology, and Earth science over immense
scales of space and time.

A major focus of the NASA enterprise is the study of the structure and evolution of the
universe. The goals for the program include forecasting our cosmic destiny,
understanding when and where elements are created, exploring the cycles of matter and
energy in the evolving universe, and examining the limits of extreme gravity and energy.
These goals are supported by the National Research Council science education standards
and the Benchmarks for Science Literacy. Unifying concepts and processes supported by
these standards include how we use technology to observe and measure evolution and
cycles in both small-scale and large-scale systems. More specifically, high school
students should have some understanding of current theories of the origin and evolution
of the Earth system and the universe. This event is constructed so students can gain an
understanding of the life cycles of stars, and an appreciation of the evolutionary processes
that are shaping this breathtakingly elegant universe that we call home.

Benchmarks for Science Literacy: The Physical Setting: Grades 9 through 12

Benchmarks states that this is the time when concepts from physics, chemistry,
mathematical ways of thinking, and ideas about the role of technology in exploring the
universe should contribute to an understanding of the character of the universe. The role
of gravity in forming and maintaining planets, stars, and the solar system should become
clear, as well as large numbers and distances - and why light is used to measure
cosmological distances. Specifically, students should know:



3





Stars differ from each other in size, temperature, and age; however are composed of the
same elements and behave according to the same physical principles.
The universe, consisting of all energy, matter and time, expanded explosively into
existence ~15 billions years ago. Stars condensed by gravity and the fusion of lighter
elements into heavier elements began, releasing enormous amounts of energy.
Eventually stars exploded and collapsed, producing heavy elements that later allowed
other stars, planets, and life to form. The process of star formation and destruction is
an endlessly repeating cycle.
Increasingly sophisticated technology is used to learn about the universe. Optical, radio,
ultraviolet, infrared, x-ray and gamma telescopes and observatories collect information
from the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Computers and image analysis software have
become increasingly efficient in interpreting and transforming information from photons
to images and information about the chemistry and physics of stars.

National Research Council National Science Education Standards: Grades 9-12

Students should have an understanding of the fundamental concepts and principles of:
Content Standard B:
The structure of atoms and elements and the nuclear forces that hold them together.
The enormous release of energy from fusion at high pressures and temperatures.
Chemical reactions are either endothermic (absorb energy) or exothermic (release
energy).
Gravitation is a universal force between two masses that is directly proportional to the
two masses and inversely proportional to the distance between them. Electrical forces
have the same relationship of proportionality as gravity.
Electromagnetic radiation in the form of photons is comprised of alternating electric and
magnetic fields which self-propagate through the near vacuum of space, contain energy,
and transfer that energy when they interact with matter.
Electromagnetic waves result when electrons change motion or move from higher to
lower energy levels within an atom. The energy of the radiation produced is inversely
proportional to the wavelength. Electromagnetic waves include radio, microwave,
infrared, optical, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma rays.
Content Standard D:
How the universe evolved from the Big Bang to its present day structure.
How the early elements hydrogen and helium became clumped together by gravitation
to form trillions of stars, and billions of gravitationally bound stars became bound into
galaxies which now contain most of the visible mass of the universe.
The fusion of hydrogen and helium in stars produce the nuclear energy which leads to
the formation of all other elements.
Content Standard E:
Many scientific investigations require the contributions of individuals from different
disciplines, including engineering. New disciplines, such as astrobiology, often emerge
at the interface of two old disciplines.
Science advances with new technologies. New technology often expands scientific
understanding and leads to new areas of research.



4


INTRODUCTION TO ASTRONOMY

The Study Guide Format: The content has been organized into different topics with a
specific focus so the content can be studied one section at a time. The topics include:

Deep Sky Objects (DSO's): How to search, save and organize the DSO images, what
information about the images is important to know, and how to study the images.

Multiwavelength Images: Why images of the deep sky objects should be studied in
several wavelengths, and what stellar processes are responsible for producing the
different wavelengths of radio, infrared, optical, ultraviolet, and x-ray.

Stellar Evolution: The stages of evolution from birth through death for the different
types of stars, including brown dwarfs, red dwarfs, mid-sized stars, massive and super-
massive stars - and their end products, including white dwarfs, planetary nebulae, red
giants, red supergiants, supernovae remnants, pulsars, neutron stars, and black holes.

Variable Stars & Light Curves: The different types of variable stars, including
eclipsing binaries, Cepheids, RR Lyrae and Mira periodic variables, and cataclysmic
variables - and the signature light curves produced by each type of variable star.

AAVSO Citizen Sky Project: Resource materials, activities, and software to participate
in a public observing campaign for the intriguing variable Epsilon Aurigae;
the American Association of Variable Star Observers and amateur observations.

Spectroscopy & Spectra: The origin of electromagnetic radiation, and how the analysis
of the resulting stellar spectra and the radiation laws - Planck's law and blackbody
radiation, Wien's law, and Stefan-Boltzmann's law - are used to classify stars and
determine physical properties.

H-R Diagrams: How to use the graphical plot of absolute magnitude versus stellar
classification to determine the mass, age, chemical composition, temperature, and
evolutionary stage of individual stellar objects - as well as the age, type, and evolutionary
history of open clusters and globular clusters.

Cosmological Distances: The specific methods of measuring distances of near-by stars
and deep sky objects - including stars, globular clusters, galaxies, and quasars - with
parallax, spectroscopic parallax, the distance modulus, planetary nebulae, Type Ia
supernovae, the Tully-Fisher relationship and Hubble's law.

Mathematical Equations & Relationships: The important equations and relationships,
including derivations and re-arranging of variables, and the types of problems and
situations that use each type of equation.

DS9 Image Analysis Software: Activities and tutorials on how to access, download and
learn to use the DS9 image analysis software; access the Chandra X-ray archive for
variable stars, supernova remnants, galaxies; develop research projects.

Folders: Folders located on the CD-ROM include image sets from selected topic areas
and past national and state Astronomy C events to use as study materials.


5



Deep Sky Objects (DSOs)

The selection of DSO's represents a variety of stages of stellar evolution. Students should
have a good knowledge of where each object fits into the stellar cycle, and what the
image looks like in several wavelengths, i.e. radio, infrared (IR), ultraviolet (UV), optical
and X-ray. Using Cas A as an example, the best way to gather the necessary information
about the deep sky objects is as follows:

1) Go to the Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD) website:
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/astropix.html
At the bottom of the page click on search and when the search page comes up
enter the word Cas A and hit return. The following page opens up:
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/apod/apod_search?CAS+A
This page contains only two different images of Cas A. Each image has a brief
description with many links highlighted. In reading through the information, it
can be determined that Cas A is a shortened form of the complete name of the
object Cassiopeia A. Anytime there is more than one nomenclature for an object
search for that name also. At the bottom of the page click return to search page.
Enter the word Cassiopeia A and another page opens up with more images of
Cas A.

2) Create a desktop folder for DSO Images. Right click on each image of Cas A
and save them to the folder. Name each image for the wavelength it was observed
in, i.e. Cas A radio, Cas A X-ray. Read the descriptions on the APOD website,
and follow the links to other sites. List the most important information about Cas
A, which should include:
Cas A is the result of the catastrophic core collapse of a massive star
Cas A is a type II supernova remnant with a neutron star in its center.
the remnant is located in the constellation of Cassiopeia
Cas A is a strong radio source
Additional Images of Cas A, including composite images:
images of Cas A in many wavelengths. The images saved from APOD
are x-ray and optical - go to http://chandra.harvard.edu/ and click on
Photo Album at the top of the page. This categorizes all Chandra images by
type. Click on supernovas & SNR (SNR is an abbreviation for SuperNova
Remnant.) Scroll down until you get to the first image of Cassiopeia A. Click
on the image. At the bottom of the page there are two headings labeled More
Information on Cas A and Related Chandra Images. This will give you more
images of Cas A. Save images in radio, infrared, optical and X-ray.

3) The DSO Image folder now contains several multiwavelength images of Cas A.
Create a subfolder called Cas A and move all the saved Cas A images to the
subfolder. Create a different subfolder for each DSO listed in the Astronomy
event description in the Science Olympiad Student Manual for the current
national competition year. Follow the same procedure described above to search
and save a variety of images and information.



6





4) Knowing the DSO's is important - the answers relating to identification and
knowledge about these objects carries the highest weight and are used for
breaking ties. Learn one deep sky object at a time. Make up a set of study cards
for the Cas A images. Either electronically arrange them all in a word document
or PowerPoint slides, or print them out and paste them onto index cards. On the
back of each image list the following information: name, location, wavelength,
and type. For Cas A the information would be: Cas A, Cassiopeia, wavelength
varies by image (i.e. optical, x-ray, radio etc.), Type II supernova. Practice with
Cas A until you feel familiar with the object and comfortable about recognizing it.
HINT: rotate the images so you can recognize them in any orientation. A sample
flash card set for Cas A in PowerPoint format is included on the CD-ROM.

If you are not familiar with the constellation of Cassiopeia, you can include
images of the constellation also as part of the flash cards. Constellations that are
easily recognizable do not include the lines; difficult to recognize constellations
always have the lines drawn in for national competition. A good website which
has real constellation images is listed below under Additional Internet
Resources. The constellations can be displayed either with or without lines.

5) Some sample identification questions involving the Cas A image are presented. It
is difficult to devise questions on a single image - especially when they are black
and white and not in color - this is only meant to give a general idea of the types
of questions that are asked. More comprehensive sets of questions are provided in
the Additional Examples of Previous State and National Events section.
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10

Using the image set above, answer the following questions:
Image 10 is Cas A. 1. What type of object is it? ______ 2. Cas A is strongest in what
wavelength? ______ 3. Which image shows Cas A in this wavelength? ______
4. Which image shows the location of Cas A? ______ 5. Which image shows an
object that represents the evolutionary stage prior to Cas A? ______ 6. What type of
stellar end product is in the Cas A remnant? ______

[Answers: 1. __Type II supernova remnant; 2. __radio; 3. __image 9; 4. __image 4;
5. __image 8; 6. __neutron star]

7



Additional materials and resources:

Cas A Image Set: This is a representative set of multiwavelength images of
Cas A and its location in the constellation of Cassiopeia. It is easier to learn one
DSO at a time. You should be able to recognize the DSO's in different
wavelengths and orientations - remember there is no "up" or "down" in space.
As you learn to recognize the images, also learn what type of object it is. The
images can be used to create a set of flash/study cards. The image set is in a
folder on this CD.
Cassiopeia A Story: http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/casa_timeline/
A cultural and societal history of the discovery and evolution of Cas A.
Video Clips: Animation of the Cas A supernova event in two formats, MPEG
and QuickTime. If you have Windows Media Player, open it and drag the Cas A
Supernova Explosion MPEG clip to the player; same procedure for QuickTime
format. http://chandra.harvard.edu/resources/animations/snr.html
Stellar Scenes: http://www.ne.jp/asahi/stellar/scenes/english/
This site has excellent images of the constellations. The images can be viewed
and saved both with and without the lines. This is the only site you need to study
constellations.
Messier Deep Space (Sky) Objects: http://www.seds.org/messier/objects.html
This is the SEDS (Students for the Exploration of Space) website which lists all
DSO's with a Messier catalog number (110 objects.) The Andromeda Galaxy for
example is also M31. The objects on this site can be viewed by either number or
type. A wealth of detailed information is available for each object. This site and
the APOD site (http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/astropix.html) with the
provided links will give you more than enough information for the DSO's. If you
still want to research further, the following SEDS URL lists several good sites to
explore - http://www.seds.org/messier/deep-l.html
Chandra PhotoAlbum: http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/category_list.html
Contains all objects imaged by the Chandra X-Ray Observatory by category.
Many of the images have comparison images in other wavelengths.
The Hubble Space Telescope News Archive:
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/
This Hubble website displays all images that have been released, arranged by
category. For example, the first subcategory under Exotic is Black Hole. Click
on Black Hole and a list of all 88 objects in this category opens up, from the
most recent (2009) to the earliest (1990); Click on any of the 88 titles, and
public release images appear with a brief summary of the article. Above the
image is a link to any related images, and links to additional information.









8





Multiwavelength Images

The multiwavelength image set of Cen A below is an example of the wavelengths that
should be studied and why. The descriptions explain the type of phenomena that each of
the images represents. NOTE: Cen A [NGC 5128] is an active spiral galaxy.







Cen A Optical Cen A Infrared Cen A X-ray Cen A Radio

Cen A Optical: Optical images show that NGC5128 is an elliptical galaxy with huge dust
lanes across the middle of the galaxy. Astronomers speculate that Cen A was the
site of a merger between a small spiral galaxy and a large elliptical galaxy several
hundred million years ago. The optical radiation is primarily from stars.

Cen A Infrared: The infrared image gives a better view of the dust lanes, as well as the
brilliance of the central source. The infrared radiation is produced by cool stars
with temperatures of "only" a few thousand degrees Celsius, and by dust that has
been heated to a few hundred to a thousand degrees.

Cen A X-ray: The Chandra X-ray image of Cen A shows a bright source in the nucleus of
the galaxy, which is probably due to a supermassive black hole. The bright jet
extending out from the nucleus to the upper left is due to explosive or highly
energetic activity around the black hole which ejects matter at high speeds from
the vicinity of the black hole. A faint "counter jet" extending to the lower right
can also be seen. This jet is probably pointing away from us. Numerous point-like
sources of X rays are also apparent. These are probably due to neutron stars or
black holes that are accreting matter from nearby companion stars.

Cen A Radio: The radio image shows striking jet-like structures that flare out from the
center of the galaxy. These structures have been traced well beyond the galaxy out
to distances of 600,000 light years. The total length of the radio jet shown here is
about ten arc minutes, or about 30,000 light years in length. The radio emission is
produced by the synchrotron process, in which high-energy electrons radiate as
they spiral around the magnetic field of the galaxy.

To understand how a living organism functions, you cannot study only the respiratory
system, circulatory system, digestive system, or nervous system; you need to study all of
the individual systems and how they exchange energy and materials with each other. The
Cen A galaxy requires the same type of analysis you have to study the dust (infrared),
stars (optical), activity within the nucleus (X-rays), and the magnetic fields (x-ray and
radio) to understand the physical processes that contribute to this energetic spiral galaxy.
The following sample is a typical question set using multiwavelength images of a DSO.
Access http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/0099/index.html to study the Eta Carinae
images and descriptions and then answer the sample question set below:

9




Eta Carinae (Eta Car) is the most luminous star known in our galaxy. Observations
indicate that Eta Carinae is an unstable star that is rapidly boiling matter off its surface
and could explode as a supernova any time! Use the multiwavelength image set of Eta
Carinae below to answer the sample questions involving different wavelengths images.

1 2 3 4 5

Look at images 1 and 2. Image 5 shows that image 1 is much smaller than image 2 and is
located in the center of image 2. 1. Which of these two images is an x-ray image? _____
2. Which one is an optical image? _____ 3. Image 3 shows Eta Car in the infrared. What
feature(s) does this image show? _____ 4. Eta Car in radio is shown in image 4. It has
the same overall structure as the optical. Why is it so bright in the center? _____
5. Images 3 and 4 are the same scale. What is the predominate wavelength from Eta Car?
_____ 6. Which wavelength is showing the structures with the highest energy? _____ 7.
The highest temperature? _____ 8. What features does the X-ray image show? _____

[Answers: 1. __image 2; 2. __image 1; 3. __dust; 4. __it must have had an outburst and
is a strong radio source; 5. __infrared; 6. __image 2 (X-ray); 7. __image 2 (X-ray); 8.
__the central star and the shock waves.]

NOTE: The section on Spectroscopy & Spectra discusses the origin and basic properties
of the different bandwidths of electromagnetic radiation. That information will give you
more details on how to analyze multiwavelength images. Basic facts to keep in mind
when answering questions about these images are:

Optical images "look" like optical images and should be easily recognizable.
X-ray images show only phenomena in the millions of degree range so only the most
energetic features are seen, such as the central star and shockwave features in Eta Car.
Infrared is radiated by dust and shows areas where dust is concentrated - such as
materials ejected from stars, or areas of star-forming activity since stars are born from
condensing clouds of dust and gas. The infrared image of Eta Car above shows a huge
diffuse region of dust with concentrated areas near the center where large amounts of
material are being ejected from the highly unstable star.
Radio frequencies associated with magnetic field lines have the same orientation as the
X-ray frequencies, such as in the Cen A galaxy images on the previous page. In Cen A
they are both oriented 90 degrees from the optical and infrared emitting areas of the
galaxy. The stars and dust are in the plane of the galaxy, and the high energy jets of
material being ejected from the black hole at the center of the galaxy follow the magnetic
field lines that lie along the axis of rotation. In the Eta Car images, the radio is more
diffuse, however is brightest at the center - exactly where the x-ray image shows the
location of the star.

10



Additional materials and resources:
Cen A Images: Contains several images of Cen A that can be used to put together to
create a set of flash/study cards. The image set is in a folder on this CD.
Eta Carinae Images: Contains several images that can be put together to create a set
of flash/study cards. The image set is in a folder on this CD.
Cas A and Crab Overlay Sets: Each of these same-scale image sets shows the
Cassiopeia A and Crab supernova remnants in a different wavelength. For each set,
each image will print on one overhead transparency. The purpose is to show the
differences in the information conveyed by the image in each wavelength. The
transparencies are designed to be superimposed as overlays. Each image is surrounded
by small symbols (squares, triangles and circles) that when matched, will orient and
align the images to superimpose accurately. These overlays allow superimposition of
all four wave lengths simultaneously to give a complete picture of all the processes
that determine the present structure of Cas A and the Crab. These overlays are in a
folder on this CD and the location URLs are listed below.
Multiwavelength animation of the Milky Way Galactic Center:
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2002/gcenter/animations.html
Cassiopeia A Composite Image Gallery: This page allows you to view specific
combinations of different wavelengths of the Cas A supernova remnant.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/composites/casa_composite.html
Cassiopeia A Overlays: This page shows thumbnails of the images and gives
information about each wavelength. PDF files of images are on the CD-ROM. As
listed above.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/composites/casa_overlays.html
Crab Nebula and Pulsar Composite Image Gallery: This page allows you to view
specific combinations of different wavelengths of the Crab supernova remnant.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/composites/crab_composite.html
Crab Nebula Overlays: This page shows thumbnails of the images and gives
information about each wavelength. PDF files of images are on the CD-ROM.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/composites/crab_overlays.html
Multiwavelength Composites: This page shows multiwavelength composites for
several DSO's imaged by the Chandra X-ray Observatory.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/resources/illustrations/composites/index.html
The MultiWavelength Milky Way Homepage: These pages bring together many
different data sets to present and explain how data across the electromagnetic
spectrum are used to learn about the Milky Way's shape, size, and composition.
http://mwmw.gsfc.nasa.gov/
Within this site the page http://mwmw.gsfc.nasa.gov/mmw_sci.html shows
the galactic plane in ten different wavelengths. A complete description of each
wavelength is provided. This site provides highly technical information.
Cool Cosmos: This site provides a basic tutorial on multiwavelength astronomy and
has a good gallery of images - click on Multiwavelength:
http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/
Cen A and Eta Carinae Animations:
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2008/cena/animations.html
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2007/etacar/animations.html
Cen A Composite Image Gallery: This page allows you to view specific
Combinations of different wavelengths of the Cen A galaxy:
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/composites/cena_composite.html
DS9 Multi-Wavelength Investigations in this manual on pages 144 155.

11



Spectroscopy & Spectra

The Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS)

Optical light is only a small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, which includes
everything from radio waves to gamma
rays. The range of wavelengths for the
various classifications of electromagnetic
radiation (EMR) is so large we have to use
powers of ten to describe them. The
wavelengths of radio EMR are actually
macroscopic--typically anywhere from centimeters to 10's of meters in length.
Wavelengths of optical light are so small that several thousand of them could fit in one
millimeter! And gamma rays have wavelengths that are smaller still by a factor of 10,000.

The violet and red "ends" of the optical spectrum are not really "ends" at all, but rather
simply the limits to the portion of the EM spectrum to which our eyes are sensitive.
Beyond red light lies the region known as the infrared, which is also referred to as heat
radiation. The longest wavelength infrared radiation blends into the shortest wavelength
radio waves, and the radio region extends out to the longest wavelengths we are able to
measure.

Beyond the violet of the optical spectrum lies a broad region known as the ultraviolet,
which blends into the X-ray region, followed by the shortest wavelength radiation known,
the gamma rays. Again, there is no edge or "end" of the spectrum at shortest wavelengths,
although we reach a practical limit as to what can be measured.

There are no hard boundaries to each spectral region - they are a continuum of smoothly
changing wavelengths. Even the boundaries themselves are ill-defined. The spectral
regions are just convenient definitions that are used for reference, and can be modified.
For example, sometimes it is convenient to define a range of wavelengths between
infrared and radio - the microwave region - by revising the assumed boundaries for the
infrared and radio regions and inserting this newly defined region in between.

Scientists also find it convenient at times to refer to smaller "sub-regions" of these major
spectral regions. However, these sub-regions are not always well-defined, and different
conventions are sometimes followed. For instance, the infrared (IR) region is sometimes
broken into the "near-infrared" (closest to the red optical spectrum) and the "far-infrared"
(closest to the microwave or radio region). The ultraviolet (UV) spectral band is sub-
divided into the near-ultraviolet (closest to violet optical light), the far-ultraviolet (the
middle of the UV band), and finally the extreme-ultraviolet (closest to the X-ray region).

In the X-ray region, an entirely different convention is used. In this region "soft X-rays"
as those closest to the ultraviolet region, and "hard X-rays" as those closest to gamma
rays. Thus, an X-ray astronomer might say one spectrum is "harder" than another,
meaning it has more short-wavelength (high energy) emission than a comparison
spectrum.

12




Light is a disturbance of electric and magnetic fields that travels as packets called
photons as a wave function. Imagine throwing a pebble into a still pond and watching the
circular ripples moving outward. Like those ripples, each light wave has a series of high
points known as crests, where the electric field is highest, and a series of low points
known as troughs, where the electric field is lowest. The wavelength is the distance
between two wave crests, which is the same as the distance between two troughs. The
number of wave crests that pass through a given point in one second is called the
frequency, measured in units of cycles per second called Hertz. The speed of the wave
equals the frequency times the wavelength.
The wavelength and frequency of EMR are closely related - the higher the frequency, the
shorter the wavelength. Because all light waves move through a vacuum at the same
speed, the number of wave crests passing by a given point in one second depends on the
wavelength. That number, also known as the frequency, will be larger for a short-
wavelength wave than for a long-wavelength wave. The equation that relates wavelength
and frequency is: f = c where is the wavelength, f is the frequency and c is the speed
of light.
The greater the energy, the larger the frequency and the shorter (smaller) the wavelength.
Given the relationship between wavelength and frequency described above, it follows
that short wavelengths are more energetic than long wavelengths. The equation that
relates frequency and energy is: E = h f where E is energy, f is frequency, and h is
Planck's constant (6.626 x 10
-34
Joule-sec.)

Black Body Radiation & the Radiation Laws

All objects emit electromagnetic radiation,
and the amount of radiation emitted at each
wavelength depends only on the temperature
of the object. Hot objects emit more of their
light at short wavelengths, and cold objects
emit more of their light at long wavelengths.
The temperature of an object is related to the
wavelength at which the object gives out, or
radiates, the most light. This is the basis of blackbody radiation and the radiation laws.
The amount of light produced at each wavelength depends on the temperature of the
object producing the light. Stars as hot as the Sun - about 6,000 Kelvin (K) - radiate most
of their light in the yellow region of the spectrum. Stars cooler than the Sun - below
5,000 Kelvin (K) - radiate most of their light in the red and infrared regions of the
spectrum. Solid objects heated to 3,000K appear red but are radiating more infrared light
than visible red light.

13





The radiation laws describe both the amount and the wavelengths of radiation emitted
by an object, which depend only upon its temperature. All objects absorb some type of
radiation. That radiation must then be emitted, or the objects temperature would
continuously increase. Not all objects absorb or emit energy in the same way: some are
more reflective or have a greater capacity for absorption. Some also transmit various
wavelengths with their corresponding amounts of energy. A theoretical model, call a
black body, is defined as the perfect absorber and radiator. Black bodies do not reflect
any radiation, but rather absorb all radiation that falls on them and then radiate it all
away. Stellar atmospheres are good approximations of black bodies. They absorb all
radiation rising from the core, and then emit the radiation into the surrounding space.
Stars, like hypothetical black bodies, follow the three radiation laws: Plancks law,
Wiens law, and Stefan-Boltzmanns law.

Black body radiation is thermal radiation emitted from a black body at a particular
temperature. When an object is heated until it glows, it emits all wavelengths, or colors,
of the visible spectrum. However, there is always one dominant, or peak, wavelength
emitted that depends upon the temperature of the object. An object heated to 3,000K
emits radiation whose peak wavelength falls in the infrared or near-infrared part of the
spectrum. A 6,000K object has a maximum wavelength output in the yellow; 12,000K is
greenish, and 24,000K is in the ultraviolet or near-ultraviolet region of the spectrum. At
lower or higher temperatures, the maximum wavelength output falls outside the visible
spectrum. Therefore, the temperature of an object determines the dominant wavelength
being radiated, which corresponds to a particular color. The continuous radiation from a
star does not follow theoretical black body radiation exactly; however, it is similar
enough to apply the black body radiation laws.

Plancks law describes the shape of the radiation curve of a perfect radiator, which is
represented graphically in the black body radiation graph on the previous page. By
inspecting the graph, the major points of Plancks law become apparent:
Any black body emits energy at every wavelength but not in the same proportions.
A hotter body produces more energy at every wavelength than a cooler body.
The hotter the body, the shorter the frequency of the dominant wavelength emitted;
color depends on temperature. Wiens law is simply a mathematical statement of this
point. Since a 3,000K object produces a maximum wavelength peak of about 9,500
(angstroms), and a 6000K object peaks at about 5,000, Wien determined that

max
= 2.9 x 10
7
/T where T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin, is the
wavelength of maximum output in angstroms, and 2.9 x 10
7
is Wiens displacement
law constant in angstroms. NOTE: A constant is a number which represents the
proportionality between two different units. In the above relationship it allows
temperature in Kelvin to be turned into the equivalent wavelength in angstroms.

Stefan-Boltzmanns law also applies to the same black body radiation graph. The
total energy emitted by a star at a specific temperature, such as 24,000K, is equal to
the area under the radiation curve for that temperature. In mathematical terms, the
following relationship gives the energy emitted per unit area of body surface:
E = T
eff
4
where T
eff
is the temperature in Kelvin, E is the energy per unit surface
area in erg/cm2, and is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.70 x 10
-5
erg/cm
2
K
4
s.

14





Stellar Classification & Spectra

Stars are classified by temperature or spectral type from hottest to coolest as follows: O B
A F G K M R N S. (Sometimes R and N stars are grouped together into spectral type C.)
These categories are further subdivided into subclasses from hottest (0) to coolest (9).
The hottest B stars are B0 and the coolest are B9, followed by spectral type A0. Each
major spectral classification is characterized by its own unique spectra. Stars of spectral
type G, like our Sun, have an effective (surface) temperature of 5,000 6,000K, with a
maximum peak output that falls in the yellowish-green part of the spectrum, and have the
strongest double calcium lines of any spectral type. Spectral lines can show different
characteristics within the same spectral type, and so a second type of classification
system for stars was devised using luminosity. The differences in spectral lines among
stars having the same spectral type are a function of the radius of the star, which results in
different luminosities. Luminosity (L) is related to the absolute magnitude of a star, and is
equal to the total outflow of power. Two stars with similar effective temperatures but
greatly different luminosities must differ in size: they belong to different luminosity
classes within that spectral type, as determined from their spectra. The Sun is assigned
the value of one solar luminosity. Stellar luminosities range from one million times more
luminous than the Sun, to one ten-thousandth of the luminosity of the Sun.

Stars emit radiation, but produce absorption lines because the outermost layers absorb
radiation from the core. Because a stellar atmosphere is a black body, it absorbs the
radiation and then emits it into the surrounding interstellar medium. This radiation is
emitted over a range of wavelengths, so we see dark lines, called absorption lines, where
the radiation is missing. All stars have a similar basic chemical composition;
differences between spectral types are due only to the different effective temperatures.
Hydrogen produces dominant spectral lines in stars with an effective temperature near
10,000K. At this temperature, electrons of the hydrogen atoms are becoming excited and
then undergoing de-excitation and transiting down to the second energy level, or Balmer
line, giving off photons in the visible part of the spectrum. At hotter temperatures, most
of the hydrogen is ionized the electrons have been stripped away. There are fewer intact
hydrogen atoms to produce the characteristic spectral lines. The few hydrogen atoms that
have managed to retain their single electron are mostly in such highly excited states that
their spectral lines are invisible, since they fall back down to the Lyman line (ground
state) and emit photons in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. Only the few neutral atoms
of hydrogen that manage to retain their electrons and are not in a highly excited state can
absorb and re-emit visible radiation. Since there are fewer electrons that can fall back
down to the Balmer line, there are fewer photons emitted in the visible part of the
spectrum and the absorption lines are weaker than in cooler stars.

The representative spectra for each stellar classification on the following page are based
on the following:
All stars have very similar elemental abundances.
Stars are good approximations of blackbody radiation - the gaseous atmospheric layers
absorb the radiation emitted by the fusion process in the core.
The resulting absorption spectra are not based upon elemental composition, but ONLY
on the temperature and luminosity of the star.
Stars with the same temperature and luminosity produce characteristic spectral lines.

15




Representative Stellar Classification Spectra:

O Stars: 30,000K - 60,000K
Prominent ionized hydrogen and helium
lines and weak neutral hydrogen lines.
Class O stars emit most of their radiation
in ultra-violet.

B Stars: 10,000K - 30,000K
Stronger neutral hydrogen lines, lines of
neutral helium instead of ionized helium
are present.

A Stars: 7,500K - 10,000K
Strongest hydrogen lines, lines of singly
ionized elements like magnesium and
calcium begin to appear.

F Stars: 6,000K - 7,500K
Hydrogen lines are weaker, and singly
ionized lines of calcium are stronger.
Singly ionized calcium has a pair of
lines that are particularly conspicuous -
the H and K lines.

G Stars: 5,000K - 6,000K
Hydrogen lines are visible, however the
CA H and K lines are the strongest lines
in the spectrum - they are stronger in G
stars than any other spectrum type.

K Stars: 3,500K - 5,000K
Many neutral metal lines appear.

M Stars: Less than 3,500K
Many molecular lines appear, including
titanium oxide.

NOTE: The hotter the star the fewer
spectral lines; the cooler the star the
more spectral lines. O stars have strong
ionized helium lines, B stars strong
neutral helium lines, A stars have strong
hydrogen lines, F and G stars have
ionized metallic lines, K stars have
neutral metallic lines, and M stars have
molecular lines.

16



Introduction to Stellar Classification Activity

Introduction: Classifying stars based on brightness is somewhat problematic. A stars
apparent brightness can be affected by its distance from the observer, its size, or by the
presence of interstellar dust. Instead, astronomers classify stars based on the major
components of their spectra. Much like bar-codes on grocery store items, stellar spectra
are each slightly different but have many characteristics in common. The study of spectra
provides scientists with important information about stars that is otherwise inaccessible.
This information includes composition and temperature.

Part I: Classifying Stellar Spectra

Included in this activity is a table of simulated stellar spectra (page 17). Your first task is
to sort the spectra by creating a classification scheme. As with real stellar spectra, you
will never find two exactly the same. The thickness of each line represents how much
light is received at a particular wavelength, so both the thickness and the position of the
lines are very important. Astronomers usually focus on the broadest lines first. Record
your results in the table below.
Note: The table contains five rows but you do not need to use them all. Or you may
decide there are more than five categories. Also, there is no requirement that your
classification scheme results in the same number of stars in each category.
Hint: Imagine that the sixteen bar codes represent food items from four departments
meat, dairy, produce, and groceries. You might expect that all the bar codes from the
same department look similar, but not identical. Your task would be to sort them into
groups representing the four departments.

Spectra ID Numbers Defining Characteristics
(provide enough detail so that anyone could use your scheme)

Category I








Category II








Category III








Category IV








Category V





17


Part II: Matching Stellar Spectra

The International Astronomical Union has decided that a set of standard spectra to
represent the different classes of stars is necessary. Your task is to match the 16 unknown
stellar spectra with the 4 standard spectra on page 18. You should identify four unknown
spectra similar to standard A, and the same for B, C, and D.

Known
Spectra
A B C D




Unknown
Spectra
Numbers



Part III: Determining Relative Stellar Temperatures

Blackbody radiation curves were acquired for all simulated stars, including the standards,
and the results are listed on the Data Sheet at the end of the activity. Remembering that
the peak wavelength is a measure of the stars temperature, sort all twenty stars, including
stars A, B, C, and D, into four new categories and record the star IDs in the table below.
REMEMBER: The smaller the wavelength, the hotter the star.

Hot Stars Medium-Hot Stars Medium-Cool Stars Cool Stars







Carefully compare and contrast the stellar temperature classification (table above) with
the stellar spectra classification scheme used in Part II. How are the two classification
schemes related?


Part IV: Determining the Temperature of a Star

At the bottom of the Data Sheet on page 18, you will find a table that relates the peak
wavelength of the blackbody spectrum to the surface temperature of the star. Suppose a
new star is discovered and its spectrum is shown below. Determine its temperature and
justify your answer.










18


SIMULATED STELLAR SPECTRA








1 2 3






4 5 6








7 8 9







10 11 12






13 14 15






16

19


Stellar Spectra Classification Data Sheet


Standard Spectra Classifications






A B






C D


Blackbody Radiation Peak Values

Star ID Peak Value
(angstroms)
Star ID Peak Value
(angstroms)
1 3625 11 7005
2 2810 12 3610
3 3612 13 2805
4 7040 14 5515
5 5470 15 7010
6 2812 16 5555
7 2790 A 3600
8 3595 B 2800
9 5510 C 5500
10 6940

D 7000



Corresponding temperatures for four classes of stars studied.

Standard Peak blackbody wavelength
(angstroms)
Temperature
(degrees)
A
3600
8000
B
2800
10,000
C
5500
5000
D
7000
4000

[This activity is adapted and included with permission from the original, written by Tim
Slater, University of Arizona, Tucson]



20




Answers to Introduction to Stellar Classification Activity:

Part I: There are no right or wrong answers. Any classification system and justification
is as good as any other.
Part II: Standard A: 1, 3, 8, 12; Standard B: 2, 6, 7, 13: Standard C: 5, 9, 14, 16;
Standard D: 4, 10, 11, 15
Part III: Hot Stars (hottest to coolest): 7, B, 13, 2, 6
Medium-Hot Stars: 8, A, 12, 3, 1
Medium-Cool Stars: 5, C, 9, 14, 16
Cool Stars: 10, D, 11, 15, 4
There is no difference between the classification by spectral lines and the
Classification by temperature since spectral lines are determined by the
temperature of a star.
Part IV: The new spectra is similar to the B star, probably belongs between B and 13, the
next coolest star. The peak blackbody wavelength would be around 2800, and the
temperature approximately 10,000K.

Sample Spectra Question: Arrange the following spectra from coolest to hottest:

1 2
3 4

5 6



Answer: 4 (M star); 2 (K star); 6 (G star); 1 (A star); 5 (B star); 3 (O star) The sequence
can be determined by the number of spectral lines.

The stellar bar code spectra above are
actually simplified from the actual
spectra, which look like the graph to
the left (an F spectral type star). A few
of the widest absorption lines on this
graph would be represented as dark
lines like the spectra above. To
practice classifying spectra using actual spectra like this graph, access the following
website: http://skyserver.sdss.org/dr1/en/proj/basic/spectraltypes/studentclasses.asp
This Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) SkyServer website presents a classification
activity that uses actual spectra from the SDSS archive; or practice with A Stellar
Classification Activity on the following page.

21




A Stellar Classification Activity:

NOTE: BEFORE beginning this activity, print the Spectral Plot Overlays for A
Stellar Classification Activity page onto an overhead transparency. The overlays
will be used with the spectral plots on the worksheet pages to identity the Balmer and
other emission lines to classify stars 1 though 7 and A though D. Also print the three
worksheet pages on plain paper.

Procedure - Part A

1. Classify the spectra of the seven stars provided with this activity according to the
strength of their Balmer lines, which are emission lines produced by electrons in
the second energy level of hydrogen atoms. NOTE: For the seven stars, both the
spectral plot (graph) and the spectral image are provided. The images provide a
visual inspection of the widths of the Balmer lines. However, in order to analyze
the lines, it is necessary to use the spectral plots in order to more accurately
determine the wavelength associated with each line. Both are provided so that you
can see how the more familiar spectral images are just a different representation
of the spectral plots you will use in this activity.

Balmer Line Wavelength ()
H- 6560
H- 4860
H- 4340
H- 4100

Deep, broad absorption lines at the wavelengths listed in the table above are
strong Balmer lines. Using the spectral plots on the Spectral Plots Worksheet, cut
out the spectral plots for each of the seven stars and arrange them in order
according to the strength of their Balmer lines from strongest to weakest. Write
the strength of the Balmer lines of each star in the box beside the spectral plot and
record the numbers of the stars in data table 1.

2. Write the spectral classes A, B, F, G, K, M, O (in that order) underneath each star
number in table 1- note that these letters are in alphabetical order and based upon
the strength of hydrogen lines as first proposed by Williamina Fleming at the
Harvard College Observatory in the early 1900s.

3. Hot dense objects such as stars produce a continuous spectrum also called a
thermal spectrum. The spectra of stars 1-7 show this thermal spectrum with
absorption lines of elements superimposed. As the temperature of the star
increases, the peak of its continuous spectrum will shift to shorter (bluer)
wavelengths. Arrange the stars from hottest to coolest and record their numbers in
data table 2.

4. Write the spectral classes O, B, A, F, G, K, M (in that order) underneath each star
number in table 2- this is the system used today that was developed by Annie
Jump Cannon at the Harvard College Observatory in the early 1900s. This
system is based on temperature rather than Balmer lines.

22

Data Part A:
Table 1: Classification according to strength of Balmer Lines

strongest


weakest





Table 2: Classification according to temperature

hottest


coolest





Analysis Part A

5. Which spectral class of star is the hottest? The coolest?

6. Which spectral classes have the weakest Balmer lines? Are these the very hot
stars, the cool stars or both?

7. In a cool star, most of the electrons are in the ground state (few electrons in the
second energy level). In a very hot star, the hydrogen atoms are either completely
ionized or the electrons are only in very high energy levels. How does this
explain the results you observed above?

8. Which of the stars are assigned the same spectral classes in both data tables?
Which of the stars have different spectral classes? These differences in
classification will be resolved in Part B.

Procedure - Part B

9. Since both cool and very hot stars have weak Balmer lines, other spectral lines
must be examined to distinguish between the two. Record the numbers of the stars
that fit the following in your data table:

In the spectra of O-class stars, lines for ionized helium are present (look for a
line at 4540).

The hotter the star, the weaker the ionized calcium lines at 3930 and 3970
will be in comparison to the hydrogen line at 4340. F and G class stars tend
to have a strong ionized calcium line compared to the hydrogen line.

K and M stars have many more visible lines (corresponding to Fe, other
neutral metals and molecules) than the spectra of O, B, A, F and G stars.

Data Part B

possible O stars: possible F & G stars possible K & M stars


23


Analysis Part B

10. Using the results from Part B, step 1, reclassify each of the stars, resolving any
differences from Part A. Record the results in the table below.

# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
spectral
class



11. When finished with #10, look at the answer key provided. Which stars, if any, do
not agree with the key?

12. What sources of error might there be that could lead to the misclassification of a
star?

Conclusions and Further Investigation:

13. Use the formula below to find the surface temperature of the star with the
strongest Balmer lines.

max
= (2.9x10
7
K
.
)/T

Does this fall within the range given for that spectral class in the table, Summary
of the Classification of Stars, on the answer key provided? What might be some
sources of error?

14. How accurate is the classification of stars using only the Balmer lines? For which
classes of stars are Balmer lines more useful? For which are they less useful?
Explain.

15. Which features were most useful in identifying each spectral class?
a. O
b. B
c. A
d. F
e. G
f. K
g. M

16. Classify Stars A-D. For each, explain which spectral features helped with the
classification:

a. Star A
b. Star B
c. Star C
d. Star D


24




Star 1


Star 2







25




Star 3



Star 4






26




Star 5


Star 6







27




Star 7




























28



Star A





Star B




29


Star C


Star D








30


ANSWER KEY refer to this key after Part B, step 2


Key:

Star 1 G
Star 2 A
Star 3 F
Star 4 K
Star 5 B
Star 6 O
Star 7 M


Summary of the Classification of Stars

Spectral
Class
Temperature (
o
K) Strength of Balmer
Lines
Other Emission Lines
O 30,000 - 60,000 weak or not visible
Ionized He (4540)
B 10,000 - 30,000 moderate

A 7,500 - 10,000 strong

F 6,000 - 7,500 weak
Ionized Ca (3930, 3970) strong
compared to neutral H (4340)
G 5,000 - 6,000 weak
Ionized Ca (3930, 3970) strong
compared to neutral H (4340)
K 3,500 - 5,000 weak or not visible
Many lines, neutral Ca 4230
M < 3,500 not visible
Many lines






31

References:

Based upon this activity: The Spectral Classification of Stars
http://www.astro.washington.edu/labs/clearinghouse/labs/Spectclass/spectralclasswe
b.html

The Sloan Digital Sky Survey/Sky Server website has several excellent advanced
astronomical activities listed on this site including one on Spectral Types
http://cas.sdss.org/dr7/en/proj/advanced/

Annie Jump Cannon
http://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen/cannon.html

Annie Jump Cannon Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon

Stars - Ruth West
http://www.viewingspace.com/ucla_mfa/ucla_pages/stars.htm

Electromagnetic Radiation - Production of Light
http://astronomynotes.com/light/s4.htm#A2.1















Actual spectra used in this exercise:

Star 1 G2
Star 2 A5
Star 3 F5
Star 4 K4
Star 5 B3
Star 6 O5
Star 7 M2
Star A O9
Star B A2
Star C G8
Star D M5



32


WORKSHEETS:

Star 1


Star 2



Star 3



Star 4

33
Balmer lines strength:
__________________
Classification based on
Balmer lines:________
Temperature:________
Strength of He, Ca, H
lines:_______________
Stellar Classification:___
Balmer lines strength:
__________________
Classification based on
Balmer lines:________
Temperature:________
Strength of He, Ca, H
lines:_______________
Stellar Classification:___
Balmer lines strength:
__________________
Classification based on
Balmer lines:________
Temperature:________
Strength of He, Ca, H
lines:_______________
Stellar Classification:___
Balmer lines strength:
__________________
Classification based on
Balmer lines:________
Temperature:________
Strength of He, Ca, H
lines:_______________
Stellar Classification:___


Star 5


Star 6


Star 7












34
Balmer lines strength:
__________________
Classification based on
Balmer lines:________
Temperature:________
Strength of He, Ca, H
lines:_______________
Stellar Classification:___
Balmer lines strength:
__________________
Classification based on
Balmer lines:________
Temperature:________
Strength of He, Ca, H
lines:_______________
Stellar Classification:___
Balmer lines strength:
__________________
Classification based on
Balmer lines:________
Temperature:________
Strength of He, Ca, H
lines:_______________
Stellar Classification:___
Star A


Star B




Star C


Star D


35

Balmer lines strength:
__________________
Classification based on
Balmer lines:________
Temperature:________
Strength of He, Ca, H
lines:_______________
Stellar Classification:___
Balmer lines strength:
__________________
Classification based on
Balmer lines:________
Temperature:________
Strength of He, Ca, H
lines:_______________
Stellar Classification:___
Balmer lines strength:
__________________
Classification based on
Balmer lines:________
Temperature:________
Strength of He, Ca, H
lines:_______________
Stellar Classification:___
Balmer lines strength:
__________________
Classification based on
Balmer lines:________
Temperature:________
Strength of He, Ca, H
lines:_______________
Stellar Classification:___

Spectral Plot Overlays for A Stellar Classification Activity:

Print this page onto an overhead transparency and overlay them with the spectral plots
provided for stars 1 through 7 and A through D to help identify the Balmer Lines for Part
A and the other emission lines for Part B


Part A: Hydrogen Balmer Lines











Part B: Ionized He, Ionized Ca, and Hydrogen Lines











36





Additional materials and resources:

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/guidry/java/planck/planck.html

This site presents an applet that lets the user plot up to 10 Planck radiation curves
for arbitrary temperatures in the range 3,000K - 30,000 K.
http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/guidry/java/wien/wien.html
This page is the same applet above which displays Planck blackbody radiation curves
for the same temperature range, and adds the option of illustrating both Wien's law
and Stefan-Boltzmann's law for each temperature.
Both of the above pages have a link to The BlackBody Game which allows the user to
guess the temperature of a black body distribution curve of unknown temperature.
CLEA: http://www3.gettysburg.edu/~marschal/clea/CLEAhome.html
The CLEA Stellar Classification software is an excellent free simulation for Win PCs.
You can download the software, a User's Guide, pre and post tests and a
comprehensive Student Manual free from the CLEA site. The simulation allows you
to control a telescope and spectrograph to take spectra of a large number of stars. You
can then attempt to identify them by comparing with spectral standard reference stars.
It includes stars of different luminosity classes. Spectra can be examined as
photographic or intensity plots. This is worth spending time with. The student manual
is comprehensive and a handy resource. You can use this for classroom activities or
even as a practical assessment task with some prior exposure.
SkyServer SDSS: http://skyserver.sdss.org/dr2/en/proj/advanced/spectraltypes/
has an excellent activity/project leading you through the classification of stellar
spectra, Spectral Types using actual Sloan Digital Sky Survey data.
Mini-Spectroscopy: http://mo-www.harvard.edu/Java/MiniSpectroscopy.html
is a "simplified" version of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics full-
featured spectroscopy software called Virtual Spectroscope. The Java applet allows
you produce a spectrum from a fluorescent lamp, the Sun, a red LED, Hydrogen and
three galaxies. They appear as photographic and intensity plots against a reference
spectrum. NOTE: THIS IS FOR MORE ADVANCED STUDENTS.
















37





Stellar Evolution Cycles of Formation and Destruction

Interstellar Medium and Nebulae:

NGC 3370 is a spiral galaxy similar in size and structure to
our own Milky Way Galaxy. In visible wavelengths, the
image is dominated by the stars and clouds of gas and dust
that reside in and define the spiral arm structure. Not obvious
in the image are the dust grains, and atomic and molecular
gas that comprise the tenuous interstellar medium (ISM)
interspersed between the stars. The extremely low average
density of the interstellar medium - about one atom per cubic
Spiral Galaxy NGC 3370 (Hubble) centimeter - is nearly a perfect vacuum; however, due to the
enormous amount of space between the stars, the ISM constitutes ~20-30% of the mass
of a galaxy. The interstellar medium is primarily hydrogen and helium left over from the
Big Bang, enriched with heavier elements from the nuclear fusion of elements in the
cores of previous generations of stars. The interstellar medium is immersed in radiation,
magnetic fields and cosmic ray particles, and has an average temperature of 1,000,000 K.

The interstellar dust particles are extremely small usually
less than about one thousandths (1/1000
th
) of a millimeter
across and composed mostly H, C, O, Si, Mg and Fe in the
form of silicates, graphite, ices, metals and organic
compounds. The size of the dust grains is the same size as
the wavelength of the blue portion of the visible spectrum;
therefore, the dust grains scatter blue light. Since the light
that reaches Earth from distant objects is depleted in blue
wavelengths by the dust, the resultant transmitted light appears redder than it actually is.
This is called interstellar reddening. The dust particles also absorb incident light, heat up,
and emit in the infrared - resulting in the dimming of starlight. This is called interstellar
extinction, and dims the light from deep sky objects.

Nebulae are denser agglomerations of interstellar gas and dust; the main types of nebulae
are diffuse, reflection, and absorption. An emission nebula produces an emission
spectrum because of energy that has been absorbed from one or more hot luminous stars
that excite the hydrogen gas. The ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the massive hot stars
ionizes the hydrogen - it strips electrons from the
hydrogen atoms - by the process of photoionization. The
free electrons combine with protons, forming hydrogen
atoms, and emit a characteristic series of emission lines
as they cascade down through the energy levels of the
atoms. The visible radiation in these lines imparts to these
regions their beautiful reddish-colored glows. These
regions of ionized hydrogen gas (called HII regions) have
typical temperatures of ~10,000 - 20,000 K, and a density M42 (Stephan Seip)
of ~10 atoms/cm
3
. In the image to the right is the emission nebula M42, located in the
constellation of Orion. The hot luminous stars to the left of the nebula are ionizing the
interstellar hydrogen, and protons and electrons are recombining and emitting red light.

38



A nebula that is mainly composed of cool interstellar dust that
reflects and scatters light from nearby stars is called a
reflection nebula. They are usually blue because the scattering
is more efficient for blue light by the dust particles. The Witch
Head Nebula to the left is a reflection nebula, and is also
glowing due to the ultraviolet radiation from the nearby hot,
blue massive star Rigel in the constellation of Orion.
Absorption nebulae are physically very similar to reflection
nebulae; they look different only because of the geometry of
the cloud of dust, the light source
and Earth. Absorption, or dark
Witch Head Nebula (Gary Stevens) nebulae, are simply blocking the
light from the source behind them.
The Horsehead Nebula (Barnard 33) is visible only because it
is silhouetted against the emission nebula behind it.
Emission, reflection, and absorption nebulae are often seen
within the same field of view. The image of NGC 6559 Horsehead Nebula (USNO)
below, a bright red emission nebula, also contains a
reflection nebulosity surrounding the two hot young stars
located in the left central portion of the image. The image
also contains dark clouds and filaments, highlighted against
the bright emission nebula. Emission and reflection nebulae
are associated with star formation regions since they are
caused by ultraviolet emissions from hot, young stars;
however, stars do not form in these types of nebulae.
Emission and reflection nebulae are too warm and diffuse for
NGC 6559 (Adam Block, KPNO) stars to form.

Giant Molecular Clouds and Protostars:

Huge complexes of interstellar gas and dust left over
from the formation of the galaxy, called molecular
clouds, are composed mostly of molecular hydrogen.
These clouds are the coolest (10 to 20 K) and densest
(10
6
to 10
10
particles/cm
3
) portions of the interstellar
medium. Since these clouds are cooler than most
places, they are perfect locations for star formation. The
molecular clouds are puffy and lumpy, with diameters
ranging from less than 1 light-year to about 300 Light
Years and contain enough gas to form from about 10 to
10 million stars like our Sun. Molecular clouds that
exceed the mass of 100,000 suns are called Giant Molecular Clouds (GMC's). A typical
full-grown spiral galaxy contains about 1,000 to 2,000 Giant Molecular Clouds and many
smaller ones. Such clouds were first discovered in our Milky Way Galaxy with radio
telescopes about 25 years ago. Since the molecules in these clouds do not emit optical
light, but do release light at radio wavelengths, radio telescopes are necessary to trace the
molecular gases and study their physical properties. The image above shows the
distribution of GMC's within the Orion and neighboring constellations; produced by radio
mapping of carbon monoxide (CO) gas. A map of stars, bright nebulae, and cold clouds
within 5000 LY of the Orion spiral arm of the Milky Way Galaxy can be seen at
http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/5000lys.html

39

Star-forming molecular clouds are mostly found
along spiral arms, as seen in the CO molecular
map showing the distribution of these clouds in
the Milky Way Galaxy image on the left.
Individual giant molecular clouds are internally
violent and turbulent. The self-gravitational
energy of the clumps is counter-balanced by pressure from both the supersonic velocity of
the gases and magnetic field lines. Pertubations from the spiral density wave within the
spiral arm structure, collisions between clouds, supernovae shockwaves, and nearby
massive star formation are some of the possible triggers that eventually cause an
imbalance within the GMC's and the clumps begin to collapse. Individual stars within
clumps form within their own smaller gaseous structures, called cores.
As a gas clump collapses it heats up due to friction as the
gas particles bump into each other. The energy the gas
particles had from falling under the force of gravity
(gravitational potential) gets converted to heat (thermal)
energy. The gas clump becomes warm enough to produce
infrared and microwave radiation. During the initial
collapse, the clump is transparent to radiation and the
collapse proceeds fairly quickly. As the clump becomes
Proplyds in Orion (Hubble) more dense, it becomes opaque. Infrared radiation is
trapped, and the temperature and pressure in the center begin to increase. As the clump
starts evolving into a protostar, at first it only has about 1% of its final mass; however the
envelope of the star continues to grow as infalling material is accreted. After a few
million years, thermonuclear fusion begins in its core,
and a strong stellar wind is produced which stops the
infall of new mass. Other material in the disk may
coalesce to form other stars and/or planets. Protostars
reach temperatures of 2000K to 3000K - hot enough to
glow red - but the cocoon of gas and dust surrounding
them blocks visible light from escaping. The proplyds in
Orion are protostars embedded within protoplanetary
disks. The close-up of two of these young disks in Orion
reveals the torturous conditions they must face while Protoplanetary Disks (Hubble)
trying to grow into full-fledged planetary systems. Ultraviolet radiation from one of
Orion's nearby hot stars is rapidly destroying the disks surrounding the protostars. Only
~10% if all protostars survive the harsh conditions within stellar nurseries to become
stars.

Introduction to the H-R Diagram:

The evolutionary sequences for stars are describing their position on a diagram called the
Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram. Most stages of stellar evolution, beginning with
protostars, have a specific position on the H-R diagram. The different branches of the H-
R diagram described below will be referred to throughout the descriptions of the
evolutionary sequences for different mass stars that follow.


40



Everyone is familiar with the periodic table of the elements.
The periodic table is an arrangement of all the known
elements in order of increasing atomic number. The reason
why the elements are arranged as they are in the periodic
table is to fit them all, with their widely diverse physical and
chemical properties, into a logical pattern. The vertical lines
of elements, called groups, and the horizontal lines of
elements, called periods, are chemically similar, and share a
common set of characteristics. The elements are also arranged into blocks that share
commonalities. The arrangement of the elements in the periodic table also shows the
periodicity and trends of some properties, such as electron configuration, metalicity,
atomic radii, and melting points. By looking at the location of any individual element in
the table, you automatically know several characteristics and properties of that element,
as well as what types of chemical bonds it forms, and the chemical reactions it will
undergo.
The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, or H-R
diagram, is the periodic table of the stars. It was
discovered that when the luminosity (absolute
magnitude, or brightness) of stars is plotted
against their temperature (stellar classification)
the stars are not randomly distributed on the
graph but are mostly restricted to a few well-
defined regions. The stars within the same
regions share a common set of characteristics,
just like the groups, periods, and blocks of
elements in the periodic table. As the physical characteristics of a star changes over its
lifetime, its position on the H-R diagram changes also so the H-R diagram can also be
thought of as a visual plot of stellar evolution. It is a graphical tool that astronomers use
to classify stars. From the location of a star on the graph, the luminosity, spectral type,
color, temperature, mass, chemical composition, age, and evolutionary history is known.

The Main Sequence: ~90% of all stars occupy the diagonal band running from the upper
left corner (hot, luminous stars) to the lower right corner (cool, dim stars) of the H-R
diagram. Stars become main sequence stars when the process of thermonuclear fusion -
hydrogen to helium - stabilizes. These stars are in hydrostatic equilibrium - the outward
radiation pressure from the fusion process is balanced by the inward gravitational force.
When the transition from a protostar to the main sequence star occurs, the star is called a
Zero Age Main Sequence star (ZAMS). The determining factor of where a star is located
on the main sequence is mass. The Sun is a G spectral class star with an effective surface
temperature of ~5800K. Since the luminosity and mass of all other stars are measured
relative to the Sun, it has one solar luminosity and one solar mass. The O and B stars are
the hottest and most massive, and the K and M stars are the coolest and least massive
stars. The O and B stars are sometimes referred to as early sequence stars, and the K and
M stars as late sequence stars. These terms refer to stars more massive (early sequence)
than the Sun or less massive (late sequence) than the Sun. All one solar mass stars, for
instance, occupy the same position on the main sequence as the Sun, and they stay in that
location, with that specific relationship of temperature and absolute magnitude, until the
star runs out of hydrogen and the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to helium nuclei stops. The
mass-luminosity relationship for main sequence stars is defined as: L/L(Sun) ~
[M/M(Sun)]
4
. All main sequence stars with a mass less than ~8 solar masses are

41


sometimes referred to as dwarf stars, with the coolest, least massive stars in the lower
right corner called red dwarfs. The more massive the star, the faster the rate of fusion,
and the less time is remains on the main sequence. The amount of time that a star spends
on the main sequence is also a function of its mass and luminosity and is defined as:
T(years) = 10
10
M/L.

The Giant Branch: Red giants are luminous, cool giant stars in spectral classes F, G, K,
and M located in the middle right portion of the H-R diagram, above the main sequence.
As the central core of a main sequence star with a mass from ~0.8 to 8 solar masses runs
out of hydrogen, radiation pressure no longer balances gravity and the star begins to
collapse. There is still hydrogen in the outer layers surrounding the helium core of the
star; however the temperature is not high enough for this hydrogen to fuse. As the star
begins to contract, the core gets hot enough to start a thin shell of hydrogen fusion around
the helium core. The increase in radiation pressure causes the star's outer atmospheric
layers to expand. As the surface of the star increases, so does its apparent brightness. As
the surface (photosphere) increases, it becomes cooler, and the color of the star becomes
redder. Eventually the hydrogen in the shell becomes depleted and the star begins to
contract once again, and this time the temperature becomes hot enough to start helium
fusion. The outer layers expand even further, becoming cooler and redder. Giant stars
fuse elements up to carbon. Most of these stars go through a Mira variable instability strip
with a periodic light curve of ~80 - 1000 days. Stars that have evolved to the giant branch
are commonly referred to as red giants. Eventually these red giants will shrug off a
planetary nebula and leave a white dwarf core remnant. There is no relationship among
mass and luminosity on the giant branch.

The Supergiant Branch: Stars greater than ~8 solar masses evolve onto the supergiant
branch, located in the extreme upper right corner of the H-R diagram. These red
supergiants are extremely luminous and cool, due to their expanded size. Their spectral
types range from B - the massive stars just leaving the main sequence - through M, as
they finish their transition to the supergiant branch. NOTE: The O and B stars on the
main sequence are sometimes referred to as blue supergiants, not to be confused with the
highly evolved and aging red supergiants located on the supergiant branch. Because of
the mass of these stars, the fusion of heavier and heavier elements continues through
neon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, iron and nickel. Each time a new element is created the
star becomes larger and redder. (Some stars with a mass of ~8 solar masses move through
the Cepheid variable instability strip and become pulsating Cepheids with a period of 1 -
70 days). Eventually most of these stars reach the supergiant branch and undergo a Type
II supernovae explosion and core collapse, leaving behind a pulsar, neutron star,
magnetar or black hole. Some hyper-massive stars collapse into back holes without a
supernova event, and some of the less massive giant stars manage to avoid a supernova
event and become white dwarfs. [NOTE: there are exceptions to some of these
evolutionary sequences, and the associated masses are "ballpark" numbers only - there is
much to learn about the evolutionary history of stars.]

The White Dwarf Branch: The white dwarf branch is located in the lower left corner of
the H-R diagram. This branch consists of the end products of stellar evolution for mid-
sized stars with an initial mass of ~0.8 to 8 solar masses. All white dwarfs are extremely
hot; however they have a very low absolute magnitude because they are very small. They
have a size that does not exceed 1.4 solar masses - the Chandrashekar limit. Spectral
types for white dwarfs range from O to G as they slowly radiate away their energy.

42


Young Stellar Objects:

Any star that has evolved past the protostar stage
(i.e. is shining by way of internal nuclear reactions)
but has yet to arrive on the main sequence is called
a Young Stellar Object (YSO). YSO's come in a
variety of forms depending on their age, mass, and
environment, and include Herbig-Haro objects, T
Tauri stars, and, in general, immature stars prone to
irregular brightening, embedded in nebulosity, and
associated with bipolar outflows. The montage of
HH Objects (Hubble) Hubble HH objects provides a dramatically clear look
at collapsing circumstellar disks of dust and gas that
build stars and provide the ingredients for planetary systems. Blowtorch-
like jets of hot gas are funneled from deep within these embryonic
systems, and machine-gun like bursts of material are fired from the
young stellar objects at speeds of nearly a half-million kilometers per
hour. The Herbig-Haro object HH111 shows the fast-moving jets of
material from a newborn star colliding with the interstellar medium. As
the bipolar flow from a young star plows into the surrounding gas, it
generates strong shock waves that heat and ionize the gas. In the cooling
gas behind the shock front, electrons and ions recombine to give an
emission line spectrum characteristic of Herbig-Haro objects. All known
Herbig-Haro objects have been found within the boundaries of dark
clouds, and are strong sources of infrared radiation.

The Trifid Nebula is one of the most HH 111 (Hubble)
prominent nebulae in the night sky.
Radiation from the powerful central star is eating away at
the surrounding dense interstellar material. The field of
view of this Hubble image includes a region
of star formation that will be destroyed by
the advancing ionization front in the next
~20,000 years. A prominent jet from a
Trifid Nebula (Hubble) young stellar object and a long finger with a
a possible young stellar object at its tip are
apparent in the image. The stellar jet is emerging from the wall of a cloud
in the Trifid Nebula. The jet is remarkable because,
unlike most stellar jets, it can be seen along its entire
length. This is because the jet is being lit up by radiation
from the massive, luminous star that powers the Trifid.
The tip of a finger-like Evaporating Gaseous Globule, or
"EGG", is pointing back at the Trifids central star. A tiny Trifid Stellar jet
Trifid EGG with jet A tiny jet emerging from the EGG and a patch of reflected
Light suggests that a young stellar object is buried in the tip of the jet.
This young stellar object was uncovered a few tens of thousands of years ago as radiation
from the Trifid's central star disrupted the dense cloud from which the star formed.

A T Tauri star is a very young, lightweight star, less than 10 million years old and under
3 solar masses, that it still undergoing gravitational contraction; it represents an
intermediate stage between a protostar and a mid-mass main sequence star like the Sun. T

43

Tauri stars are found only in nebulae or very young clusters, have low-temperature (G to
M type) spectra with strong emission lines and broad absorption
lines. They are more luminous than main sequence stars of similar
spectral types, and they have a high lithium abundance, which is a
pointer to their extreme youth, as lithium is rapidly destroyed in
stellar interiors. T Tauri stars often have large accretion disks left
over from stellar formation. Their erratic brightness changes may
be due to instabilities in the disk, violent activity in the stellar
atmosphere, or nearby clouds of gas and dust that sometimes
obscure the starlight. Two broad T Tauri types are recognized
based on spectroscopic characteristics that arise from their disk
properties: classic T Tauri and weak-lined T Tauri stars. Classical
T Tauri stars have extensive disks that result in strong emission XZ Tauri (Hubble)
lines. Weak-lined T Tauri stars are surrounded by a disk that is very weak or no longer in
existence. The weak T Tauri stars are of particular
interest since they provide astronomers with a look at
early stages of stellar evolution unencumbered by
nebulous material. Some of the absent disk matter
may have gone into making planetesimals, from
which planets might eventually form. According to
one estimate, about 60% of T Tauri stars younger
than 3 million years may possess dust disks,
compared with only 10% of stars that are 10 million
years old. T Tauri stars represent an evolutionary
stage between protostar and main sequence and are
located just above the main sequence on the H-R diagram.


Brown Dwarfs & Low Mass Stars:

If a protostar forms with a mass less than 0.08 solar masses, its
internal temperature never becomes high enough for thermonuclear
fusion to begin. This failed star is called a brown dwarf, halfway
between a planet (like Jupiter) and a star. A
star shines because of the thermonuclear
Gliese 229B (Palomar) reactions in its core, which release enormous
amounts of energy by fusing hydrogen into
helium. For the fusion reactions to occur, though, the
temperature in the star's core must reach at least three million K.
And because core temperature rises with gravitational pressure,
the star must have a minimum mass: about 75 times the mass of
the planet Jupiter, or about 8 percent of the mass of our sun. A Brown Dwarfs in Orion (Hubble)
brown dwarf, like Gliese 229B pictured above, just misses that
mark; it is heavier than a gas giant planet but not quite massive enough to be a star.
Brown dwarfs still emit energy, mostly in the infrared, due to the potential energy of
collapse converted into kinetic energy. There is enough energy from the collapse to cause
the brown dwarf to shine for more than ~15 million years. Brown dwarfs eventual radiate
all their heat into space and fade away. The composite Hubble image shows the
Trapezium stars (optical) within the Orion Nebula combined with an infrared image that
shows a swarm of brown dwarfs.

44


All through the long life of a low mass star, the relentless
compression of gravity is balanced by the outward pressure from the
nuclear fusion reactions in the core. Eventually, the hydrogen nuclei
in the core is all converted to helium nuclei and the nuclear reactions
stop. No stellar evolution takes place in stars with less than 0.8 solar
masses. The time it takes for low mass stars to use up all their
hydrogen fuel is longer than the current age of the universe (about 14
Proxima Centauri, Chandra billion years). These extremely low mass stars are called red dwarfs,
and they are located on the lower right corner of the main sequence
on the H-R Diagram. Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to the Sun, is a red dwarf star.

Mid-Sized Stars:

Thermonuclear fusion in stars with masses between ~0.8 and 8 solar
masses, similar to our Sun, produces the outward radiation pressure
to counterbalance gravitational forces for approximately ten billion
years. When all the hydrogen nuclei have been converted to helium
nuclei and fusion stops, gravity takes over and the core begins to
collapse. The layers outside the core collapse too - the layers closer to
the center collapse more quickly than the ones near the stellar
surface. As the layers collapse, the gas compresses and heats up. The
temperature becomes high enough for helium nuclei to fuse into
carbon and oxygen nuclei, with hydrogen fusing in a thin shell
Sun (SOHO) surrounding the core. The outer layers expand
to an enormous size and the star is now called
a red giant. The star brightens by a factor of ~1,000 to 10,000, and
the surface temperature of the extended envelope drops to about
3,000K - 4,000K, giving the star its reddish appearance. A strong
wind begins to blow from the star's surface, carrying away most of
the hydrogen envelope surrounding the star's central core. During the Mira (Hubble)
final shedding of its envelope, when the mass loss is greatest,
the star pulsates - the surface layers expand and then contract
in repeating cycles - with periods from several months to more
than a year. During this pulsating stage the star is called a Mira Mira Light Curve
variable star.
The pulsations of Mira variable stars result in a change in the
magnitude, or brightness, of the star. A plot of the change in
brightness over time is call a light curve. During this stage, as
mid-sized stars evolve to the giant branch, they move through
an area referred to as the Mira instability strip - on the H-R
diagram shown on the left this area is further divided into long-
period and semiregular variables.

Eventually, the material ejected by the star forms an envelope
of gas called a planetary nebula which expands into the
surrounding interstellar medium at ~17-35 km/hr. The core of
the star left in the center of the planetary nebula is called a
white dwarf. The planetary nebula is very tenuous, and
becomes so thin that after ~50,000 years it is no longer visible -
therefore all planetary nebulas that we see are very young, less
Helix Nebula (Hubble)
45


than ~50,000 years old. The white dwarf is extremely dense. It is held in equilibrium with
gravity by electron degeneracy pressure. The repulsive forces of the electron clouds of
the individual atoms are strong enough to stop any further gravitational contraction. The
mass limit for a white dwarf to remain in equilibrium between gravity and electron degeneracy
pressure is 1.4 solar masses - the Chandrasekhar limit. Eventually the white dwarf will
radiate all of its remaining energy away and become a black dwarf - a cold, dark mass.
The universe is not old enough for any white dwarf to have become a black dwarf, so
black dwarfs are not considered as part of the evolutionary stage of a star.

This H-R diagram the shows the
evolutionary track of the Sun, which
is halfway through its lifetime of ~9
billion years on the main sequence. It
is a spectral type G star, has an
effective surface temperature of
~5800K, and one solar luminosity.
When the Sun runs out of hydrogen
fuel in its core and fusion stops, it
will begin its journey to the red giant
branch. The Sun will contract, heat
up until a shell of hydrogen is fusing
around the helium core, and become
cooler, ~3000K, reddish in color, and more luminous in excess of 500 solar
luminosities. After ~one billion years, the hydrogen shell fusion stops and the Sun
contracts again, becoming less luminous, hotter, and less red in color. During this phase it
is sometimes referred to as a yellow giant. The contraction will cause the core to heat up
until helium fusion begins in the core. The fusion of helium nuclei to carbon nuclei
causes the Sun to expand again, becoming more luminous. The core will contract again
when it runs out of helium and fusion stops again; this time there is not enough mass for
the shrinking core to achieve the temperature necessary for the fusion of carbon to begin.
The Sun will throw off its outer atmospheric layers into a planetary nebula and the
remaining carbon core called a white dwarf will then reside on the white dwarf
branch of the H-R diagram. The white dwarf is very dim and very hot with a
temperature of ~20,000K. The white dwarf will radiate away its heat over the next ~12
billion years and become a burnt out carbon cinder called a black dwarf.

A white dwarf is not the end produce is the stellar evolution of a
mid-sized star if it is in a binary system. Suppose two stars, one with
one solar mass and the other with five solar masses are in a binary
system. The five solar mass star runs out of hydrogen faster than its
less massive companion, becomes a red giant, shrugs off a planetary
nebula, and collapses into a white dwarf. Eventually the companion
Dana Berry, Artist star runs out of hydrogen and enters the red giant stage. The outer
layers of the red giant are loosely held by the star, and the extreme
gravitational field of the white dwarf starts pulling the material from the red giant into an
accretion disk around the white dwarf. The mass transfer continues, with the material
orbiting the white dwarf in the accretion disk. Friction slows the matters orbital motion,
which causes the matter to spiral through the disk down to the surface of the white dwarf.
The falling and spiraling of the matter toward the white dwarf releases large amounts of
gravitational energy and heats the accretion disk.

46




The white dwarf is predominately carbon and oxygen, and accretes matter from its
companion relatively rapidly. Consequently, the white dwarf grows in mass. When the
accretion has raised the white dwarf's mass to the critical mass of
1.4 solar masses, the density and temperature in the center of the
white dwarf become so severe that carbon starts burning
explosively. Within one second the burning front moves all the
way to the surface, making the entire white dwarf one huge nuclear
fireball. The white dwarf explodes and is completely destroyed.
There is no stellar remnant. All of the core's matter - namely, the
products of the nuclear burning (iron, nickel, silicon, magnesium,
and other heavy elements) plus unburned carbon and oxygen - Tycho's SNR (Chandra)
are ejected into space at speeds upwards of 48,000,000 km/hr.
Tycho's supernova remnant is the result of a Type Ia supernova event; the core was
completely destroyed by the explosion.

Massive Stars:

Massive star formation seems to take place in clusters.
Studying the distribution of massive stars and how they form
is complicated because most of their energy is emitted at far-
ultraviolet wavelengths that are not accessible from Earth,
and they have short main sequence lifetimes; stars greater
than 40 solar masses may not even finish their assembly until
after fusing a significant portion of their core hydrogen, so a
zero-age main sequence stage may not even exist for the
M7 Open Cluster in Scorpius (NOAO) most massive stars. Massive stars
are low in number but make a
large contribution to the properties of galaxies. They are
fundamental to the production of the heavy elements and to
the energy balance in the interstellar medium. Massive stars
regulate the rate of star formation on large scales through
feedback via intense winds, radiation and, finally, through
supernova explosions. Most stars are born in the
neighborhood of a massive star, so they influence the rate Eagle Nebula (NOAO)
of low-mass star formation. The Eagle Nebula is a major
star-forming region. Star formation will stop after a relatively small number of stars have
been born. That's because the stellar nursery is blown away by some of the newly formed
stars. The hottest of these stars heat the surrounding molecular gas, break up its
molecules, and drive the gas away. As the gas and dust clears, the previously hidden
young stars become visible, and the molecular cloud and its star-forming capability cease
to exist. So, ironically, the same climate that is conducive to star formation also may shut
off the star formation process. Young stars are very hot and can heat the molecular gas to
more than 800 K, which is an unfavorable climate for star birth. When the temperature
exceeds about 1900 K, the gas molecules break down into atoms.




47




The Orion Nebula (M42) is ~1500 LY away, and the closest
stellar nursery. The Orion Nebula is an emission nebula,
excited by four young hot luminous stars in its center, called
the Trapezium. The trapezium
stars are ~2,000,000 years old.
Eventually, the entire Orion
complex, which includes the
Orion Nebula, the trapezium,
and the Horsehead nebula, will
slowly disperse over the next
Orion Nebula (CFHT) ~100,000 years. Eventually this
area will resemble the Pleiades - an open cluster of young, hot Trapezium in Orion (Hubble)
stars that formed together, produced intense untraviolet radiation that blew away the gas
clouds surrounding them, and began slowly drift apart over time.

This image of N44F captures the gas cavity carved by the
stellar wind and intense ultraviolet radiation from a hot
young star. This young star was once buried deep within a
cold dense molecular cloud. The cloud fragmented and
condensed, forming a core which became a protostar.
Eventually the protostar became hot enough for
thermonuclear fusion to begin, and the hydrogen nuclei in
the core started fusing into helium nuclei. After the core
N44F (Hubble) hydrogen has been depleted in these massive stars (greater
than ~8 solar masses) helium begins fusing into carbon and oxygen nuclei. The carbon-
oxygen core contracts and heats until it is hot enough for carbon and oxygen to start the
fusion process. Their fusion yields neon, magnesium, silicon, and sulfur nuclei.
Eventually, silicon and sulfur fuse in the star's core to form iron, nickel, and other nuclei
of similar atomic weight.

The star's structure now
resembles an onion. The
central core of the onion
consists of iron nuclei.
Surrounding it is a shell in
which silicon and sulfur are
fusing, adding more iron nuclei
to the iron core. In additional
levels further out, lighter elements fuse - oxygen, carbon,
helium, and hydrogen. The iron core is very compact and
Hodge 301(Hubble) cannot ignite to induce further nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion,
just like chemical burning, is possible only if the reactions release energy. The fusion of
iron with other nuclei to make still heavier nuclei requires an input of energy - it is an
endothermic reaction. The energy required to manufacture elements heavier than iron
becomes available only during the catastrophic collapse of the star's core and the violent
explosion of the star's outer envelope that is about to occur. The cluster of hot stars in the
lower right corner of Hodge 301, located within the Tarantula Nebula, is rapidly
approaching collapse. This massive star-forming region is in the Large Magellanic Cloud,


48


a galaxy ~180,000 LY away. As the hydrogen fuel begins to run out, massive stars leave
the main sequence of the H-R diagram and start evolving towards the supergiant branch.
The transition to the supergiant branch is not smooth, and the stars expand and contract as
the fusion process changes from one type of nuclei to the next. Many of these stars
pulsate because they are not in hydrostatic equilibrium: the force of gravity acting on the
outer mass of the star is not quite balanced by the interior radiation pressure pushing
outwards. If a star expands as a result of increased gas pressure, the material density and
pressure decrease until the point that hydrostatic equilibrium is reached and then
overshot, owing to the momentum of the expansion. At this point the star is transparent
and photons can escape. Then gravity dominates, and the star begins to contract. The
momentum of the infalling material carries the contraction beyond the equilibrium point.
At this point the star becomes opaque and photons are trapped and the star is dimmer.
The pressure again becomes too high, and the cycle starts over again. They system acts as
an oscillator. This type of star is called a variable star, because the star changes its
brightness, or magnitude, as it pulsates. One type of massive pulsating variable star is
called a Cepheid. Most massive stars pass through the Cepheid instability strip of the H-R
diagram as they progress towards the red supergiant branch.

Cepheids have a repeating cycle of change that is periodic - as regular as the beating of a
heart. Observations of the changes in apparent magnitude of variable stars - including
Cepheids - are plotted as the apparent magnitude versus time, usually in Julian Date (JD).
The resulting graph is called a light curve. The light curve for the Cepheid variable star
X Cyg (located in the constellation Cygnus) is shown below. Each data point represents
one observation. Once many observations have been plotted, important information can
be obtained from the resulting pattern of changing magnitudes. The period for X Cyg is
the amount of time it takes for
the star to go through one
complete cycle from maximum
magnitude (brightness), through
minimum magnitude (dimmest),
and back to maximum magnitude
(brightness.)
http://www.aavso.org/vstar/types.shtml

The mass of the star's iron core approaches 1.4 solar masses
- the Chandrasehkar Limit - due to the continued silicon
and sulfur fusion in the thin shell adjacent to the iron core,
and the continued fusion of iron requires more energy than
is available. Once the Chandrasekhar Limit is reached, the
electron degeneracy pressure of the atoms within the core is
Sher 25 (ESO) no longer able to stop to further
collapse of the star; radiation pressure is no longer able to
support the core against gravity and the iron core collapses. In
less than a second, the core collapses from a diameter of ~8000
kilometers to ~19 kilometers - the collapse happens so fast that
the outer layers have no time to react or collapse along with the
core. The energy released during core collapse is unimaginable -
more energy than is produced by 100 stars like the Sun during
their entire lifetimes of more than 10 billion years! Most of the
energy released during collapse is carried off into space by SNR 0103-72.6 (Chandra)

49


neutrinos; however a small fraction of the energy triggers the accompanying supernova
explosion. It is possible that Sher 25 will be the next observable supernova event. The
supernova Remnant SNR 0103-72.6 occurred ~10,000 LY away in the Small Magellanic
Cloud - a neighboring galaxy. The X-ray image shows great detail within this remnant,
even though it is ~190,000 LY away. It is easier to study remnants in other galaxies,
because within the Milky Way these objects are obscured by the gas and dust within the
spiral arms.

The core collapses so fast that it momentarily goes past its
equilibrium point and instantaneously rebounds. The innermost layers
of the star are still in-falling and meet the rebounding core, creating a
super strong shock wave that runs outward through the layers towards
to the star's surface. The shock wave heats the outer layers, inducing
explosive nuclear burning, and ejects the outermost layers in excess of
speeds of ~16 million kilometers per hour. The energy released by the
shockwave manufactures elements heavier than iron. When the shock
wave reaches the star's surface, it heats
the surface layers and brightens them
SN1987A (AAO) within a day or two the exploding star
becomes brighter than a billion Suns. The SN1987A
supernova event in the Large Magellanic Cloud galaxy was
the first witnessed supernova
event since Johannes Kepler
recorded his in 1604. The Cas A (Hubble)
expanding gaseous shell plows into the surrounding interstellar
medium, and pushes, compresses, and intermingles with it. The
material, rich in heavy elements, now seeds the interstellar
space surrounding the star, and may trigger the formation of a
Veil Nebula (NOAO) new generation of stars. The images of the Veil Nebula and
Cas A show supernovae remnants plowing through space, carrying the newly created
elements into the interstellar medium. The core collapse of a massive star is a Type II
supernova event. The stellar end product left behind depends upon the initial mass of the
star, and is either a neutron star, pulsar, magnetar, or black hole.


Neutron stars have passed the 1.4 solar mass Chandrasekhar
limit, and are not held in equilibrium by electron degeneracy
pressure. The repulsive force between electrons is not strong
enough to balance gravity in a star that begins with more than
~8 solar masses and has a core remnant between 1.4 and 2.5
solar masses. The collapsing core is so massive that the
electrons are forced into the atomic nuclei where they
Puppis A Remnant (ROSAT) combine with protons and become
neutrons. Neutron stars are held in equilibrium with neutron
degeneracy pressure (strong nuclear force) which provides
the pressure to stop gravity from contracting the core any
further. The Type II supernova remnant Puppis A contains a
a neutron star. RXJ 1856.5-3754 is the closest neutron star.

49 RX J1856.5-3754 (ESO)

Pulsars are spinning neutron stars that have jets of particles
moving almost at the speed of light streaming out from the
magnetic poles. These jets produce very powerful beams of
high energy particles that emit x-rays. For a similar reason
that "true north" and "magnetic north" are different on Earth,
the magnetic and rotational axes of a pulsar are also
misaligned. Therefore, the beam of particles and x-rays from
the jets sweep around as the pulsar rotates, just as the
spotlight in a lighthouse does. Like a ship in the ocean that
G292.0+1.8 (Chandra) sees only regular flashes of light, we see pulsars turn on and off
as the beam sweeps over the Earth. The oxygen-rich supernova G292.0+1.8 contains a
pulsar. Neutron stars have very intense magnetic fields, about 1,000,000,000,000 times
stronger than Earth's own field. The combination of this strong magnetic field and the
rapid rotation of the neutron star produces extremely powerful electric fields, with
electric potential in excess of 1,000,000,000,000 volts. Electrons are accelerated to high
velocities by these strong electric fields. These high-energy electrons produce radiation in
two general ways: as a coherent plasma the electrons work together to produce radio
emissions, and individually the electrons interact with photons or the magnetic filed to
produce high-energy emission such as optical, X-ray and gamma-ray. The pulses of
radiation match the rate of the rotation of the neutron star.

Magnetars are neutron stars that have super strong magnetic
fields, about 100 trillion times as strong as the Earth's magnetic
field. These fields are so intense that the solid neutron star
crust buckles and shifts under its influence. The resulting star
quakes could repeatedly
generate brief flashes of hard
X-rays and soft gamma-rays -
giving rise to the rare but Magnetar Illustration, Robert Mallozzi
mysterious "soft gamma repeaters" - because magnetars
seem to be rotating too slowly to produce the observed
energy output. The Hubble image of N49, a Type II
supernova remnant in the Large Magellanic Cloud,
N49 (Hubble) contains a magnetar.

One million seconds of x-ray image data were used to
construct this view of supernova remnant Cassiopeia A, the
expanding debris cloud from a stellar explosion. Cas A's
outer green ring, ~10 light-years in diameter, marks the
location of the expanding shock from the original
supernova explosion. In the upper left portion of the
remnant, a structure extends beyond
it, evidence that the initial explosion
may have also produced energetic
jets. Still glowing in x-rays, the tiny
Cassiopeia A (Chandra) point source near the center of Cas A
is a neutron star, the collapsed remains of the stellar core. In the
blue-colored Cas A image specially processed to highlight silicon

Cassiopeia A (Chandra)
51


ions, a counter-jet can be seen on the lower right The X-ray spectra show that the jet and
counter-jet are rich in silicon atoms and relatively poor in iron atoms. This indicates that
the jets formed soon after the initial explosion of the star; otherwise, the jets should have
contained large quantities of iron from the star's central regions. The bright blue fingers
located near the shock wave on the lower left are composed almost purely of iron gas.
This iron was produced in the central, hottest regions of the star and somehow ejected in
a direction almost perpendicular to the jets. The bright source at the center of the image is
presumed to be a neutron star created during the supernova. Unlike the rapidly rotating
neutron stars in other supernova remnants that are surrounded by dynamic magnetized
clouds of electrons called pulsar wind nebulas, this neutron star is quiet, faint, and so far
shows no evidence for pulsed radiation. One explanation could be that the explosion that
created Cas A produced high-speed jets similar to but less energetic than the hypernova
jets thought to produce gamma-ray bursts. During the explosion, the neutron star may
have developed an extremely strong magnetic field that helped to accelerate the jets. This
super-strong magnetic field later stifled any pulsar wind activity, so the neutron star today
resembles other strong-field neutron stars in lacking a pulsar wind nebula; Cas A may
contain a magnetar.

If the core remnant of a collapsed massive star exceeds 3
solar masses, neutron degeneracy pressure cannot stop the
complete and total collapse of the star. The neutrons get
pushed into each other until the star becomes a region, or
boundary, in space around
the black hole, called the
event horizon, beyond which
Black Hole (April Hobart, Chandra) we cannot see. The extreme
gravitational field within the event horizon emits no
radiation; however, it can be indirectly detected by its
effects on the spacetime around it - including accretion Binary System (NASA artist)
disks and companion stars. Artist illustrations are usually used to portray these
conditions, such as the black hole and binary system shown.
Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are among the most
energetic and most luminous explosions in the
Universe. They occur roughly once a day, last from a
few thousandths of a second to a few hundred seconds,
and come from all different directions of the sky. Their
gamma radiation is more energetic than visible light
and can be measured by satellites orbiting the Earth in
space. The energy set free by the bursts in just one
Hypernova in M100 (Hubble) second is comparable to the energy production of the Sun
during its whole life. There is evidence that GRBs are
produced during catastrophic explosions which end the lives of
extremely massive stars. Two possible candidates for this type
of massive explosive event have been discovered in the spiral
galaxy M100. The gigantic energy which powers the gamma-
ray burst is thought to be provided by rapidly spinning black
holes which form when the central core of a very massive star
becomes unstable
52 GRB 020813 (Chandra)

and collapses under its own gravity. The infalling stellar material becomes part of the
newly formed black hole, which releases enormous amounts of energy in two jets. The
jets expand relativistically, at almost the speed of light, along the rotation axis. Before
they break out from the stellar surface, they have to drill their way through thick layers of
stellar material, thus getting collimated into very narrow beams with an opening angle of
only a few degrees. Recent observations, like GRB 020813, are confirming that the origin
of long gamma-ray bursts comes from exploding massive stars.
Stellar evolution is a fascinating and
fundamental topic. We are just beginning to
construct the knowledge necessary to
understand the processes of star formation
and destruction. Ground-based and orbiting
spacecraft are imaging stars in all stages of
evolution from radio through gamma rays.
Images, like the radio image of the Cygnus
region shown here, give us fascinating views
of stellar evolution - from protostars just
emerging from their stellar cocoons to
thermonuclear fusion in massive hot, blue
Cygnus Region (CGPS) stars, to supernovae remnants that result from the
catastrophic collapses of stellar cores. Somehow, within this maelstrom of turbulence,
intense radiation and ferocious stellar winds, stars and planetary systems form.
Technological advances are allowing us to explore the universe in unprecedented detail,
and with these dramatic improvements in resolution come the prospect of significant
advances in understanding a wide range of cosmic phenomena, including the never-
ending cycle of stellar formation and destruction.





















53




The Chandra X-Ray Observatory Stellar Evolution Activities and Resources

The Chandra X-ray Observatory is the most sophisticated
X-ray observatory launched by NASA. Chandra is designed
to collect X-rays from high-energy objects in the universe,
including supernova remnants, colliding galaxies, black
holes, neutron stars and X-ray binary stars. The unique
sensitivity and precision of the mirror assembly,
transmission gratings, high resolution camera and
spectrometer have made possible significant advances in
Chandra X-Ray Observatory our understanding of stellar processes, high energy matter
and anti-matter particles, the formation and evolution of
galaxies, black holes, and stellar evolution.

The spectacular results from the first nine years of the Chandra observations are having a
profound impact on our understanding of such exotic phenomena as super-massive black
holes, rivers of gravity that define the cosmic landscape, a swarm of black hole activity at
the center of the Milky Way Galaxy, and a supernova event so powerful that it is a
completely different type of super-massive stellar explosion. The Chandra Education and
Public Outreach Office has developed a set of materials for educators that incorporate
technology and authentic data analysis and research in the classroom. All materials are
available online; and the image sets and posters are free upon request.


STELLAR EVOLUTION

An impressive body of evidence suggests that
approximately 14 billions years ago the space,
time, matter and energy that make up what we call
the universe came into existence. During the first
10 billion years, galaxies and stars were formed.
Many generations of massive stars underwent
catastrophic core collapse and left behind
supernova remnants, neutron stars, pulsars and
black holes. Before the final collapse, these
massive stars fused hydrogen to helium to carbon,
Stellar Evolution Poster oxygen, silicon, sulfur and iron. Elements heavier
than iron were produced in the outer envelopes of
the stars during the supernova explosions and the resulting shock waves from the core
collapse. The shockwaves traveled through the remnants, carrying the heavier elements
from the interior of the star into the surrounding interstellar medium, enriching the
medium with the newly created elements. The interstellar medium - the gas and dust
between the stars - provided the raw materials for the formation of a new generation of
stars.





54



Stellar formation begins when fragments of giant molecular clouds of gas and dust - each
with tens to hundreds of solar masses of material each - start collapsing. Possible trigger
mechanisms could be a shock wave from the explosion of a nearby massive star or from
the passage of the cloud through regions of more intense gravity as found in the spiral
arms of galaxies. These shock waves compress the gas clouds enough for them to
gravitationally collapse. Eventually the clumps of gas compress enough to become
protostars.

As a gas clump collapses it heats up due to friction as the gas particles bump into each
other. The gravitational potential energy the gas particles had from falling under the force
of gravity gets converted to thermal energy. The gas clump becomes warm enough to
produce infrared and microwave radiation. During the initial collapse, the clump is
transparent to radiation and the collapse proceeds fairly quickly. As the clump becomes
more dense it becomes opaque. Infrared radiation is trapped, and the temperature and
pressure in the center begin to increase. After a few million years, thermonuclear fusion
begins in its core, and a strong stellar wind is produced which stops the infall of more
mass. The protostar is now considered to be a young star.

Thermonuclear fusion in stars with masses between 0.8
and 8 solar masses produces the outward pressure to
counterbalance gravitational forces for approximately ten
billion years. When the core hydrogen has been converted
to helium and fusion stops, gravity takes over and the
core starts to collapse. The layers outside the core
collapse also - the layers closer to the center collapse
more quickly than the ones near the stellar surface. As the
layers collapse, the gas compresses and heats up. The
core temperature becomes high enough for helium to fuse
into carbon and oxygen, with hydrogen to helium fusion Cats Eye Nebula
Continuing in a thin shell surrounding the core. The outer
layers expand to an enormous size and the star is now called a red giant. The star
brightens by a factor of 1,000 to 10,000, and the surface temperature of the extended
envelope drops to about 3,000K - 4,000K, giving the star its reddish appearance. A strong
wind begins to blow from the star's surface, carrying away most of the material
surrounding the star's central core.

The material ejected by the star forms a planetary nebula which expands into the
surrounding interstellar medium. The core of the star left in the center of the planetary
nebula is called a white dwarf. The white dwarf is extremely dense. It is held in
equilibrium with gravity by electron degeneracy pressure - the repulsive forces of the
electron clouds of the individual atoms. The mass limit for a white dwarf to remain in
equilibrium between gravity and electron degeneracy pressure is 1.4 solar masses - the
Chandrasekhar limit. Over hundreds of billions of years the white dwarf will radiate all of
its remaining heat away and become a black dwarf.

A white dwarf is not the end product in the collapse of a mid-sized star if it is in a binary
system. Suppose two stars, one with one solar mass and the other with five solar masses
are in a binary system. The five solar mass star runs out of hydrogen faster than its less
massive companion, becomes a red giant, shrugs off a planetary nebula, and collapses
into a white dwarf. Eventually the companion star runs out of hydrogen and enters the red

55


giant stage. The outer layers of the red giant are loosely held by the star, and the extreme
gravitational field of the white dwarf results in mass transfer from the red giant into an
accretion disk around the white dwarf. Friction slows the matter's orbital motion, which
causes the matter to spiral through the accretion disk down to the surface of the white
dwarf. The falling and spiraling of the matter toward the white dwarf releases large
amounts of gravitational energy and heats the
accretion disk. The white dwarf accretes matter
from its companion relatively rapidly and grows in
mass. When the accretion has raised the white
dwarf's mass to the critical mass of 1.4 solar
masses, the density and temperature in the center of
the white dwarf become so severe that carbon starts
fusing explosively. The white dwarf undergoes a
thermonuclear explosion and is completely
destroyed; only the remnant remains. All of the
core's matter the products of nuclear fusion (iron,
nickel, silicon, magnesium, and other heavy
elements) plus unfused carbon and oxygen - are
ejected into the interstellar medium. The Tycho Supernova Remnant Type I
thermonuclear explosion of a white dwarf is a
Type Ia supernova event.

Stars with masses greater than eight solar masses continue nuclear fusion beyond core
helium, and after all of the core helium is gone carbon and oxygen begin to fuse. Their
fusion yields neon, magnesium, silicon, and sulfur. Eventually, silicon and sulfur fuse in
the star's core to form iron, nickel, and other elements of similar atomic weight. The
central core now consists of iron, surrounded by a shell in which silicon and sulfur fuse,
adding more iron to the core. In additional layers further out, lighter elements fuse -
oxygen, carbon, helium, and hydrogen. The iron core is very compact and cannot induce
further nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion is possible only if the reactions release energy. The
fusion of iron with other nuclei to make still heavier nuclei is an endothermic nuclear
reaction. The energy required to produce elements heavier than iron becomes available
only during the imminent catastrophic collapse of the star's core and the violent explosion
of the star's outer envelope.
The mass of the star's iron core approaches 1.4 solar masses due to the continued silicon
and sulfur fusion in the thin shell adjacent to the iron core, and the continued fusion of
iron requires more energy than is available. Radiation pressure is no longer able to
support the core against gravity and the iron core collapses. In less than a second, the core
collapses from a diameter of 8000 kilometers to 19 kilometers - the collapse happens so
rapidly that the outer layers have no time to react or collapse along with the core. The
energy released during core collapse is unimaginable - more energy than is produced by
100 stars like the Sun during their entire lifetimes of more than 10 billion years. Most of
the energy released during collapse is carried off into space by neutrinos; a small fraction
of the energy triggers the accompanying supernova explosion. The core collapses so fast
that it momentarily goes past its equilibrium point and instantaneously rebounds. The
innermost layers of the star are still in-falling and meet the rebounding core, creating a
super strong shock wave that runs outward through the layers towards the stars surface.
The shock wave heats the outer layers, inducing explosive nuclear fusions, and ejects the
outermost layers. The energy released by the shockwave produces elements heavier than

56



iron. When the shock wave reaches the star's surface, it
heats the surface layers and brightens them - within a day
or two the exploding star becomes brighter than a billion
suns. The expanding gaseous shell, referred to as a
supernova remnant, plows into the surrounding
interstellar medium, and pushes, compresses, and
intermingles with it. This is a Type II supernova event -
the core collapse of a massive star. The end product
within the remnant depends upon the initial mass of the
star; neutron star, pulsar, magnetar, or black hole.
Cas A Supernova Remnant Type II
NOTE: A more extensive discussion of Type II and Type Ia supernovas is included
in the Investigating Supernova Remnants ds9 activity on pages 164 169.

ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

A major focus of the Chandra mission is the study of the structure and evolution of the
universe - including understanding when and where elements are created, exploring the
cycles of matter and energy in the evolving universe, and examining the ultimate limits of
extreme gravity and energy. The following activities and supporting materials are based
on Chandra data and have been developed to give educators the content and resources to
investigate stellar evolution. These materials support the National Science Standards and
Benchmarks.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/stellar_ev/cosmic/alignment.html

Our Cosmic Connection is a sequencing activity using the set of 24 images provided with
this journal. All information and materials necessary for educators to use this activity in
the classroom are on the Chandra Education Website. Additional sets of images can also
be requested.

The Stellar Evolution module is on the Chandra website and consists of the following
components:

The Story of Stellar Evolution: A complete introduction that describes the stages of stellar
evolution of all stars. http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/stellar_ev/story/

Stellar Evolution: A Journey with Chandra: A poster which displays the cycles of the
evolutionary stages of stars of different masses.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/prod_descriptions.html
Poster Request Form: http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/request.html

The Interactive Guide to Stellar Evolution: An interactive flash version of the Stellar
Evolution: A Journey with Chandra poster.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/stellar_ev/

Blast from the Past: Historical Supernovas: A poster displaying 9 historical supernova
events. A copy of this poster is included with this journal.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/prod_descriptions.html
Poster Request Form: http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/request.html

57




Podcasts: Supernovas and Supernova Remnants: A list of podcasts that highlight
Chandra observations of supernovas.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/resources/podcasts/by_category.html?catid=4

Cassiopeia A (Cas A)The Death of a Star: A timeline that describes the Cas A
supernova event. http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/casa_timeline/

Our Cosmic Connection Activity: A sequencing activity which uses a set of 24 colored
images to assist students in acquiring a basic understanding and appreciation for stellar
evolution from formation to destruction - and their connection to planet Earth.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/stellar_ev/cosmic/
(HTML, PDF and PowerPoint (PPT) versions)
Card Sets Request Form: http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/request_special.html

Cosmic Webquest Activity: An internet version of the Our Cosmic Connection Activity.
For each of the 24 images, students are sent to similar objects on the internet to gather
information about each of the objects in the image set. (HTML, PDF, PPT and flash
versions) http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/stellar_ev/cosmic/

Stellar Cycles Performance Task: A pre or post assessment activity complete with a
scoring rubric to determine student understanding of stellar evolution. The activity is
similar to the Our Cosmic Connection activity, but uses a different image set. (HTML,
PDF and PowerPoint (PPT) versions)
Card Sets Request Form: http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/request_special.html

Teacher Guide: Suggestions for Our Cosmic Connection and Stellar Cycles activities and
card sets with descriptions and a web site link for each image, visual answer keys with
several possible sequences for the different types of evolution.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/stellar_cycle/guide.html#cosmic

Investigating Supernova Remnants: An activity that uses Chandra data and ds9 image
analysis software to investigate supernova remnants to determine if they are Type II core
collapse or Type Ia thermonuclear events.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/snr/
Download instructions for ds9: http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/install.html
Tutorial to use ds9 software: http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/learning_ds9index.html
X-Ray Spectroscopy and Supernova Remnants ds9 Version:
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/snr/ds9.html
X-Ray Spectroscopy and Supernova Remnants Pencil and Paper Version:
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/snr/paper.html
Cas A: The Supernova as Cosmic Recycling Center: A set of 6 activities that utilize ds9
and Chandra data to explore the science of Cas A.
http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/casa/index.html





58




How and What to Study for Stellar Evolution:

Summary: The following information summarizes the basic content of stellar evolution
that is necessary to answer the sample questions on the following page:

All stars progress through the following stages: stellar nursery, proto-star, T-Tauri star,
living stars - thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen to helium taking place in the core.
The mass of the star determines how long it will take to run out of hydrogen fuel - the
more massive the star the faster it fuses hydrogen and the sooner it runs out of fuel:
Stellar Classification O ~ 3 million years, Stellar Classification B ~ 80 million years,
Stellar Classification A ~ 1.5 billion years, Stellar Classification F ~ 5 billion years,
Stellar Classification G ~ 10 billion years, Stellar Classification K ~ 35 billion years,
Stellar Classification M ~ 250 billion years
While a star is fusing hydrogen into helium equilibrium is maintained by radiation
pressure from fusion directed outwards from the core and gravity directed inwards.
When a star runs out of hydrogen there is no longer radiation pressure to counter the
force of gravity and the star begins to collapse. The resulting evolutionary stages the
star experiences depends upon the initial mass of the star.
Final evolutionary stages for a mid-sized star (0.8 - 8 solar masses):
red giant, planetary nebula, white dwarf
Final evolutionary stages for a mid-sized star in a binary star system: red giant,
planetary nebula, white dwarf, type Ia supernova event, no core remnant
Final evolutionary stages for a massive star (more than 8 solar masses): red giant, red
supergiant, type II supernova event, and either neutron star (including pulsar or
magnetar), or black hole
Differences between Type Ia and Type II supernovae events:
Type Ia: Thermonuclear explosion of a white dwarf, no stellar remnant left, only the
supernova remnant left behind, brighter in magnitude.
Type II: Core collapse of a massive star, leaves a neutron star, pulsar, magnetar, or a
black hole stellar remnant - as well as the supernova remnant.
Processes holding stars and stellar remnants in equilibrium:
Living star: Radiation pressure from thermonuclear fusion and gravity
White Dwarf (limit 1.4 solar masses): Electron degeneracy pressure and gravity
Neutron Star (1.4 - 2.5 solar masses): Neutron degeneracy pressure and gravity
Black Hole (more than 2.5 solar masses): No equilibrium, a singularity












59


Practice Questions with Answers: Stellar Cycle Activity
1. Arrange the images with the following numbers in a sequence from birth to final end
product for a mid-sized star: 1,2,5,6,8,10,12,16,18

2. Arrange the images with the following numbers in a sequence from birth to final end
product(s) for a massive star: 3,4,6,7,8,9,11,17,18

3. Arrange the images with the following numbers in a sequence from birth to final end
produce for a mid-sized star in a binary system: 1,2,5,6,8,10,12,13,14,15,16,18

NOTE: Most of these images are from the Cosmic Connections and Stellar Cycles card
sets posted on the Chandra X-Ray Observatory educational pages described on preceding
pages 55-56.



60


Descriptions for images:
1.Mid-sized star - the Sun - optical image
2. White dwarf - Dana Berry artist illustration
3. Black hole - April Hobart artist illustration
4. Type II supernova - Cas A - Chandra x-ray image
5. Red giant - the Sun - Jeff Bryant artist illustration
6. Stellar nursery - M16, the Eagle Nebula - AAO optical image
7. Massive star(s) - the Pleiades - David Malin astrophotography - AAO
8. Stellar nursery close-up - M16, the Eagle nursery - Hubble optical image
9. Massive star pre-Type II supernova event - Eta Carinae - Hubble optical image
10. Proto-planetary system - Dana Berry - artist illustration


61



11. Pulsar - the Crab Pulsar - Chandra X-ray image
12. Planetary nebula and white dwarf remnant - Dana Berry - artist illustration
13. Binary system with white dwarf and red giant - Dana Berry - artist illustration
14. Type Ia supernova remnant - Tycho's remnant - Chandra X-ray image
15. Supernova explosion event - Dana Berry - artist illustration
16. Planetary nebula - M57, the Ring Nebula - Hubble optical image
17. Type II supernova - SN1987A - David Malin astrophotography - AAO
18. Red giant becoming unstable - V838 Mons - Hubble optical image

ANSWER KEY:
1. 6, 8, 10, 1, 5, 18, 16, 12, 2
2. 6, 8, 7, 18, 9, 17, 4, 3 and/or 11
3. 6, 8, 10, 1, 5, 18, 16, 12, 2, 13, 15, 14

Visual Answer Key:
1.




2.








3.







4. Another Example: Both mid-sized and massive star from the same stellar nursery











62





The materials on the CD-ROM include the following:

Stellar Cycle & Cosmic Connection card sets: These image sets are in a folder on
this CD on PowerPoint slides and are also available upon request from the Chandra
website.
Stellar Evolution and the ds9 Image Analysis Software: In the DS9 Image
Analysis Software Tutorial section are activities designed to investigate supernova
remnants.
URL Links listed below.


Additional internet resources for images and information related to stellar evolution:
Chandra X-Ray Center: http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/stellar_ev/
NOTE: A complete list and description of these materials is compiled on pages 55-
56 including activities, movies, interactive tutorials, podcasts, and resources that
are available upon request.
Georgia State University HyperPhysics Website:
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/astro/astcon.html#astcon
An interactive site which gives very detailed information about different stages of
stellar evolution, as well as other astrophysics concepts.
Hubble Newsdesk Archive:
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/category/star/
Images and press releases for different types of stars, including different stage of
stellar evolution.
A board game field-tested by NASA scientists about stellar evolution:[ NOTE: this
is a commercial product] http://stellarjourney.net/ Linder Winter, Developer
NOTE: This site is currently under construction and will be available ~April 2010
DS9 stellar evolution investigations in this manual on pages 156 192.


















63





Variable Stars & Light Curves

Stars appear to shine with a constant light; however, thousands of stars vary in brightness.
The brightness that a star appears to have (apparent magnitude) from our perspective here
on Earth depends upon its distance from Earth and its actual intrinsic brightness (absolute
magnitude.) The behavior of stars that vary in magnitude (brightness) - known as variable
stars - can be studied by measuring their changes in brightness over time and plotting the
changes on a graph called a light curve. Measuring and recording the changes in apparent
magnitude and drawing the resulting light curves will allows astronomers to begin to
unravel the stories of the often turbulent and always exciting lives of variable stars.

Cepheid Variable Stars: Variable stars are stars that vary in brightness, or magnitude.
There are many different types of variable stars. One group of variable stars is the
pulsating variables. These stars expand and contract in a repeating cycle of size changes.
The change in size can be observed as a change in apparent brightness (apparent
magnitude.) Cepheid variables are one type of pulsating variable stars. Cepheids have a
repeating cycle of change that is periodic - as regular as the beating of a heart.
Observations of the changes in apparent magnitude of variable stars - including Cepheids
- are plotted as the apparent magnitude versus time, usually in Julian Date (JD). The
resulting graph is called a light curve. The light curve for the Cepheid variable star X
Cyg (located in the constellation Cygnus) is shown below. Each data point represents one
observation. Once many observations have been plotted, important information can be
obtained from the resulting pattern of changing magnitudes. The period for X Cyg is the
amount of time it takes for the star to go through one complete cycle from maximum
magnitude (brightness), through minimum magnitude (dimmest), and back to maximum
magnitude (brightness.)



Light curve for the Cepheid variable star X Cyg.

Analysis of the light curve for X Cyg shows that the magnitude ranges from an average
maximum magnitude of 6.0 to an average minimum magnitude of 7.0 with a period of
approximately 16 days. X Cyg exhibits periodic behavior - it is a Cepheid variable star
with a predictable cycle of changing magnitudes, a stellar heart that beats once every 16
days. Cepheid variable stars have a period of 1-70 days with an amplitude of variation of
0.1 to 2.0 magnitudes. These massive stars (8 solar masses) have a high luminosity and
are of F spectral class at maximum, and G to K at minimum. The later the spectral class
of a Cepheid, the longer is its period. Cepheids obey a strict period-luminosity
relationship this relationship is discussed in the Cosmological Distances section.


64



Origin of Units of Magnitude and Julian Day used to Graph Light Curves

Magnitudes: The magnitude estimates are plotted on the vertical or y-axis. The method
we use today to compare the apparent brightness (magnitude) of stars began with
Hipparchus, a Greek astronomer who lived in the second century BC. Hipparchus called
the brightest star in each constellation "first magnitude." Ptolemy, in 140 A.D., refined
Hipparchus' system and used a 1 to 6 scale to compare star brightness, with 1 being the
brightest and 6 the faintest. This is similar to the system used in ranking tennis players,
etc. First rank is better than second, etc. Unfortunately, Ptolemy did not use the brightest
star, Sirius, to set the scale, so it has a negative magnitude. (Imagine being ranked -1.5 in
the tennis rankings!) Astronomers in the mid-1800's quantified these numbers and
modified the old Greek system. Measurements demonstrated that 1st magnitude stars
were 100 times brighter than 6th magnitude stars. It has also been calculated that the
human eye perceives a one-magnitude change as being 2 times brighter, so a change in
5 magnitudes would seem to be 2.5
5
(or approximately 100) times brighter. Therefore a
difference of 5 magnitudes has been defined as being equal to a factor of exactly 100 in
apparent brightness.



Magnitudes for Selected Objects





65





Julian Day System: The Julian Day is plotted along the horizontal or x-axis.
Astronomers simplify their timekeeping by merely counting the days, and not months and
years. Each date has a Julian Day number (JD), beginning at noon, which is the number
of elapsed days since January 1st, 4713 B.C. For instance, January 1st, 1993, was JD
2448989; January 2nd, 1993, was JD 2448990; and January 1st, 2000, was JD 2451545.
Why the year 4713 B.C.? The Julian Day system of numbering the days is a continuous
count of days elapsed since the beginning of the Julian Period. This period was devised
during the 16
th
century and first used for counting purposes by Joseph Justus Scaliger, a
French classical scholar. Scaliger calculated the Julian Period by multiplying three
important chronological cycles: the 28-year solar cycle, the 19-year lunar cycle, and the
15-year cycle of tax assessment called the Roman Indiction. To establish a beginning
point for his Julian Day system, Scaliger calculated the closest date before 1 B.C. which
marked the first day for the beginning of all three cycles. This day is January 1, 4713
B.C., which is Julian Day number 1.
RR Lyrae Variable Stars: RR Lyrae variable stars are
another class of pulsating variables. These are older,
pulsating red giants, with a 0.5 solar mass and a pulsation
period of 0.2 to 1.0 day. RR Lyrae stars have an absolute
magnitude of 0.75 only 40 to 50 times our Sun. They
are common in globular clusters dense groups of old
stars in the halo of the galaxy and since they all have
the same absolute magnitude they are used to measure
distances to other galaxies. This will be discussed in the
Cosmological Distances section. The graph shows that if you plot luminosity (absolute
visual magnitude) of Cepheids and RR Lyrae variables versus their period, the luminosity
of RR Lyrae stars does not change with period, and the Cepheids follow the Period-
Luminosity relationship the longer the period, the brighter the star.

Mira Variable Stars: One of the largest groups of pulsating variables is the long-period
variables (LPV's). One class of LPV's is the Mira-type variable. The visual light curves of
Mira-type variables show well-defined periods ranging from 80 to nearly 1000 days, with
amplitudes of 2.5 magnitudes or more. Mira variables are red giant stars, often of
enormous size, that have entered the final evolutionary stages of their existence and will
eventually become white dwarfs. Many of them are slowly ejecting a steady stream of
matter into the surrounding interstellar space; their mass loss can have very dramatic
consequences for their future
evolution. The light curve shown
is Mira (also called omicron Cet)
the prototype of all Mira-type
variable stars.

Cepheids, RR Lyraes, and Mira variable stars are all pulsating variable stars. A star
pulsates because it is not in hydrostatic equilibrium: the force of gravity acting on the
outer mass of the star is not quite balanced by the interior radiation pressure pushing
outwards. If a star expands as a result of increased gas pressure, the material density and
pressure decrease until the point that hydrostatic equilibrium is reached and then
overshot, owing to the momentum of the expansion. At this point the star is transparent

66



and photons can escape. Then gravity dominates, and the star begins to contract. The
momentum of the infalling material carries the contraction beyond the equilibrium point.
At this point the star becomes opaque and photons are trapped and the star is dimmer.
The pressure again becomes too high, and the cycle starts over again. They system acts as
an oscillator. However, with loose atmospheric layers of gases, the oscillations get out of
phase with one another and set the stage for chaotic motions. Energy is dissipated during
such pulsations (analogous to losses caused by friction forces), and eventually this loss of
energy should result in a damping or lessening of the pulsations. The prevalence and
regularity of pulsating stars imply that the dissipated energy is replenished in some way.
The dynamics of pulsating variable stars is not well understood.

Cataclysmic Variable Stars: There are several different types of cataclysmic, or
eruptive, variables. One type occurs in a binary system, with two stars orbiting very close
to each other one of them a normal Sun-like star or giant star, and the other a white
dwarf. White dwarfs are very compressed, with a strong gravitational field. Some of the
outermost material from the larger star is pulled away by the white dwarfs gravity, but
this material does not fall directly onto the white dwarf. Instead, it builds up in a disk
called an accretion disk, which orbits the white dwarf. The combination of normal or
giant star, white dwarf, and accretion disk can lead to some very spectacular celestial
fireworks. That is why, instead of varying smoothly like most pulsating variables,
eruptive variables exhibit outbursts or activity, usually brightening by a large amount.
The changes in their light curves are usually very unpredictable, and tend to be sudden
and dramatic; that is why these stars are also called cataclysmic variables.

Novae explosions (eruptions) occur in close binary systems consisting of a white dwarf
orbiting a larger and cooler star. A layer of hydrogen-rich material is slowly accreted
from the cooler star onto the compact white dwarf. The accreted material provides the
fuel for the nova explosion a thermonuclear fusion reaction similar to the detonation of
a hydrogen bomb. The system increases in brightness by 7 to 16 magnitudes in a matter
of one to several hundred days, then the light slowly fades back to its original brightness
over several years or decades. Other close binary systems are
made up of a Sun-like star, a white dwarf, and an accretion disk
surrounding the white dwarf. As matter accumulates in the
accretion disk, the disk becomes unstable. Eventually, matter
from the unstable disk will fall onto the white dwarf, leading to
an outburst. If the material dump onto the surface of the white
dwarf is extreme, a thermonuclear explosion occurs which
literally destroys the white dwarf this results in the most
spectacular of all variable star activity the Type Ia
supernova event. A Type II supernova is the result of the
core collapse of a massive star. The star can brighten by 20
magnitudes or more; a large supernova may briefly
outshine the entire rest of the galaxy. The light curve above
is SN 1987A, a Type II supernova; the composite light
curve shows that the Type Ia thermonuclear explosion
releases more energy and produces a higher magnitude
event than the Type II core collapse explosion.


67




Eclipsing Binary Stars: Eclipsing binaries are binary star systems whose members
eclipse each other, blocking one anothers light, thereby causing the system to look
fainter to observers on Earth. The light curve of an eclipsing binary depends on the sizes
and brightnesses of the stars, their separation from each other, and the geometry of our
view from Earth. When the orbital inclination of the eclipsing binary is edge on to Earth,
the stars will seem to pass in front of one another as they orbit, when the light from the
brighter star is eclipsed we see a deep decline in the amount of light received from the
star this is called the primary minimum. When the light from the dimmer star is blocked
by the brighter star the light received declines again, but not so deep this is called the
secondary minimum. When both stars are side by side we are able to observe the light
from both stars.

The light curve for Algol (Beta Persei) is shown to
the left. This is the prototype of all eclipsing
binaries and is located in the constellation of
Perseus. The sharp Vs in the curve are the
primary minima, and the much smaller secondary
minima are half-way between the two primary
minima. NOTE: The light curve for Algol is plotted
as magnitude versus phase instead of magnitude versus Julian Day. This type of variable
star plot is called a phase diagram. A phase diagram is a folded light curve, with the
cycles superimposed on each other and plotted twice. When the same cycle repeats over
and over as regularly as clockwork it is exhibiting periodic behavior. If we want to know
what is happening at any moment, it does not matter which cycle we are observing,
because every cycle is exactly the same. What does matter is which part of the cycle we
are observing. So if a star or any other phenomena is perfectly periodic, then its
variation depends only on where it is in its cycle, a quantity called the phase. A good
example is an accurate clock. If it is a 24-hour clock (with an AM/PM indicator), it
repeats exactly the same behavior, over and over, with a period of 1 day. Each day the
clock goes through one cycle, and each cycle is just like every other cycle. If we want to
know what the clock reads, we do not need to know which day it is (which cycle it is in),
we just need to know the time of day (how far we are into the cycle).

On the phase diagram of Algol above, 0.0 is the beginning of the cycle, 0.5 is half way
through the cycle, and 1.0 is a complete cycle. If only that one cycle is folded over itself,
it would be difficult to see the entire behavior of the binary system at secondary
minimum. In order to be able to see the entire variation of a star or binary system, the
beginning point cannot be either at a minimum or a maximum. For this reason, the cycles
are always plotted twice on a phase diagram. The phase diagram above consists of
several cycles folded over on themselves into one cycle and then plotted twice (-1.0 to 0
and 0 to +1.0). This is especially beneficial for a variable star or binary system that has so
few observations to plot that it is difficult to see the shape of the light curve.

Investigation of a Light Curve Versus a Phase Diagram: Study the continuous light
curve for V CAS on the opposite page. Make an overhead transparency of the light curve.
Cut out the sections and tape them together to see the periodic behavior of V CAS from
JD 2440000 to JD 2450000. If you use just two sections, do you still have a
representation of the stars behavior? With just one section? Can you cut the sections in

68





different places and still have the same behavior pattern? Stack several sections over each
other. Determine how small a segment is needed to give the same information as all four
segments. What if you only had one cycle of the light curve? What is you start your cycle
at maximum? Minimum? Describe your results. [The investigation should show that the
periodic behavior represented by the light curve for V CAS can be shown in less space
and in greater detail if several segments are stacked on top of each other (folded over
each other) in a phase diagram, and that a only one cycle would not adequately show the
the entire behavior at both minima and maxima so a segment of two cycles folded over
on themselves would allow the most detailed analysis of the behavior of the star.

69



How and What to Study:
I. Intrinsic Variable Stars: Stars whose variability is intrinsic - due to physical changes
within the star or star system.
A. Pulsating: Pulsating variables change brightness because they change their size
and/or shape; the whole star is actually "vibrating." Most of them simply expand and
contract repeatedly, swelling and shrinking in a continuing cycle of size changes.
Like most vibrating systems, pulsating variables repeat their changes; they tend to be
periodic. Cepheids, RR Lyrae, and LPV's are pulsating variables.
Cepheid Variables: Large yellow stars with 8 solar masses and periods of 1-70 days.
They range from spectral class G and K at minimum to F spectral class at maximum.
The periods of Cepheids follow a strict period-luminosity relationship which will be
discussed in the section on Cosmological Distances.
Long-Period Variables (LPV's): One class of LPV's are the Mira Variables. Miras
are red giant stars with periods ranging from 80-1000 days, and amplitudes of more
than 2.5 magnitudes.
RR Lyrae: Older red giants with 0.5 solar masses and a pulsation period of 0.2 to 1.0
day, and an absolute magnitude of 0.75. Located in globular clusters.

B. Eruptive (Cataclysmic): These variable stars show sudden and dramatic increases in
magnitude due to either the core collapse of a massive star (Type II supernovae), or
instabilities in mass transfer from the surface of one star to another either directly or
via an accretion disk. This can result in either small increases in magnitude (novae),
or the destruction of a white dwarf (Type Ia supernovae).

II. Extrinsic Variable Stars: Due to circumstances not involving internal properties and
processes within the star or star system.
Eclipsing Binaries: Due to an eclipse of one star by another star, due to our line of
view here on Earth, in a gravitationally bound two-star system. If the two stars are
nearby and not too far apart, the eclipse of one star by the other can be seen optically.
If the system is far away and/or the stars are lose together, the eclipse can only be
determined by analysis of their spectra.

III. Graphs:
Light Curves: Observations of variable stars are plotted on a graph called a light curve
as the apparent brightness (magnitude) versus time, usually in Julian Date/Day (JD).
Analysis of the graph gives information about the periodic behavior, the orbital period
of eclipsing binaries, and the regularity (or lack) of stellar eruptions.
Phase Diagrams: A phase diagram is a light curve that has been folded over and over
on itself. Stars that exhibit periodic behavior have light curves that repeat the same
cycle over and over - so only one segment of the periodicity (plotted twice) is
necessary to study the behavior of the star.

It is important to be able to recognize light curves for: eclipsing binaries, supernovae
events (Type Ia is brighter than Type II), Cepheids, RR Lyrae, and Mira variables. A set
of flash cards, including images of representative objects is available on the CD-ROM.
Completing the following activities will assist in learning how to construct a light curve,
and determine the period, maximum magnitude and minimum magnitude. NOTE: The
following activity is available in PDF on the CD-ROM, and as HTML, PDF and an
online Flash version at http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/variable_stars/


70

Activity: Stellar Heartbeats

Look at the simulated reproduction of a star field on the following three pages. It contains
a variable star that is located in the middle of a set of crosshairs, and surrounding the
variable star are several comparison stars of known magnitudes. These stars, which do
not vary in brightness, are used to compare the changing brightness, or magnitude, of the
variable star. Knowing the values of the magnitudes of the comparison stars, you can
estimate the magnitude of the variable star as it changes over time. On a star chart,
different magnitudes are portrayed as different sizes - the brighter the magnitude the
larger the size of the star, and the dimmer the magnitude the smaller the size of the star.
Magnitudes have one decimal, such as 6.3 - however in star fields, the decimals are not
indicated. A magnitude of 6.3 is written as 63 so that the fields are not as cluttered and
the decimal points are not mistaken for stars. When you record your magnitude
estimation you need to include the decimal.

Print out the table provided below. Estimate the magnitude of the variable star on the first
picture of the star field using the magnitudes of the stars around it. Proceed through each
of the pictures and place your estimated magnitudes and the corresponding Julian Day
(JD) numbers in the table provided below.



















71
72



73
74


Recording Stellar Heartbeats

To determine if the variable star that you have "observed" has a regular cycle, you will
need to plot your observations on a graph and analyze the resulting light curve. A graph
of magnitude versus Julian Day (JD) has been provided for you below. Transfer your
magnitude estimations from the table onto the graph.




1. What is the period of this variable star?
2. What is the maximum magnitude (maxima)?
3. What is the minimum magnitude (minima)?
4. What type of variable star is it?

Answers (will vary): 1. __~300 days__; 2. __~5.7__; 3. __~11.0__; 4. __Mira variable __
This seems to be fairly periodic, has the period range of an LPV, and more than 2.5
magnitude amplitude (~5.3)

75



Activity: Recognizing Periodic Curves

A periodic curve is one which repeats identically within a fixed time interval. Study the
following curves and determine which ones seem to exhibit periodic behavior. Determine
the maxima, the minima, and the periods. From the description of the types of variable
stars included within this manual, what type(s) of variable star(s) do you think each of the
light curves represent that you have selected as periodic? NOTE: If you are interested in
finding out what types of variable stars have produced the non-periodic light curves,
access the Types of Variable Stars page at the American Association of Variable Star
Observers (AAVSO) at: http://www.aavso.org/vstar/types.shtml - this page gives a
brief description and sample light curve for other types of variable stars. This activity is
part of the Variable Star Astronomy curriculum on the website. http://www.aavso.org/

76




77



Answer Key: The answers for all light curves are listed - including maxima, minima,
period, and type. The periodic light curves are ( c ), ( d ), and ( j ). This activity includes
other types of variables as they may be on future national and state events. NOTE:
slightly different answers are acceptable. Periodic light curves are in bold type.

(a) R CrB (f) Z Uma
Maximum magnitude: 6.0 Maximum magnitude: 6.8
Minimum magnitude: 13.8 Minimum magnitude: 8.7
Period: No specific period Period: Star has more than one period
Type: R Coronae Borealis (RCB) Type: Semiregular (SR)

(b) RS Oph (g) Z Cam
Maximum magnitude: 5.3 Maximum magnitude: 10.5
Minimum magnitude: 12.3 Minimum magnitude: 13.2
Period: No specific period Period: 22 days
Type: Recurrent Nova (NR) Type: U Geminorum (UG)

(c) Chi Cyg (h) SS Cyg
Maximum magnitude: 5.2 Maximum magnitude: 8.2
Minimum magnitude: 13.8 Minimum magnitude: 12.2
Period: 408 days Period: 49.5 days
Type: Mira (M) Type: U Geminorum (UG)

(d) S UMa (i) CH Cyg
Maximum magnitude: 7.8 Maximum magnitude: 5.8
Minimum magnitude: 11.7 Minimum magnitude: 9.2
Period: 225.9 days Period: Star has more than one period
Type: Mira (M) Type: Z Andromedae (Z And)

(e) W Cyg (j) X Cyg
maximum magnitude: 5.6 Maximum magnitude: 6.0
Minimum magnitude: 6.8 Minimum magnitude: 7.0
Period: Star has more than one period Period: 16.4 days
Type: Semiregular (SR) Type: Cepheid (C)

The http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/variable_stars/ URL provides a second
activity on estimating the magnitudes of a variable star - titled A Variable Star in
Cygnus. This activity is also in HTML, PDF, and an online Flash version. The activity is
also on the http://www.aavso.org/ website it is part of the Variable Star Astronomy
curriculum. This variable star activity uses a series of 7 slides taken of the variable star W
Cyg over a period of approximately 150 days. The set covers nearly the entire range from
maximum magnitude (brightest) to minimum magnitude (dimmest.) You will note as you
move through the slides that W Cyg does not appear in exactly the same spot in each of
the slides. This is because it is difficult for a photographer to set up in the exact same spot
when photographing the sky several days apart. The slides also appear in different hues
and sometimes with fewer stars in the field. This is the result of different atmospheric
conditions on the dates that Cygnus and W Cyg were photographed. This activity is more
difficult as it uses a real variable star. A set of the images is included on the CD-ROM in
a PowerPoint format; however, requires a good quality printer. The best way to do this
activity is on the website.

78




Activity: Who's Light Curve is that Anyway?

Study the images and light curves below, and answer the questions. NOTE: The images
are easier to identiy in color - this activity is on the CD-ROM in color. Most of the
images have all been used in the explanations in this section and in the Stellar Evolution
section, so they should be fairly easy to recognize.

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8






9 10 11 12





1. Look at the series of six images of a star (in the center of each image) in image 9.
Which of the light curves represents the behavior of this star? __(1)__ 2. What type of
star is shown in image 9? __(2)__ 3. Which image(s) have the potential to produce the
light curve shown in image 5? __(3)__ 4. What type of light curve is shown in image 5?
__(4)__ 5. Image 12 contains a star that will produce what type of light curve during one
of the future stages of its evolution? __(5)__ 6. Which two images show the next two
stages in the evolution of image 12?__(6)__ 7. Which of the image(s) above is/are a
precursor to a Type Ia supernova event? __(7)__ 8. Image 7 represents what type of
event? __(8)__ 9. What image(s) show the event represented in image 7? __(9)__
10. Which light curve represents a late stage of stellar evolution? __(10)__

ANSWERS: 1. __image 11; 2. __Cepheid variable; 3. __8,10; 4. __Eclipsing Binary;
5. __4; 6. __2,6; 7. __8; 8. __Type II Supernova; 9. __1,3; 10. __4





79



The materials on the CD-ROM include the following:
.
Light Curves: A folder of light curves that can be used to make flash cards for
additional practice.


Additional internet resources for images and information related to variable stars:
Chandra X-Ray Center: http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/variable_stars/
This URL has both the Stellar Heartbeat Activity presented in this section, and a
second activity A Variable Star in Cygnus. Both activities are in HTML, PDF, and
Flash versions
AAVSO: http://www.aavso.org/education/vsa/Chapter6.pdf
This is a good introductory activity for learning how to estimate the magnitudes of
stars. (same as two activities above on Chandra website with background information)
AAVSO: http://www.aavso.org/data/software/hoafun.shtml
An interactive and easy-to-use tutorial for making variable star estimates and
understanding the light curves of different types of variable stars. It contains a game
to estimate the magnitudes of a variable star as you build your own light curve as well
as several tutorials that illustrate the different light curves of popular variable stars.
Julian Day Calendar: http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/JulianDate.php
This site has a program will convert the dates and times of any calendar day
into the Julian Date, and the Julian Date to the corresponding calendar date.
SEDS website: http://www.seds.org/~spider/spider/Vars/vars.html
History of variable stars and their discoverers.
Cepheid in M100: http://www.seds.org/messier/more/m100_hst2.html
Information about the Hubble image of the Cepheid variable in M100
Variable Star Astronomy
[NOTE] Variable Star Astronomy is the web version of the Hands-On-Astrophysics
(HOA) curriculum. All materials which were included in the HOA curriculum are
still available on the aavso.org website at http://www.aavso.org/education/vsa/
including the student and teacher chapters, star charts and slide sets. The VSTAR
software originally written in DOS, has now been converted and is also available on
the AAVSO website at http://www.aavso.org/content/vstar
DS9 variable star activity in this manual on pages 193 204.

The Variable Star Astronomy curriculum is a complete introduction to understanding,
observing and analyzing variable stars. It contains the following units and chapters:

Using the Manual, teacher.pdf
Introduction and Table of Contents, .pdf

UNIT 1: Planets and Stars
Chapter 1: The Solar System and Beyond, .pdf | teacher.pdf
Chapter 2: The Nature of Stars, .pdf | teacher.pdf
80

Go to
http://www.aavso.org/
education/vsa
to access the Variable Star
Astronomy Curriculum


UNIT 2: Introducing the Sky
Chapter 3: Familiarizing Yourself With the Night sky, .pdf | teacher.pdf
Chapter 4: Our Bearings in the Sky, .pdf | teacher.pdf

UNIT 3: Observing Variable Stars
Chapter 5: Introducing the Hands-On Astrophysics Constellations, .pdf |
teacher.pdf
Chapter 6: Measuring Variable Stars Visually, .pdf | teacher.pdf
Chapter 7: Observing Variable Stars in the Real Sky, .pdf | teacher.pdf

UNIT 4: The Message of Light
Chapter 8: The Nature of Light, .pdf | teacher.pdf
Chapter 9: The Life of a Star, .pdf | teacher.pdf

UNIT 5: Analysis of Variable Stars
Chapter 10: Statistical Concepts, .pdf | teacher.pdf
Chapter 11: Variable Stars, Light Curves, and Variability, .pdf |
teacher.pdf
Chapter 12: Variable Stars and Phase Diagrams, .pdf | teacher.pdf
Chapter 13: Variable Stars and O-C Diagrams, .pdf | teacher.pdf

GLOSSARY, .pdf

[NOTE] The URL for Chapter 1 is http://www.aavso.org/education/vsa/Chapter1.pdf
Each chapter uses the same URL - just exchange the 1 for other chapter numbers.


81



The AAVSO Citizen Sky Project


Citizen Sky is citizen science project providing a
chance for involvement with real and ongoing
scientific research. Professional and amateur
scientists are trying to understand a star that has been
a mystery for many years. This star is epsilon Aurigae
(eps Aur), a very interesting and very bright star
located in the constellation Auriga, Orions
charioteer. The star is bright enough to be seen with
the unaided eye even in the most light-polluted
cotoes. And it is visible for three seasons autumn,
winter, and spring.

Epsilon Aurigae is a variable starthis means it changes in brightness over time.
Collecting data on these changes can help understand the star. There are many types of
variables - epsilon Aurigae is an eclipsing variable. The AAVSO an organization,
which maintains the largest variable star data base in the world, has an extensive
description of eps Aur at http://www.aavso.org/vstar/vsots/eps_aur.shtml. The change
in brightness that this star undergoes is called an eclipse (a process of fading and coming
back to its usual brightness.) This process takes over 600 days. One of the things that
makes epsilon Aurigae so interesting is that it only has an eclipse once every 27.1
years.Eps Aur will not come out of eclipse until 2011.

Some things about the way that this star fades and then regains it brightness are still not
fully understood by astronomers after over 175 years of study. The current eclipse of eps
Aur began in August 2009. The AAVSO is asking anyone interested to help collect data
to help acquire a better understand this mysterious star. Because the star is very bright, it
can be observed by anyone regardless of background, training, or equipment: with just
good pair of eyes and a finder chart, which AAVSO will provide, you can monitor this
eclipse. Information about the AAVSO organization can be at: http://www.aavso.org/

The Citizen Sky Project welcomes everyone to be a citizen scientist. AAVSO will
provide guidance through the process of how to observe epsilon Aurigae, how to send
your observations, and how to access your results, analyze them, and even publish them
in a scientific journal. No previous experience is required. The AAVSO hopes that this
project will involve thousands of people all over the world in real, active scientific
research. The http://www.citizensky.org/ site serves as home base for participants.
The website launched in June, 2009, and includes blogs, discussion forums, training
materials, and submission and analysis of observational data.

Workshops: A 3-day workshop, focused on observing and education/public outreach
was held at the Adler Planetarium in Chicago on August 4-7, 2009. There will be a
second workshop focusing on data analysis and scientific paper writing at the California
Academy of Sciences in San Francisco September 3-5, 2010. Prior to the San Francisco
workshop an application form will be posted in the Workshops section of the citizen Sky
website. Videos all of the workshop presentations will be posted on the site as well, so
even if you cant attend you can benefit from these talks.

82




Observation and Analysis: Epsilon Aurigae
is an ideal target for those interested in
learning how to observe variable stars. By
following the Ten Star Tutorial available on
the AAVSO website, you can learn how to
make and report an observation using visual
observations. Information on making the
observations of epsilon Aurigae with a digital
camera will is available also. The AAVSO has
developed data analysis software, which will
come with tutorials, to help train participants in how to analyze data in astronomy. The
software, referred to as VSTAR, was originally developed to support analysis activities in
the Hands-On Astrophysics curriculum package. That curriculum has been converted to a
web-based package and is now called Variable Star Astronomy. Further information
about Variable Star Astronomy is listed with the resources at the end of this section. A
special edition of the peer-reviewed Journal of the AAVSO will be dedicated to papers
written by Citizen Sky project participants. This project will last beyond the end of the
eclipse in 2011 as participants continue to analyze their observational results and publish
them in the AAVSO Journal.

The fact that epsilon Aurigae can be seen even from large cities provides a rare
opportunity to engage the general public in citizen science. Participants are needed to
help write newsletter and newspaper articles, prepare talks and slide shows, develop
artwork, give talks, and participate in other forms of community outreach. Teams of
interested participants with complementary skill sets are being assembled right now, and
will continue to be assembled throughout the project.


Epsilon Aurigae: The Star Of the Citizen Sky Project is
epsilon Aurigae, a mysterious, bright, eclipsing binary
variable star. The name of the star is pronounced as
follows: ep si lon Au ry gee. Epsilon Aurigae (eps Aur)
is a bright star located in the constellation Auriga, the
charioteer. It is an eclipsing binary variable star. Variable
stars change in brightness over time. Collecting data on
these changes assists in understanding the physical
processes that are causing the epsilon Aurigae to vary in
brightness. Eclipsing binary variable stars are systems
consisting of two stars orbiting around their common center of mass in a plane along our
line of sight. So imagine 2 stars circling around each other on an invisible Frisbee. Now
imagine holding the invisible Frisbee up and looking at the 2 stars on it from the edge of
the Frisbee. From time to time one star will get in the way and block your view of the
other star this is an eclipse. When one star eclipses the other it blocks the light shining
from that eclipsed star, so the total light shining from the two stars is less during the

83


eclipse. Now imagine that the invisible Frisbee is all the way across the park, still side-
on. You may not be able to tell that there are 2 separate stars circling around on it, but
you can still see that during the eclipse the overall brightness, or magnitude fades.
A light curve is a graph of brightness
versus time for a variable star. So as time
moves along the graph from left to right
the data points will move up and down
based on whether the star is getting
brighter or fainter. The shape of the light
curve for an eclipsing binary star system
depends on a few things: 1) the difference
in brightness between the two circling
stars, 2) the difference in size between the
two stars, and 3) their orbital inclination as seen from Earth. (This last one is basically a
measurement of how tipped the imaginary Frisbee is. Is it exactly edge on or is it angled
a little?) The light curve above shows how epsilon Aurigae faded and changed in
magnitude during its last eclipse. The analysis of light curves provides the following
information:

p = Period (How long it takes for the two stars to make one full orbit.)
i = Orbital Inclination (How tipped the imaginary Frisbee is - see question above.)
M1, M2 = Masses of the Stars (How much matter makes up each of the 2 stars.)
L1, L2 = Luminosities of the Stars (How bright each of the 2 stars is.)
R1, R2 = Radii of the Stars (The distance from the center of the star to the edge -
a measure of the size of each star.)

The period of epsilon Aurigae is 27.1 years and the eclipse lasts from 640 to 730
days.

Johann Fritsch was the first to note the variability of epsilon Aurigae in early 1821,
when the star was likely in the midst of a deep eclipse. The German astronomers
Argelander and Heis both began regular observing once every few years around
1842 1843, and the data from both men showed that the star became significantly
fainter around 1847. Observers later in the 19
th
Century recorded another dimming
event in 1874 1875, and another from 1901 1902.

The Mystery of Epsilon Aur: Although they did not know it at the time, what these
19th century astronomers had observed was an extremely long-period eclipsing
binary, and one that was interacting as well. In 1928, Harlow Shapley correctly
concluded that the two stars were about equal in mass. Based on this information they
should be about equal in brightness as well. But the spectrum of the system showed
no light from the companion at all. The visibly bright first star Epsilon Aurigae, (the
primary) was being eclipsed by a massive, invisible second star (the secondary.)

What could the mysterious invisible secondary be? A 1937 paper by three of the
greats of observational astronomy, Gerard Kuiper, Otto Struve, and Bengt Strmgren,
suggested the system was an eclipsing binary composed of an F2 star and an
extremely cool and tenuous star that they described as "semitransparent".

84



According to this model, the F star was being eclipsed by this transparent shell star,
and its light was scattered by the extremely thin atmosphere of the eclipsing star. A
1965 paper by Su-Shu Huang introduced the suggestion of an edge-on thick disk as
the eclipsing body. In 1971, Robert Wilson introduced a tilted, thin disk with a central
opening, suggesting that this model could most easily describe all of the observed
effects of the eclipses, particularly the mid-eclipse re-brightening. There is a slight
brightening during mid-eclipse, suggesting the disk has a hole in it which the F star
shines through. The central brightening was stronger in 1954-56 than in earlier
eclipses. It is possible that the hole is growing. The time of minimum light
lengthened by about 64 days while the overall duration of the eclipse had decreased
by 44 days!

During the 1982-84 eclipse the central brightening was the brightest ever. The
duration of minimum was the longest, and the fading and brightening happened
fastest. The F stars companion is changing on timescales of decades. From 1901 to
1983 the time of minimum has increased from 313 to 445 days. The overall eclipse
duration has declined from 727 to 640 days. Precise measurements out of eclipse
revealed a quasi-periodic low amplitude variation of 96 days from 1984-87. During
the 2003-2004 observing season this variation had sped up to 71 days. In 2007-2008
the period became 65 days.

What is the nature of the object or objects at the center of the disk? It could be two B
type stars in a tight orbit. This would account for the mass with less luminosity than
one larger star. A pair of stars would act as a gravitational eggbeater, keeping the
center of the disk clear. One or more proto-hot Jupiters would affect the distribution
of matter in the disk. A hot Jupiter spiraling inward to meet its destruction might
account for the low amplitude variations and their decreasing periodicity.

The primary is 300
times the diameter of
the Sun! The secondary
orbits almost at the
distance of Neptune
from the Sun. Both
components are 14-15
solar masses. This is
indeed a very strange
eclipsing binary system; with 27.1 years between eclipses, scientists are hoping that
enough observations will be contributed to the AAVSO data base for Epsilon Aurigae
will enable them to greatly increase their
understanding of this exotic system. The Citizen
Sky Project was developed to enable citizens,
students, and amateur observers to contribute to
the scientific understanding of the Epsilon
Aurigae eclipsing binary system. All information
necessary to observe, contribute observational
data, and analyze the results for this mysterious
star are at the Citizen Sky website http://www.citizensky.org/.

85



The materials on the CD-ROM include the following:

Internet resources for the AAVSO Citizen Sky Project:
The American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO) website:
http://www.aavso.org/

The AAVSO Citizen Sky Project website: http://www.citizensky.org/

: An overview of Citizen Sky Project was presented in an episode of the
365 Days of Astronomy Daily Podcast of the International Year of Astronomy..

AAVSO Variable Star Astronomy
A complete curriculum package that explains how to observe variable stars,
collect data, construct light curves and phase diagram, and analyze the results to study
the behavior of variable stars. A complete Table of Contents is listed at the end of the
preceding section on pages 78-79. The curriculum is posted at:
http://www.aavso.org/education/vsa/.































86




Introduction to the H-R Diagram
NOTE: The introduction to the H-R diagram is a repetition from the Stellar Evolution
section, then goes into great detail.

Everyone is familiar with the periodic table of the
elements. The periodic table is an arrangement of
all the known elements in order of increasing
atomic number. The reason why the elements are
arranged as they are in the periodic table is to fit
them all, with their widely diverse physical and
chemical properties, into a logical pattern. The
vertical lines of elements, called groups, and the
horizontal lines of elements, called periods, are
chemically similar, and share a common set of
characteristics. The elements are also arranged into blocks that share commonalities. The
arrangement of the elements in the periodic table also shows the periodicity and trends of
some properties, such as electron configuration, metalicity, atomic radii, and melting
points. By looking at the location of any individual element in the table, you
automatically know several characteristics and properties of that element, as well as what
types of chemical bonds it forms, and the chemical reactions it will undergo.

The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, or H-R
diagram, is the periodic table of the stars. It was
discovered that when the luminosity (absolute
magnitude) of stars is plotted against their
temperature (stellar classification) the stars are
not randomly distributed on the graph but are
mostly restricted to a few well-defined regions.
The stars within the same regions share a
common set of characteristics, just like the
groups, periods, and blocks of elements in the
periodic table. As the physical characteristics of a star changes over its lifetime, its
position on the H-R diagram changes also so the H-R diagram can also be thought of as
a visual plot of stellar evolution. It is a graphical tool that astronomers use to classify
stars. From the location of a star on the graph, the luminosity, spectral type, color,
temperature, mass, chemical composition, age, and evolutionary history is known.

The Main Sequence: ~90% of all stars occupy the diagonal band running from the upper
left corner (hot, luminous stars) to the lower right corner (cool, dim stars) of the H-R
diagram. Stars become main sequence stars when the process of thermonuclear fusion -
hydrogen to helium - stabilizes. These stars are in hydrostatic equilibrium - the outward
radiation pressure from the fusion process is balanced by the inward gravitational force.
When the transition from T-Tauri star to main sequence star occurs, the stars are called
Zero Age Main Sequence stars (ZAMS). The determining factor of where a star is
located on the main sequence is mass. The Sun is a G spectral class star with an effective
surface temperature of ~5800K. Since the luminosity and mass of all other stars are
measured relative to the Sun, it has one solar luminosity and one solar mass. The O and B
stars are the hottest and most massive, and the K and M stars are the coolest and least
massive stars. The O and B stars are sometimes referred to as early sequence stars, and

87




the K and M stars as late sequence stars. These terms refer to stars more massive (early
sequence) than the Sun or less massive (late sequence) than the Sun. All one solar mass
stars, for instance, occupy the same position on the main sequence as the Sun, and they
stay in that location, with that specific relationship of temperature and absolute
magnitude, until the star runs out of hydrogen and the fusion of hydrogen to helium stops.
The mass-luminosity relationship for main sequence stars is defined as: L/L(Sun) ~
[M/M(Sun)]
4
. All main sequence stars with a mass less than ~8 solar masses are
sometimes referred to as dwarf stars, with the coolest, least massive stars in the lower
right corner called red dwarfs. The more massive the star, the faster the rate of fusion,
and the less time is remains on the main sequence. The amount of time that a star spends
on the main sequence is also a function of its mass and luminosity and is defined as:
T(years) = 10
10
M/L.

The Giant Branch: Red giants are luminous, cool giant stars in spectral classes F, G, K,
and M located in the upper right-hand corner of the H-R diagram. As the central core of a
main sequence star with a mass from ~0.8 to 8 solar masses runs out of hydrogen,
radiation pressure no longer balances gravity and the star begins to collapse. There is still
hydrogen in the outer layers surrounding the helium core of the star; however the
temperature is not high enough for this hydrogen to fuse. As the star begins to contract,
the core gets hot enough to start a thin shell of hydrogen fusion around the helium core.
The increase in radiation pressure causes the star's outer atmospheric layers to expand. As
the surface of the star increases, so does its apparent brightness. As the surface
(photosphere) increases, it becomes cooler, and the color of the star becomes redder.
Eventually the hydrogen in the shell becomes depleted and the star begins to contract
once again, and this time the temperature becomes hot enough to start helium fusion. The
outer layers expand even further, becoming cooler and redder. Giant stars fuse elements
up to carbon. Most of these stars go through a Mira variable instability strip with a
periodic light curve of ~80 - 1000 days. Stars that have evolved to the giant branch are
commonly referred to as red giants. Eventually these red giants will shrug off a planetary
nebula and leave a white dwarf core remnant. There is no relationship among mass and
luminosity on the giant branch.

The Supergiant Branch: Stars greater than ~8 solar masses evolve onto the supergiant
branch, located in the extreme upper right corner of the H-R diagram. These red
supergiants are extremely luminous and cool, due to their expanded size. Their spectral
types range from B - the massive stars just leaving the main sequence - through M, as
they finish their transition to the supergiant branch. NOTE: The O and B stars on the
main sequence are sometimes referred to as blue supergiants, not to be confused with the
highly evolved and aging red supergiants located on the supergiant branch. Because of
the mass of these stars, the fusion of heavier and heavier elements continues through
neon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, iron and nickel. Each time a new element is created the
star becomes larger and redder. (Some stars with a mass of ~8 solar masses move through
the Cepheid variable instability strip and become pulsating Cepheids with a period of 1 -
70 days). Eventually most of these stars reach the supergiant branch and undergo a Type
II supernovae explosion and core collapse, leaving behind a pulsar, neutron star,
magnetar or black hole. Some hyper-massive stars collapse into back holes without a



88




supernova event, and some of the less massive giant stars manage to avoid a supernova
event and become white dwarfs. [NOTE: there are exceptions to some of these
evolutionary sequences, and the associated masses are "ballpark" numbers only - there is
much to learn about the evolutionary history of stars.]

The White Dwarf Branch: The white dwarf branch is located in the lower left corner of
the H-R diagram. This branch consists of the end products of stellar evolution for mid-
sized stars with an initial mass of ~0.8 to 8 solar masses. All white dwarfs are extremely
hot; however they have a very low absolute magnitude because they are very small. They
have a size that does not exceed 1.4 solar masses - the Chandrashekar limit. Spectral
types for white dwarfs range from O to G.

Stellar Evolution on the H-R Diagram:
This image shows the evolution of a massive star
from birth to supernova explosion on the left, and a
mid-sized star from birth to planetary nebula and
white dwarf on the right. This is an artistic rendition
of stellar evolution; however, in order to begin to
understand the processes of how stars evolve it is
necessary to see how the physical properties of stars
change. Plotting stellar evolution on an H-R diagram
shows how temperature, luminosity, mass, and
spectral type change. The image below shows the future evolution of a mid-sized star -
the Sun. On the H-R diagram the Sun is halfway through its lifetime of 9 billion years on
the main sequence. It is a spectral type G star, has an effective surface temperature of
~5800K, and one solar luminosity. When the Sun runs out of hydrogen fuel in its core
and fusion stops, it will begin its
journey to the red giant branch. The
Sun will contract, heat up until a
shell of hydrogen is fusing around
the helium core, and become cooler,
~3000K, reddish in color, and more
luminous in excess of 500 solar
luminosities. After ~one billion
years, the hydrogen shell fusion
stops and the Sun contracts again,
becoming less luminous, hotter, and
less red in color. During this phase it
is sometimes referred to as a yellow
giant. The contraction will cause the core to heat up until helium fusion begins in the
core. The fusion of helium to carbon causes the Sun to expand again, becoming more
luminous. The core will contract again when it runs out of helium and fusion stops again;
this time there is not enough mass for the shrinking core to achieve the temperature
necessary for the fusion of carbon to begin. The Sun throws off the outer atmospheric
layers into a planetary nebula and the remaining carbon core called a white dwarf
now resides on the white dwarf branch of the H-R diagram. The white dwarf is very dim
and very hot with a temperature of ~20,000K. The white dwarf will radiate away its
heat over the next ~12 billion years and become a burnt out carbon cinder called a black
dwarf.
89




The H-R diagram on the left shows the evolution
of the Sun prior to the main sequence. During the
T-Tauri stage, hydrogen fusion has begun;
however it has not stabilized. T-Tauri stars have
an enormous amount of surface flares and
eruptions, and greatly vary in brightness. This
stage is highly luminous - as much as 10,000 solar
luminosities - with effective surface temperatures
of ~3000 to 5000K. When the fusion process
stabilizes the Sun drops onto the main sequence
and becomes a zero age main sequence star. There
is sometimes a little movement along the main sequence as the fusion process settles
down to a steady rate of fusion. Once the fusion process stabilizes, the star remains at that
location until all the hydrogen fuel is depleted and the transition to the giant branch
begins, as described in the previous paragraph.

The H-R diagram to the right shows the location
of some familiar stars. Aldebaran, the orangish
star in the constellation of Taurus the bull, has
evolved to the red giant stage. Betelgeuse in
Orion and Arcturus in Bootes are red supergiant
stars, nearing the end of their stellar lives, and
will eventually go through a type II supernova
event - leaving behind a neutron star or pulsar.
They do not have enough mass to become a black
hole. Rigil in Betelgeuse and Deneb in Cygnus
are both massive B stars that have started running
out of hydrogen fuel. They have recently
(astronomically speaking!) left the main sequence and started evolving towards the
supergiant branch. Sirius A and Sirius B, in Canis Major, occupy different locations on
the H-R diagram, even though they are orbiting each other in a binary system. Sirius A is
a main sequence star of ~2 solar masses, and Sirius B is a white dwarf - the remnant of a
mid-sized star that began its life on the main sequence.

There are many types of H-R diagrams; however, they all plot
temperature and/or spectral type (classification) and luminosity
and/or absolute visual magnitude. They all show the relationship
between temperature and luminosity, and the stars on the main
sequence have specific relationships between mass, luminosity, and
the amount of time spent on the main sequence. Planetary nebula
and supernovae remnants can also be plotted on an H-R diagram.
The diagram to the right shows the relationship of temperature and luminosity for stars
before they shrug off their planetary nebulae and drop into the white dwarf region.
Objects such as pulsars, neutron stars and black holes are too extreme to be located
within the graph. Although the general evolutionary stages for different mass stars is
supported by both theory and observations, there remains much to be discovered about
the processes of stellar evolution.


90





This H-R diagram shows the areas, referred to as instability
strips, where the Cepheid and RR Lyrae variable stars are
located. These are the periodic variable stars that were discussed
in the Variable Stars & Light Curves section, and are also
included in the Cosmological Distances section. The T-Tauri
stars are also classified as variable stars, though their variability
is due to the eratic nature of the thermonuclear fusion process
before it becomes stable. NOTE: Always look at the axes of an
H-R diagram, as the range of values is not always consistent
from graph to graph.

The H-R diagram below is a more visual representation, combining the coordinate grid
with images of actual objects in different stages of stellar evolution. Below is a brief
description of the objects located on the H-R diagram:

1. On the upper left of the main sequence is the Pleiades, an open cluster of hot,
luminous spectral class B stars.
2. In the middle of the main sequence is the Sun, a spectral type G star.
3. Just below the main sequence in the lower right corner is Gliese 229, a brown dwarf or
failed star. It does not have enough mass for fusion to occur.
4. Just above the Sun on the main sequence is a T-Tauri star. When thermonuclear fusion
becomes stable, it will drop onto the main sequence as a stable star.
5. On the giant branch is an artist illustration of a red giant.
6. On the supergiant branch is Betelgeuse, a massive red supergiant nearing the end of its
lifetime.
7. To the right of and slightly below the Pleiades is a Cepheid variable star from the
M100 galaxy.
8. On the white dwarf branch is Sirius B, the end product of a mid-sized star that is in a
binary system with a main sequence spectral type A star.
9. Above Sirius B is the Cat's Eye - a planetary nebula shrugged off by a mid-sized star
as it drops onto the white dwarf branch of the H-R diagram.


















91


Spectra and the H-R Diagram: The H-
R diagram is a plot of temperature, or
spectral classification (O,B,A,F,G,K,M,
etc.). Each spectral class has a signature
spectrum as the classification system is
determined by temperature, so
representative images of spectra can be
plotted on the H-R diagram. Study the
spectra on the diagram. In the section on
Spectroscopy & Spectra the absorption
lines of the different spectral types were
discussed; the hotter the star the fewer
lines, and the cooler the star the more absorption lines.The absorption lines for
compounds, such as titanium oxide, can only exist in the coolest stars. Each spectra, from
the upper left corner to the lower right corner of the main sequence belongs to each of the
spectral types from O through M. Though difficult to see in this image, the spectrum
shown on the supergiant branch has an iron/nickel peak. Since iron is the last element
manufactured in massive stars that are undergoing catastrophic core collapse, any spectra
that contains a strong iron/nickel absorption line or peak and no heavier elements has to
be associated with a Type II supernova event. Type II events can not be plotted on the H-
R diagram.

NOTE: Some variable stars also occupy specific
regions on the H-R diagram - such as the Cepheids,
RR Lyraes, and Miras. These regions are called
instability strips. Mira variables are periodic pulsating
red giants with a period of ~80 to 1000 days. It is a
stage that many mid-sized main sequence stars go
through as they evolve to the red giant branch. The
diagram on the left with the strip labeled long period
variables is where the Miras are located. On the
diagram below is the H-R diagram with images representing actual stages of evolution.
Below the image of the red giant is the corresponding light curve for a Mira variable star.
The only position on the diagram that these long
period periodic light curves can exist is on the
giant branch. The same is true for the Type II
supernova light curve at the top of the diagram on
the right. A Type Ia light curve (no actual light
curve has been recorded for a Type Ia event) can
only happen on the white dwarf branch as this
type of event is the nuclear destruction of a white
dwarf core in orbit around a red giant companion.
Cepheid variable stars are ~8 solar mass stars
evolving to the giant or supergiant branch and only occur within the Cepheid instability
strip to the right of the main sequence. Note that the instability strip for Miras and
Cepheids are elongated. This is because they expand and brighten, then contract and dim.
Cepheids can change in temperature by two spectral classes during one cycle from
maximum to minimum. RR Lyrae variables occupy a small horizontal strip. These older
red giants located in globular clusters do not change in luminosity as they pulsate.

92




Globular Clusters and the H-R Diagram: Globular clusters are
systems of between ~0.1-1 million stars, gravitationally-bound into a
single structure about 100 light-years across. The picture on the left is
47 Tucanae (47 Tuc) , the second brightest globular cluster in the
Milky Way Galaxy. Globular clusters are a stable gravitationally-
bound system with a typical separation of stars around 1 light year.
Globular clusters are distributed in a spherical halo around the galactic
center, mostly above and below the plane of the Galaxy. This is because these clusters of
stars formed early on in the history of the Galaxy, before the majority of the proto-
galactic material had settled into a disk. The apparent absence of globular clusters in the
plane of the disk of our Galaxy arises from a combination of two effects. First, the huge
amount of dust within the disk of the galaxy makes globular clusters hard to find in
directions close to the disk. Secondly, any globular clusters on orbits close to the plane of
the disk may be destroyed through interactions with the disk of the Galaxy.
Approximately 160 globular clusters have been discovered in our Galaxy, and large
numbers are seen around nearby galaxies.

Globular clusters are important for three reasons:
The homogeneity of the stars in these clusters indicates that they have similar chemical
compositions and ages. This makes them the simplest systems to use to test theoretical
models of star formation and evolution.
Globular clusters are some of the oldest stellar systems known and estimates of their
ages can be used to determine the age of the universe as a whole.
The distribution of their ages, and the correlations between cluster ages and metal
abundance makes these systems an invaluable probe into the formation of galaxies.

Since the stars of any one globular cluster share a common history (age, chemical
abundance, etc), differ one from the other only in their original mass, and are basically
the same distance from Earth, they are ideal candidates for the study of stellar evolution.
The fact that all the stars in the cluster are at the same distance is
convenient. If two stars in a cluster have different apparent
magnitudes, it must be because they have different absolute
magnitudes. It is not necessary to determine the individual
distance to each of the many stars within the same globular
cluster. The H-R diagram shown here is a plot of the stars in 47
Tuc. All of the massive stars (shortest lifetimes on the main
sequence) have evolved to into red giants. The point at which they
are currently leaving the main sequence is called the turnoff point.
Using the mass and luminosity of the stars at the turnoff point with the equation T(years)
= 10
10
M/L gives the age of the cluster. 47 Tuc is ~12 - 14 billion years old - one of the
oldest known objects in the Milky Way Galaxy. Several stars have evolved to the white
dwarf branch. Even though the turnoff point is well defined, there
are stars on the main sequence above the turnoff point. These
interesting objects, called blue stragglers, are blue and bright;
however since all stars in a globular cluster form at the same time,
how is it possible for young, hot stars to be there? It is thought that
the blue stragglers were formed by the slow coalescing of two stars
in a binary system. This Hubble image to the right shows blue
stragglers in the center of 47 Tuc.

93



Luminosity Classification: A second classification system is
used to further define the spectral types of stars. This
classification system involves surface gravity - which is
proportional to the stellar mass divided by the radius squared.
This is useful because spectra can measure the gas pressure in
the part of the atmosphere where the spectral lines are formed,
and this pressure depends closely on surface gravity. Because
surface gravity is related to stellar radius, it is also related to stellar
luminosity. Every unit of stellar surface area emits an amount of radiation that mostly
depends on the temperature, and for a given temperature the total luminosity thus
depends on surface area which is proportional to radius squared hence inversely
proportional to surface gravity. As a result, there are dwarf stars of relatively high
surface gravity, small radius, and low luminosity, and giant stars of low surface gravity,
large radius, and high luminosity - and their spectra look different. Six different
luminosity classes are distinguished:
Ia most luminous supergiants
Ib less luminous supergiants
II luminous giants
III normal giants
IV subgiants
V main sequence stars
VI subdwarfs (rarely used - older main sequence stars with low metalicity)
VII white dwarfs (rarely used)
The Sun is a G stellar classification, subclass 2, luminosity class V star - so the complete
classification for the Sun is G2V. Pi Cephei in the constellation Cepheus is also a G2 star,
however it is a G2III star - a star that has evolved from the main sequence to the giant
branch of the H-R diagram.

B-V Color Index: Many H-R diagrams label the horizontal
axis with the B-V color index. By the late 19th century
astronomers were using photography to record the sky and
measure stellar brightness, and a problem appeared. Some
stars having the same brightness to the eye showed different
brightnesses on film, and vice versa. Compared to the eye,
photographic emulsions were more sensitive to blue light and
less sensitive to red light. Accordingly, two separate scales were devised. Apparent visual
magnitude (mvis) described how a star looked to the eye;
photographic magnitude (mpg) referred to star images on blue-
sensitive black-and-white film. These are now abbreviated as m
v

and m
p
, respectively. The difference between photographic and
visual magnitudes was named the "color index." Color index is
now defined as the B magnitude minus the V magnitude. A pure
white star has a B-V of about 0.2, our yellow Sun is 0.63, orange-red Betelgeuse is 1.85,
and the bluest star believed possible is -0.4; the color index value is increasingly positive
for yellow, orange, and red stars, and negative for blue stars.
94



How and What to Study: The following is a summary of the most important
information to know about H-R diagrams.

Horizontal axis - spectral type, color index, or effective surface temperature
Vertical axis - absolute magnitude or luminosity
Data for individual stars plotted, but they are not randomly scattered
Data points define definite regions, suggesting common characteristics for stars
composing each region
Each region represents a stage in the evolution of stars
Consequently, there are common physical processes that apply to all stars in a region

Main sequence - most conspicuous region is sequence of stars running from extremely
bright, hot stars in upper left-hand corner to faint, cool stars in lower right-hand corner
Region is called main sequence because it contains ~90% of all stars
Sun is G2 main-sequence star
Lies in middle of diagram among what are referred to as yellow dwarfs - stars further
down from Sun all called dwarfs (late sequence), stars above the Sun called giants
(early sequence)
Temperatures for main-sequence stars varies from approximately 3000
o
K for M
stars to approximately 50,000
o
K for O stars
Main-sequence stars are all members of one luminosity class, luminosity class V -
the Sun is a G2V spectral/luminosity type star
Luminosity class V stars vary from extremely luminous O stars to very faint M
dwarfs
Luminosity is assigned relative to the Sun - the Sun is one luminosity and the range
of luminosities spans 10 orders of magnitude from .0001 to 10
6
solar luminosities.
Because of their number and common internal structure, main-sequence stars are
considered to constitute a single class of stars
Number of M-type stars far exceeds number of K-type stars
Number of K-type stars in turn exceeds number of G-type stars and so on up the
main sequence - cool, faint M-type stars most common type of star in our galaxy -
known as red dwarfs

Mass-Luminosity Relation for Main-Sequence Stars:
Masses of main-sequence stars increases from spectral class M up main sequence to
spectral class O
Mass-luminosity relation - plot of mass against luminosity
Luminosity of main-sequence stars proportional to approximately fourth power of
their mass - the mathematical form of this relationship is stated as: L M
4

Other Properties of Main-Sequence Stars:
Radii of stars on main sequence increases from small radii M dwarfs in the lower
right corner to large radii O giant stars in the upper left corner
Luminosity, temperature, radius, and mass for main sequence stars increases from M
to O stars
Fundamental property upon which luminosity, temperature, and radius depend is
the mass of gas composing main-sequence stars


95


Red Giants:
Red giants - second most prominent region in H-R diagram, composed of bright,
cool stars
Red giants are luminous stars in spectral classes F, G, K, and M lying above main
sequence in a region that angles up to bright, cool stars in upper right-hand corner
Despite being members of same luminosity class, red giants vary by at least a factor
of 100 in luminosity
100 times more luminous than Sun on average
Surface temperature varies from ~3000
o
K to 7000
o
K
No relationship exists between mass and position on red giant branch
No mass-luminosity relation has been found for red-giant stars
Radii of giant stars does increase progressing upward toward upper right-hand corner
of H-R diagram

Blue and Red Supergiants:
Supergiants are stars of luminosity classes I and II
Blue supergiants are early-type stars of classes O and B that have just evolved from
the main sequence towards the supergiant branch
Red supergiants are late-type stars in classes G, K, and M that are located on the
supergiant branch in the extreme upper right corner of the H-R diagram
Blue and red supergiants can be hundreds of thousands of times more luminous than
Sun
Blue and red supergiant stars do not have a definite relationship between mass and
position in the H-R diagram
Radii do increase toward upper right-hand corner
Although supergiants can be seen at tremendous distances because of their great
luminosity, they appear to be a very rare type of star
There are far more red-giant stars in our Galaxy than blue and red supergiants

White Dwarfs:
White dwarfs ~span spectral classes B, A, and F, and are composed of faint, hot stars
in the lower left corner of the H-R diagram
Note: when star referred to as being "on" or "off main sequence," reference is to
position in H-R diagram and not to its actual position in space
White dwarfs appear to be the second most populous region in H-R diagram
Supergiants are rare but can be seen at great distance across Galaxy; white dwarfs
are more numerous but due to their small size and low luminosity are less visible at
great distances

Instability Strips on the H-R Diagram:
There are regions where some types of variable stars are found on the H-R diagram
The vertically elongated Mira instability strip contains long period pulsating red
giant Mira variable stars
The vertically elongated Cepheid instability strip contains pulsating yellow and
white giant pulsating stars that are periodic
The horizontally elongated RR Lyrae instability strip contains older pulsating red
giants that reside in globular clusters
These regions contain stars that begin to vary either periodically or irregularly as
they evolve from the main sequence to the giant and supergiant regions

96



Globular Cluster H-R Diagrams:
All stars in the cluster are basically the same age, so only differ in mass
Differences in brightness and appearance are true differences among the stars
All had the same basic initial chemical composition
All stars in the cluster have the same age
The turnoff point on a star cluster H-R diagram gives the age of the cluster
Globular clusters formed at the same time as the galaxy they inhabit
The age of globular clusters gives an upper limit to the age of galaxies
Open Clusters of young gravitationally bound stars can also be plotted on the
H-R diagram to study the characteristics of these stellar populations also.

Characteristics of Main Sequence Stars










Percentage of Stars in Regions of H-R Diagram














Temperature Regions on H-R Diagrams












97




Plotting Stars on the HR Diagram Activity:
For this activity, you will plot stars on a simple H-R Diagram, based on absolute
magnitude and spectral type. The following pages include: Table I: Some of the
Brightest Stars Visible from Earth, Table II: Some of the Nearest Stars to Earth,
and the The H-R Diagram Template. Plot the brightest stars from Table I and the
nearest stars from Table II with the asterisk and circle symbols indicated at the top of the
H-R Diagram Template. Once you have plotted all of the stars, note any patterns that
might appear, and answer the following questions. Reminder: The greater the negative
number the brighter the star, the greater the positive number, the dimmer the star. Note
that there is some overlap between the two tables. For instance, the star Sirius A - being
the brightest star visible from Earth and the 9th closest star to the Sun - is on both Table I
and Table II. You can plot the two symbols in the same location. You will not use the
distances in light years - that information is provided for your edification only.
NOTE: You will be plotting variable stars on this same H-R diagram in the next activity.
1. Label the following branches of the H-R diagram: Main Sequence, Giants,
Supergiants, White Dwarf. Calculate the percentage of stars that occupy each branch,
and briefly describe, from the information on the two axes, the types of stars that
occupy each branch.

2. What patterns distinguish the brightest stars from the nearby stars?

3. Which stars are similar in magnitude and spectral class to the Sun?

4. Which list (brightest or nearest) gives the more typical example of the star population
of the Milky Way Galaxy? Explain your reasoning.

5. Write a brief statement describing the relationship between absolute magnitude and
stellar classification (temperature) of main sequence stars.

6. Does the above relationship hold for stars on the other branches of the H-R diagram?

7. Can you describe any relationships between absolute magnitude and stellar
classification for any of the non-main sequence branches? Explain why you can or
cannot.

8. Would you expect the same percentage of stars to occupy each branch of the diagram
if all stars within the Milky Way Galaxy were plotted? Explain why or why not.

9. Why are there places on the diagram where no stars exist?

10. The next activity involves plotting variable stars on the same H-R diagram that you
have constructed. Where do you think stars that vary in magnitude will end up on the
diagram? Will they occupy one or more of the existing branches? Some of the empty
places? Both? Write down your prediction, along with your reasoning. How would you
plot a star that changes in brightness? What exactly is changing in these stars besides
brightness?

98


Table I: Some of the Brightest Stars Visible from Earth


Names: The common names of the stars are followed by the more scientifically correct
nomenclature. The star with the brightest apparent magnitude in each constellation is
named "alpha," followed by the possessive form of the Latin name for the constellation;
the second brightest, "beta," the third brightest, "gamma," and so on down through the
Greek alphabet. For example, the most common name for the brightest star in the
constellation Auriga is "Capella." The scientific name of this star is "alpha Aurigae" or
just " Aurigae," or even " Aur." NOTE: The A and B denote binary star systems; if
they are in close contact they are considered to have the same absolute magnitude - if
their separate absolute magnitudes have been measured, they are plotted separately.




Star Spectral Class Absolute Magnitude

1. The Sun G2 4.8
2. Sirius ( CMa A) A0 1.8
3. Canopus ( Car) A9 -5.5
4. Vega ( Lyr) A0 0.6
5. Arcturus ( Boo) K2 -0.1
6. Cen A G2 4.5
7. Rigel ( Ori) B8 -6.7
8. Capella ( Aur A,B) G6 -0.3
9. Achernar ( Eri) B3 -2.8
10. Procyon ( CMi A) F5 2.7
11. Agena ( Cen A,B) B1 -5.5
12. Acrux ( Cru A) B0 -3.3
13. Altair ( Aql) A7 2.3
14. Spica ( Vir) B1 -3.6
15. Aldebaran ( Tau A) K5 -0.5
16. Becrux ( Cru) B0 -4.0
17. Formalhaut ( Ps A) A3 1.8
18. Cen B K1 5.6
19. Pollux ( Gem) K0 1.2
20. Regulus ( Leo A) B7 -0.6
21. Adhara ( CMa A) B2 -4.2
22. Shaula ( Sco) B1 -5.1
23. Bellatrix ( Ori) B2 -2.8
24. Castor ( Gem A,B) A2 0.6
25. Alnath ( Tau) B7 -1.4
26. Betelgeuse ( Ori) M2 -7.1
27. Antares ( Sco) M1 -5.2




99



Table II: Some of the Nearest Stars to Earth





Star Spectral Class Absolute Magnitude

1. The Sun G2 4.8
2. Cen C M5 15.2
3. Cen A G2 4.5
4. Cen B K1 5.6
5. Barnard's star M5 13.2
6. 70 Oph A K0 5.6
7. Sirius A ( CMa A) A0 1.8
8. V1216 Sgr M4 13.0
9. Eri K2 6.3
10. HIP 114046 M0 9.8
11. FI Vir M4 13.4
12. V1803 Cyg K5 7.7
13. Procyon ( CMi A) F5 2.7
14. 61 Cyg B K7 8.4
15. HIP 91772 M3 12.3
16. GX And M1 10.4
17. HIP 91768 M3 11.2
18. Ind K4 7.0
19. Cet G8 5.8
20. YZ Cet M4 14.1
21. Luyten's star M3 11.9
22. Kapteyn's star M1 11.0
23. AX Mic K7 8.8
24. Kruger 60A M3 11.6
25. V577 Mon M4 12.9
26. Sirius ( CMa B) A0 11.2
27. Procyon ( CMi B) F0 13.0


* The absolute magnitudes of all stars except the Sun, Sirius ( CMa B), and Procyon
( CMi B) were calculated from parallax measurements and apparent magnitude (Hp)
measurements taken from The European Space Agency, et al., The Hipparcos and Tycho
Catalogues (17 Vols.), Noordwijk, The Netherlands: ESA Publications Division, 1997.
ISBN 92-9092-399-7 (Vols. 1-17).







100



The H-R Diagram Template









101





Answers to the questions in the Plotting Stars on the H-R Diagram Activity:

1. Graphs and answers will vary. See answer key on next page to see where the regions
are located. Percentages are ~85% on Main Sequence, 7% on Giant branch, 3% on
Supergiant branch, and 3% on White Dwarf branch. NOTE: the two stars that have
evolved off the main sequence (spectral class A,F with absolute magnitudes greater
than -5) were included as main sequence stars as they have not gotten to the Supergiant
branch yet. The four stars on the giant branch are on their way to going through the
planetary nebula stage and will end up on the White Dwarf branch. The two stars on
the Supergiant branch will go through Type II supernova events and become neutron
stars or pulsars. The two white dwarfs are the end products of mid-sized stars.

2. The patterns that emerge should indicate that the nearby stars are generally dim,
whereas most of the bright stars appear bright to us because they are genuinely quite
luminous, not because they are close. A large percentage of the nearby stars are cool
class M red dwarfs and a few are white dwarfs. Many of the brightest stars are hot
class A and B Main Sequence stars and giants, with a few highly luminous class M red
giants mixed in.

3. Alpha Centauri is similar both in absolute magnitude and spectral type to the Sun.

4. Neither one. The dim stars that are far away cannot be seen - we can see brighter stars
further away than the dimmer stars - so both sets together will give a "typical" view of
the stellar population of the entire Milky Way Galaxy.

5. The spectral classification of stars depends upon their temperature - from hottest to
coolest the spectral types are O,B,A,F,G,K,M,C,S - the hotter the star the greater the
absolute magnitude; the hotter the star the greater the absolute magnitude.

6. For the other regions on the H-R diagram there is no relationship. Spectral type M, for
example ranges from ~16 to -8 magnitudes.

7. White Dwarf stars are spectral type A-F and have a low absolute magnitude so they are
hot and dim, Giants and Supergiants have a high absolute magnitude and spectral type
of K-M so they are bright and cool.

8. There would be some differences as this is a small sample of 54 stars; however, the
Galaxy on average should have approximately the same number of stars in the same
stages of development that we see in the local stellar neighborhood.

9. A star's position in the diagram is a function of its mass, chemical composition, and
current age. There is a physical reason why the points in the diagram are not scattered
at random: the natural forces that guide the evolution of stars confine them to portions
of the diagram where they can convert matter into radiant energy.

10. Various answers.


102






The H-R Diagram Answer Key
for Nearby and Bright Stars









103



Supergiants
White Dwarfs
Sun
Giants
Main Sequence


Plotting Variable Stars on the H-R Diagram Activity:

Plot the variable stars in Table III below on the same diagram you used to plot the bright
and nearby stars. This will help you to see the relationship among main sequence stars,
giants, supergiants and white dwarfs to variable stars. Variables have two absolute
magnitudes, one at maximum and one at minimum. They also have enough variation to
change spectral classes. To show the entire cycle of change for variable stars, it is
necessary to plot them twice. The Spectral Class column shows the range in spectral
class for both maximum (left) and minimum (right); the Absolute Magnitude shows the
range from maximum (left) to minimum (right). Plot both sets of values using a triangle
for a symbol, and draw a line connecting the two points.

Table III: Variable Stars and the H-R Diagram

Star Type Distance Spectral Absolute
(parsecs) Class Magnitude (M
V
)

RT Aur Cepheid(C) 480 F4 to G1 -3.4 to -2.6

Delta Cep Cepheid(C) 300 F5 to G1 -3.9 to -3.0

Rho Cas Semi-Regular(SR) 3600 F8 to K0 -8.7 to -6.6

T Cas Mira(M) 1700 M6 to M9 -3.2 to +0.8

TU Cas Cepheid(C) 1100 F3 to F5 -3.3 to -2.0

UU Aur Semi-Regular(SR) 560 C5 to C7 -0.9 to +1.3

Chi Cyg Mira(M) 106 S6 to S10 +0.0 to +8.2

X Cyg Cepheid(C) 680 F7 to G8 -3.3 to -2.3

T Cep Mira(M) 210 M5 to M8 -0.6 to +3.7

Y Oph Cepheid(C) 880 F8 to G3 -3.8 to -3.3

RS Boo RR Lyrae(RR) 1300 A7 to F5 -0.9 to +0.2

VX Her RR Lyrae(RR) 2100 A4 to F4 -1.7 to -0.4

* The absolute magnitudes were calculated from parallax measurements and apparent
magnitude (Hp) measurements taken from The European Space Agency, et al., The
Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues (17 Vols.), Noordwijk, The Netherlands: ESA
Publications Division, 1997. ISBN 92-9092-399-7 (Vols. 1-17).

QUESTION: Are the Cepheid, RR Lyrae and Mira variable stars located on the H-R
diagram where you expected them to be (Question 10 in previous activity)?

104


The H-R Diagram Answer Key
for Variable Stars









105



Red Giants
Giants
Main Sequence
White Dwarfs
Miras
Cepheids
RR Lyraes
Red Supergiants


H-R Diagrams Sample Questions:

Use the image set below to answer the questions on the following page:

1 2 3 4









5 6 7 8 9





10
















(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)




(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)






106


A
B
C
D E
F
G


Questions for images 1 through 9 on the previous page:


1. The H-R diagrams numbered 1 through 4 are for open and globular clusters. Place the
diagrams in order from youngest to oldest. Explain your reasoning.

2. Which of the diagram(s) represent open clusters? Explain your reasoning.

3. Which of the diagram(s) represent globular clusters? Explain your reasoning.

4. Image 5 is Pleiades and image 6 is Hyades. Which H-R diagrams belongs to these two
star clusters. Explain your reasoning.

5. Which H-R diagram(s) represent the object in image 7? Explain your reasoning.

6. Image 9 is the H-R diagram for image 8. What type of star cluster is this? Explain
your reasoning.


Questions for the H-R diagram and objects (a) - (m) shown in image 10:

1.Where is image (a) located in on the H-R diagram?

2a. What type of light curve is image (j)?
2b. Where on the H-R diagram would an object reside that produces this type of light
curve?
2c. What is this area of the H-R diagram called?

3. Where on the H-R diagram is object (f) located?

4a. Which object is located at C on the diagram?
4b. Which object shows the behavior of the answer to 4a?
4c. Which object shows the next stage for the object located at C?
4d. Where on the H-R diagram will the final product for the answer to 4b be located?

5a. What is the name of the area of the diagram labeled A?
5b. Which of the objects are associated with this area of the H-R diagram?
5c. Which object shows one possible end result for stars after they leave location A?

6. Which two objects show events that take place before the main sequence?

7a. Where on the H-R diagram are the coolest, dimmest objects located?
7b. Where are the coolest, brightest objects located?
7c. Where are the hottest, dimmest objects located?
7d. Where are the hottest, brightest objects located?

8. Which object is located in location B on the H-R diagram?


107





Answers to H-R Diagrams Sample Questions:


Answers for images 1 through 9:

1. From youngest to oldest: 2, 4, 1, 3
2 - stars just beginning to leave the main sequence in the upper left corner. No stars
have evolved to the giant branch.
4 - still a lot of main sequence stars, a few giants, and stars have evolved all the way
to the white dwarf branch.
1 - the turnoff point is further down the H-R diagram, many stars are in the transition
to the giant branch, and many stars are on the giant and supergiant branches.
3 - Again, the turnoff point in further down the diagram, some "blue stragglers" are
left behind, there are several white dwarfs.
2. H-R diagrams 2 and 4 are open clusters. Open clusters are gravitationally bound
groups of stars that condensed together from the same cloud of gas and dust. The
stars in the cluster slowly drift apart over time, so open clusters are relatively young.
3. H-R diagrams 1 and 3 are globular clusters. Globular clusters are dense clouds of older
stars that are located outside the plane of the galaxy and contain many highly evolved
giant stars.
4. H-R diagram 2 is the Pleiades - a very young group of hot O and B types stars. The
cluster is not old enough for any stars to have evolved off the main sequence. Diagram
4 is the Hyades - an older open cluster. The stars have drifted further apart and some of
the stars have evolved to the giant and white dwarf stage.
5. Image 7 is a globular cluster - a tightly packed and dense group of stars. Either 1 or 3
are representative diagrams for this object.
6. This is not a globular cluster, however there appear to be two separate concentrations
of stars. This is actually "h and Chi Persei" - a rare double open cluster. The diagram
has many stars on the main sequence, with some stars that have evolved to the giant
branch; the diagram does not have a sharp turnoff point like you would see in the H-R
diagram of a globular cluster.


Answers for the H-R diagram and objects (a) - (m) shown in image 10:

1. location F
2a. Cepheid, 2b. location G, 2c. Cepheid Instability Strip
3. The red giant would be located at A, and the white dwarf at D
4a. (d) - red giant; 4b. (c) - Mira variable stage star; 4c. (k) - planetary nebula;
4d. D - the white dwarf branch
5a. Supergiant branch; 5b. (b) - supernova explosion (1987A), (g) supernova remnant,
Cas A, (l) - supernova explosion light curve (1987A); 5c. (h) pulsar (Crab Pulsar)
6. (e) - stellar nursery and (i) protostar with protoplanetary system
7a. location E; 7b. location A; 7c. location D, 7d. location B
8. (m) - the Pleiades



108





The materials on the CD-ROM include the following:



Additional internet resources for images and information related to H-R diagrams:
http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~soper/Stars/hrdiagram.html VERY BASIC information
http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/Astronomy/SteCla.html General description of
spectral classifications, including subclasses
http://cassfos02.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/StevI.html
A brief description of stellar evolution on the H-R diagram
http://www.rssd.esa.int/index.php?project=HIPPARCOS&page=HR_dia
H-R diagrams from the Hipparcos missions - most accurate H-R plots to date of
nearby stars
Excellent on-line activities:
This Sloan Digital Sky Survey website (SDSS) allows the user to create their own
H-R diagram (advanced project): http://cas.sdss.org/dr6/en/proj/advanced/hr/
And to plot a globular cluster H-R diagram (advanced project):
http://cas.sdss.org/dr6/en/proj/advanced/hr/globularcluster.asp
AAVSO Variable Star Astronomy
A description of this curriculum is at the end of the section on Variable Stars (pages
78-79). The two H-R diagram plotting activities are from Chapter 9, Core Activities
9.2 and 9.3, on pages 11 16. More information about the activities can be accessed
in the teacher pdf. Chapter 9 is located at:
http://www.aavso.org/education/vsa/Chapter9.pdf






















109






Cosmological Distances

Measuring distances is one of the most
important, and often most difficult, tasks
in astronomy. The term "cosmic distance
ladder" refers to the methods by which
astronomers determine the distances to
objects. Each rung of the ladder provides
information which is used to determine the
distances at the next higher rung. Beyond
the Solar System, the succeeding rungs of
the cosmic distance ladder are parallax, spectroscopic parallax, variable stars (Cepheids
and RR Lyraes), Type Ia supernovae, the Tully-Fisher relationship, and Hubble's law.
These methods are currently the most reliable, though many others are used and studied.

Trigonometric (Stellar) Parallax (Stars within ~100 Light Years from Earth):
Trigonometric parallax is the apparent displacement of a nearby star against the
background of more distant stars resulting from the motion of the Earth in its orbit around
the Sun. Mathematically speaking, the parallax of a star is the angle at the star that is
subtended by the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun. A shift in the angular
position of a star will be greatest when observed at intervals of six months; this makes the
parallax equal to the value of one half of the semiannual displacement of the star. If a
star's parallax can be measured, it then determines the distance to the star.

The unit of measurement is the parsec (pc); it is the distance at which a star would have a
parallax of one second of arc and is equivalent to 206,265 times the distance from the
Earth to the Sun (in Astronomical Units or AU), or 3.26 light years. A star's distance d in
parsecs is the reciprocal of its parallax p (or d = 1/p). The nearest star, Proxima Centauri,
has a parallax of 0.763" of arc and a distance of about 1.31 parsecs.
NOTE: 1 pc = 206,265 AU = 3.26 LY = 3.08 10
13
km

Spectroscopic Parallax (Stars and Clusters ~100,000 Light Years from Earth):
Despite the name, this method has nothing to do with measuring parallaxes. Distances for
stars too far away to show a detectable trigonometric parallax are found using
spectroscopic parallax.. This method uses the correlation between luminosity (absolute
magnitude) and temperature (spectral type) for stars and their luminosity class to
calculate their distances.


110


Cosmic Distance Ladder



The spectral type and luminosity class of a
distant star is determined from its spectrum
and it is plotted on the H-R diagram. The
luminosity, or absolute magnitude, of the star
can then be read directly from the diagram.
The apparent magnitude of the star is easy to
measure, and both magnitudes - apparent and
absolute - can be used to calculate the distance
to the star. The distance modulus is a
mathematical relationship that relates absolute
magnitude, apparent magnitude, and distance.
The general relationship is written as: m - M = 5 log
10
[ d / (10 pc) ], where m = apparent
magnitude, M = absolute magnitude, and d = distance. NOTE: (m - M) is the distance
modulus.

EXAMPLE: A star of spectral class A5V (main sequence) has an apparent visual
magnitude (m) of 9.2, and from its location on the H-R diagram an absolute magnitude
(M) of 1.5.
The distance modulus of the star is m - M = 9.2 - 1.5 = 7.7
So the distance (in parsecs) can be found: 7.7 = 5 log
10
(d) - 5
d = 347 pc, or 1130 LY

Variable Stars - Cepheids and RR Lyraes (Globular Clusters and Galaxies Within
~10,000,000 Light Years of Earth):
High luminosity Cepheid variable stars have a longer period than less luminous
Cepheids. A plot of the absolute magnitude versus period is called the period-luminosity
relationship (P-L).
Cepheid Variable Stars:
There are two types of Cepheid variable stars.
Type I: classical Cepheids are from young
high-metalicity stars and are about 4 times more
luminous than Type II Cepheids. To the right is
the light curve (the plot of brightness vs. time)
of a classical Cepheid from the Hipparcos
database of variable stars. These are younger
(Population I) stars found in galactic spiral arms
and irregular galaxies.
Type II: W Virginis Cepheids are from older
low-metalicity stars and are about 4 times less
luminous than Type I. To the right is the light
curve of a W Virginis Cepheid from the
Hipparcos database of variable stars. Note the
differences in the shape of the light curve. The
two types of Cepheids are distinguished from
each other by the shape of the light curve
profile. These are older stellar (population II) stars located galactic halos, globular
clusters, and elliptical galaxies.

111


Type I
Type II


Because the luminosity of Cepheids can be easily found from the pulsation period, they
are very useful in finding distances to the star clusters or galaxies in which they reside.
Early measurements of the distances to galaxies did not take into account the two types of
Cepheids and underestimated the distances to nearby galaxies. To calculate distances to
other galaxies, a Cepheid variable is observed and its
period is calculated from its light curve and the type -
I or II - from the shape (profile) of its light curve.
The period-luminosity relationship is then used to
determine the absolute magnitude. The observed
apparent magnitude of the Cepheid and its absolute
luminosity are then used with the distance modulus to
calculate the distance to the Cepheid - and the galaxy
in which it is located.

Another type of pulsating star similar to the Cepheids is the RR Lyrae variable stars.
They are smaller than Cepheids and, therefore, have shorter periods and lower
luminosities. They pulsate with a period between ~5 and 15 hours (Cepheid pulsation
periods are greater than ~24 hours). Many lower-mass giant stars will go through a RR
Lyrae pulsation stage while many higher-mass giant stars will go through a Cepheid
stage. Because low-mass stars live longer than high-mass stars, the Cepheid stars as a
group are younger than the RR Lyrae stars.

RR Lyraes are found in old star clusters called
globular clusters and in the stellar halo part of our
galaxy. All of the RR Lyrae stars in a cluster have the
same average apparent magnitude. In different
clusters, the average apparent magnitude is different.
This is because all RR Lyrae have about the same
average absolute magnitude (+0.75, or ~45 solar
luminosities). If the cluster is more distant from us,
the RR Lyrae in it will have greater apparent
magnitudes (remember fainter objects have greater
magnitudes.).
RR Lyrae stars can be used as standard candles to
measure distances out to ~760,000 parsecs (2.5
million light years). The more luminous Cepheid
variables can be used to measure distances out to ~40
million parsecs (130 million light years).

Summary:
1. Identify a Cepheid or RR Lyrae and plot its light
curve.
2. Calculate the period.
3. Use the period-luminosity relationship to determine
the absolute magnitude. (Cepheids)
4. Use the distance modulus to calculate the distance.



112




Type Ia Supernovae and the Tully-Fisher Relation (Galaxies and Galaxy Clusters
~10 Billion Light Years from Earth)

Type Ia Supernovae (SN):

Type Ia supernovae, like 1994D in galaxy NGC4526 to the left,
are the explosions of white dwarf stars in binary systems.
Accretion from a companion raises the mass above the
maximum mass for stable white dwarfs, the Chandrasekhar
limit. The white dwarf then starts to collapse, but the
compression ignites explosive carbon burning leading to the
total disruption of the star. The light output comes primarily
from energy produced by the decay of radioactive nickel and cobalt produced in the
explosion. The peak luminosity is correlated with the rate of decay in the light curve: less
luminous supernovae decay quickly while more luminous supernovae decay slowly. A
few Type Ia supernovae have been in galaxies close enough to us to allow the Hubble
Space Telescope to verify the results using Cepheid variables. Because a white dwarf has
a mass limit of 1.4 solar masses, they are all assumed to have approximately the same
absolute magnitude of M
V
= -19.9 Type Ia supernovae are so bright that they can be seen
from enormous distances and their apparent magnitudes can be observed. The light curve
decline is plotted, and from the present apparent magnitude, the apparent magnitude
during the supernova event is then calculated. The apparent and absolute magnitudes can
be used with the distance modulus relationship to calculate the distance to the Type Ia
supernova.
Summary:
1. Identify a Type Ia supernova.
2. Observe it for a few weeks to get a light curve.
3. Calculate the maximum apparent brightness.
4. The absolute magnitude is assumed to be -19.9
5. Use the apparent and absolute magnitudes with the distance modulus relationship
to calculate the distance.

Tully-Fisher Relation:
The Tully-Fisher relation is a correlation for spiral galaxies
between their luminosity and how fast they are rotating. The idea
is that the more massive the galaxy is, the faster it is rotating. If
you know the rotational velocity of a spiral galaxy, you can
determine its absolute magnitude by using the Tully-Fisher
relation. It has been determined that the luminosity, or absolute magnitude, of a spiral
galaxy is proportional to its rotational velocity to the 4th power - mathematically this is
stated as L = V
rot
4
. The absolute magnitude, the apparent magnitude, and the distance
modulus are used to calculate its distance. For a cluster of galaxies, the distance to each
galaxy can be calculated using the Tully-Fisher relation. The distances can then be
averaged to calculate the distance to the entire cluster.

The rotation rate of a galaxy can be measured through radio observations of the
molecular clouds it contains and the Doppler effect.


113










Radio telescopes are used to measure the 21-cm line
of rotating neutral hydrogen gas in the disk of a
spiral galaxy. The measurements of the neutral
hydrogen (HI) display a "double-horned" profile as
seen in the graphic to the right. The Tully-Fisher
relation is a plot of the line width (the measure of
the rate of rotation) versus the absolute magnitude
of the galaxy. From this plot the mathematical
relationship of rotation to luminosity was then
determined to be L = V
rot
4
.

Summary:
1. Measure 21-cm HII line width for rotation rate
2. Apply L = V
rot
4

3. Use distance modulus

Hubble's Law:
Hubble's law is the statement that all galaxies in the
universe appear to be moving away from the Milky
Way Galaxy - and that the velocities with which
they are receding is proportional to their distances.
The law is stated mathematically as: v
r
= H
0
d, where v
r
=

recessional velocity (how fast
the galaxy is moving away from us), d = distance in megaparsecs (Mpc) the galaxy is
away from us, and H
0
= Hubble's constant (the rate at which the velocity changes with
distance). The current accepted value for Hubble's constant is 71+/-4. The redshift
Doppler equation is: z = -
0
/
0
, where z = redshift and = = wavelength.

Hubble's constant is "constant" in the sense that it is believed to work for all velocities
and distances right now. The value of H
0
(usually called Hubble parameter to distinguish
it from its value now, the Hubble constant) decreases over time however. If one assumes
that all galaxies retain their speed relative to us and do not accelerate or decelerate, then
we have d = vt and it follows that H
0
= 1/t, where t is the time since the Big Bang. This
allows us to estimate the age of the universe from H
0
. Based on recent observations, it is
now believed that galaxies accelerate away from us, which means that H
0
> 1/t (but still
decreases over time) and the current estimates for the age of the universe are too low. For
relatively nearby galaxies, the velocity v can be determined from the galaxy's redshift (z)
using the formula v zc where c is the speed of light. All galaxies move relative to each
other independent of the expansion of the universe, and these relative velocities - called
peculiar velocities - are not accounted for by Hubble's law. For far away galaxies, v
cannot easily be determined from the redshift z and can be larger than c. Systems that are
gravitationally bound are not subject to Hubble's law and do not expand.


114




How and What to Study:

Trigonometric (Stellar) Parallax
Used to measure the distance to stars within ~100 light years from Earth
Based on geometry of the Earth, Sun, and apparent movement of the star against
more distant background stars.
d = 1/p

Spectroscopic Parallax
Used to measure the distance to stars and star clusters within ~100,000 light years
from Earth
Based on location on H-R diagram (to determine luminosity) and the distance
modulus
m - M = 5 log
10
[ d / (10 pc) ]

Cepheid Variable Stars
Used to measure the distance to galaxies within ~ten million light years from Earth
Based on the light curves, the period-luminosity relationship, and the distance
modulus
Light Curve, Period-Luminosity Table & m - M = 5 log
10
[ d / (10 pc) ]

RR Lyrae Variable Stars
Used to measure distances to globular clusters within ~ten million light years
from Earth
Based on light curves, M of +0.75, and the distance modulus
Light Curve & m - + 0.75 = 5 log
10
[ d / (10 pc) ]

Type Ia Supernovae
Used to measure distances to galaxies and galaxy clusters within ~ ten billion light
years from Earth.
Based on light curve, M of -19.9, and the distance modulus
Light Curve, M
V
= -19.9 & m - M = 5 log
10
[ d / (10 pc) ]

Tully-Fisher Relation
Used to measure distances to spiral galaxies
Based on rotation (to determine luminosity) and the distance modulus
HII line width, L = V
rot
4
& m - M = 5 log
10
[ d / (10 pc) ]

Hubble's Law
Used to measure distances to the most distant galaxies
Based on Doppler redshift of spectrum equation z = -
0
/
0

Linear relationship of recessional velocity to distance with V
r
= H
0
d

NOTE:
Spectroscopic parallax, Cepheid and RR Lyrae variables, Type Ia supernovae, and
The Tully-Fisher relation all use luminosity so these methods of measuring
cosmological distances are referred to as Standard Candles. There are other methods
that measure distances that have not been discussed in this manual.

115




It is important to know which methods of measuring cosmological distances are used
with different objects, especially the designated DSOs in the student manual. Construct a
set of flash cards for the designated DSOs and other objects with the method(s) used to
measure their distances on the back. It is also necessary to know how to solve problems
involving distances so you should also be familiar with the relationships and equations
associated with each measurement method.

Practice Questions with Answers:
Part I. For each of the images below, name the method(s) most commonly used to
determine its distance from Earth: (Information for each image is provided)

1 2 3 4





Spiral Galaxy Giant Star in Milky The Pleiades Proxima Centauri
Way Galaxy Triple Star System

5 6 7 8






Globular Cluster in Supernova Event Galaxy Cluster Elliptical Galaxy
Milky Way Galaxy in Distant Galaxy

9 10 11 12






Quasars Planetary Nebula Star in M100 Galaxy Globular Cluster
In Milky Way Galaxy in Large Magellanic
Cloud Galaxy
*ANSWERS:
1. Tully-Fisher relation 7. Tully-Fisher
2. Spectroscopic Parallax 8. Hubble's Law (if distant)**
3. Spectroscopic Parallax 9. Hubble's Law
4. Trigonometric Parallax (nearest star) 10. Spectroscopic Parallax
5. RR Lyrae 11. Cepheid Variable
6. Type Ia Supernova 12. RR Lyrae
(*there could be other possible answers. **these objects mostly use Faber-Jackson relation not discussed)

116





Part II. Solve the following cosmological distances basic sample problem set.

QUESTIONS:

Trigonometric Parallax:
Barnard's star has a parallax of 0.545 arcsec. What is the distance to this star in parsecs
and light years?

Spectroscopic Parallax:
The spectrum of a 14
th
magnitude star places its location on the H-R diagram at 0.0
absolute magnitude. What is the distance to the star?

Cepheid Variable Stars:
What is the absolute magnitude for the variable star, delta Cep? It has an apparent
magnitude range of 3.5 to 4.4 and a parallax measurement of 0.00332 arcsec.

RR Lyrae Variable Stars:
An RR Lyrae variable star in the M51 galaxy has a distance modulus of 29.6. What is its
apparent magnitude? How far away is M51?

Type Ia Supernovae:
A Type Ia supernova is discovered in a distant galaxy. At maximum brilliance, the
supernova reaches an apparent magnitude of +10. How far away is the galaxy?

Tully-Fisher Relation:
The HII 21-cm line width of a spiral galaxy gives a rotation rate that corresponds to a
luminosity value of -19. The apparent magnitude is 16.5. How far away is the galaxy?

Hubble's Law:
The average radial velocity of galaxies in the Hercules cluster is 10,800 km/s. Using H
0

= 70 km/s/Mpc, find the distance to this cluster in Mpc and light years. How would your
answer differ if the Hubble constant had a smaller value?

More Advanced Problems:

1. The brightness of a certain Cepheid variable star increases
and decreases with a period of 10 days. (a) What must this
star's luminosity be if its spectrum has strong absorption lines
of hydrogen and helium, but no strong absorption lines of
heavy elements? (b) Repeat part (a) for the case in which the
star's spectrum also has strong absorption lines of heavy
elements. (Assume H
0
= 70 km/s/Mpc)

2. When measured in a laboratory on Earth, the so-called K line of single ionized calcium
has a wavelength
0
= 393.3 nm. When you observe the spectrum of galaxy NGC 4889,
you find that the k line has a wavelength of 401.8 nm. How far away is NGC 4889?


117



ANSWERS:


Trigonometric Parallax: Type Ia Supernova:
d = 1/p m - M = 5 log
10
d / 10
d = 1/0.545 = 1.83 pc m = +10 and M = -19.9
d = 1.83 pc x 3.26 ly/1 pc = 5.98 ly 10 + 19.9 = 5 log d - 5
5 log d = 10 + 19.9 + 5 = 34.9
Spectroscopic Parallax: log d = 34.9/5 = 6.98
m - M = 5 log
10
d / 10 d = 10
6.98
= 9.5 x 10
6
pc = 9.5 Mpc
M = m - 5 log (d/10)
0.0 = 14.0 - 5 log (d/10) Tully-Fisher Relation:
5 log (d/10) = 14.0 M = -19.0 , m = 16.5
log (d/10) = 14.0/5 = 2.8 m - M = 5 log
10
d / 10
d/10 = 10
2.8
= 631 pc ; 5 log d = m - M + 5
d = 6310 pc 5 log

d = 16.5 + 19 + 5 = 40.5
6310 pc x 3.26 ly/pc = 20,571 ly log d = 40.5/5 = 8.1
d = 10
8.1
= 1.3 x 10
8
pc
Cepheid Variable Stars: d = 130 Mpc
Absolute magnitude at maximum:
apparent magnitude = 3.5
d = 1/p = 1/0.00332 = 301.2048 Hubble's Law:
m - M = 5 log
10
d / 10 v = H
0
d ; v = 10,800 km/s ;
M = 3.5 - 5 log
10
(301.2048/10) H
0
= 70 km/s/Mpc
M = 3.5 - 5 log
10
(30.1205) d = 10,800/70 Mpc = 154 Mpc
M = 3.5 - 5 (1.4789) = -3.89 = -3.9 d = = 503 ly
minimum: -3.0 Smaller constant, greater distance

RR Lyrae Variable Stars:
m - M = 29.6 ; RR Lyraes have an M of 0.75
m = 29.6 + 0.75 = 30.35
5 log d = 29.6 + 5 = 34.6
log d = 6.92
d = 10
6.92
= 8.3 Mpc

More Advanced Problems:

1. (a) The spectrum establishes that this is a Type II Cepheid. Using the Period-
Luminosity (P-L) relation in the diagram for a Type II Cepheid with a period of 10 days
gives a luminosity of about 10
3
that of the Sun. (b) In this case it is a Type I Cepheid and
the luminosity becomes about 4 x 10
3
that of the Sun.

2. z = 401.8 nm - 393.3 nm/393.3 nm = 0.0216
v = zc = (0.0216) (3 x 10
5
km/s) = 6500 km/s
d = zc/H
0
= 6500 km/s/70 km/s/Mpc = 93 Mpc = 300 x 10
6
ly




118







Additional internet resources for images and information related to H-R diagrams:
http://www.astro.washington.edu/courses/labs/clearinghouse/labs/labs.html
This website has an online Hubble's Law Introductory Lab that uses negative images
of actual galaxies. Students click on either side to get the angular size of the galaxy,
which is then converted into arcseconds, for 12 galaxies. The actual spectra are included.
This is an excellent and very realistic Hubble's law activity. This website contains
several activities and labs relating to stellar evolution, Hubbles law, the H-R
diagram, and variable stars. Complete instructions, downloadable PDF documents
to use with the online activities, and answers are provided.
http://skyserver.sdss.org/dr2/en/proj/advanced/hubble/
This is an advanced project that allows students to create their own diagram and
calculate the Hubble law. It used actual galaxies and spectra, and requires familiarity
with Excel spreadsheets.
http://www3.gettysburg.edu/~marschal/clea/CLEAhome.html
The CLEA Hubble Redshift Distance Relation software is an excellent free simulation
for Win PCs. At the controls of a simulated telescope, students view distant clusters of
galaxies and obtain their spectra with a photon counting spectrometer. A wide variety
of instructor-settable options are available. Instructors can construct their own galaxy
fields using GENSTAR, a utility supplied by CLEA, and can even install their own
image files to represent galaxies. The integration time to reach a given signal- to-noise
can be set to conform to the needs of the class and the speed of the computer. Even the
value of the Hubble parameter can be specified by the instructor; the default is 75
km/sec/Mpc. Go to the URL above and click on Manuals to locate and download the
software.
http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/distance.htm
This site contains basic information about every cosmological method of measuring
distances in the universe. [More technical]




















119





Mathematical Equations & Relationships:

A. Orbital Mechanics and Motion

Keplers 3rd Law: (MA + MB) = a
3
/ p
2

Kepler's law is useful for any orbital motion, such as two stars in a binary system. It is a
relationship among mass (M), period (p), and distance of separation in au's (a).

2 r = vP
This equation is used to determine the rotational periods of an object. During one rotation
a point in the equatorial region will travel a distance equal to 2 r. This distance is equal
to the velocity of the point times the time elapsed during one rotation. It is a relationship
among radius, velocity, and period. If you know any two of the variables, you can solve
for the third variable.

v = d/t ; a = v/t ; F
c
= ma
c
; a
c
= v
2
/r = r
2

These fundamental physics of motion equations should not be forgotten. Everything is
moving in space, and for even stars and galaxies velocity (v) equals the rate at which
distance (d) changes over time (t), and acceleration (a) is equal to the rate at which
velocity changes over time. Everything also rotates in space, and therefore centripetal
forces also apply. Centripetal force (F
c
) equals mass (m) times centripetal acceleration
(a
c
), and centripetal acceleration (a
c
) equals velocity squared (v
2
) divided by the radius
(r). Since velocity on a spinning object is an angular displacement, angular acceleration
is also equal to radius times angular velocity squared (
2
).

B. Stellar Radiation

Wein's Law:
max
= 2.9 x 10
7
/T
This law relates the maximum peak (angstroms) output of radiation from an emitting
object (
max
) to its temperature (T) in Kelvin (K).

Stephan-Boltzmann Law: L = 4R
2
T
4

This involves the total luminosity (L) from a stellar surface, which is the produce of its
surface area (4R
2
) and temperature (T) to the fourth power. Another form of this
relationship is E = T
eff
4
where T
eff
is the effective surface temperature in Kelvin, and
E is the energy per unit surface area in erg/cm
2
. is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.70
x 10
-5
erg/cm
2
K
4
s. Other forms of the Stephan-Boltzmann law are as follows:
L/L
sun
= (R/R
sun
)2 x (T/T
sun
)
4
or R/R
sun
= (T
sun
/T)
2
x L/L
sun

These simpler rearrangements express the stellar properties in terms of solar properties.

C. Luminosity

The Distance Modulus: M = m - 5log
10
(d)/10
This is a relationship among absolute magnitude (M) - or luminosity, apparent
magnitude (m), and distance (d). If you know any two of these three variables, you can
use this relationship to find the third variable. Used with Cepheid and RR Lyrae variable
stars, and the other standard candles that measure cosmological distances.


120




Inverse Square Law: L = 1/r
2
or L = (r/r
sun
)
2
x b/b
sun
or b/b
sun
= (r/r
sun
)
2

Light, or luminosity, is one of several phenomena that decrease in brightness as the
square of the distance. This can be expressed in many ways - two examples are given
above. The distance (r), luminosity (L), or brightness (b) can be written relative to the
Sun.

Tully-Fisher Relation: L = V
rot
4
The luminosity of any spiral galaxy is equal to the 4
th
power of its rotation, or, the faster a
galaxy spins, the more luminous it is. There is a correlation between spin rate and
luminosity because the gas and stars are in orbit in the galaxy, so the centripetal and
gravitational forces are in balance. Mathematically, v
2
/r - GM
galaxy
/R
2
= 0. This shows
that the greater the rotation, the more mass the galaxy has to have to maintain a balance
between the two forces. So the faster a galaxy rotates, the more massive it must be - and
the more luminous.


D. Expansion of the Universe

Hubble's Law: v
r
= H
0
d
Hubble's law states that the recessional velocity (v
r
)of a distant galaxy is equal to its
distance (d) times Hubble's constant. (Assume 70km/s/Mpc for H
0.
) The recessional
velocity is determined from the Doppler redshift (z) of the H and K lines in the spectrum
of the receding galaxy.

Doppler Effect Equation:
0
=
r
/c ; z = -
0
/
0
; v
r
zc
The first equation is the combination of the next two. First, z = -
0
/
0
is used to
measure the redshift (z) by comparing the spectral lines from the galaxy () and the
known spectral lines (
0
). The recessional velocity (v
r
)is then equal to the redshift(z)
times the speed of light (c).


E. Other Important Calculations:
Parallax for nearby stars: d = 1/p
Frequency, wavelength, and speed of light: f = c
Time spent on the main sequence: t(years) = 10
10
m/L
Mass-Luminosity relationship on main sequence: L M
4


or in the more expanded form:

L/L(Sun) ~ [M/M(Sun)]
4


D. Basic Math & Conversion Factors
Circumference, Area, Surface Area, and Volume of a Sphere
Since most stars, star clusters, clusters of galaxies, etc are spherical, there are many
instances where the formulas for the above dimensions are useful.

1 parsec (pc) = 206,265 astronomical units (au) = 3.26 light years (ly) =
3.08 x 10
16
m ; 1 = 60 arcmin = 60 ; 1 = 60 arcsec = 60



121




Derivations and Sample Problems: Parallax





122










123




Derivations and Sample Problems: Orbital Mechanics








124







125



Derivations and Sample Problems: Radiation Laws






126




127





Derivations and Sample Problems: The Distance Modulus and Luminosity



128












129




Derivations and Sample Problems: Hubble's Law and the Doppler Effect






130













131







Introduction to DS9 Image Analysis
Software

The home page for the Chandra Education
Data Analysis Software and Activities
provides a link to a system that allows
educators, students, amateur astronomers
and the general public to perform X-ray
astronomy data analysis using data sets from
the Chandra X-ray Observatory, the DS9
image display program, and astrophysical
software analysis tools.
This allows you to experience much of the
same analysis process that an X-ray
astronomer would follow in analyzing the
data he or she has received from a Chandra
Observation.

Chandra data analysis requires a level of
computing power that is not often found outside of scientific research institutions.
Chandra data sets are huge (often taking a Gigabyte of disk space or more) and programs
written to analyze these data require very fast CPUs. The programs themselves are almost
always written for the UNIX environment: popular commercial systems such as
Windows are just not powerful or flexible enough to handle the complex tasks embodied
in these programs. Therefore, a system has been developed in which you need only run a
single Chandra program on your computer: the DS9 image display. Using DS9 and either
the Chandra or Rutgers websites to access the data sets, you will be able to display
Chandra data without having to transfer the huge data sets to your computer. You will be
able to view the data in different ways, and select regions of the data that interest you.
And finally, you will be able to run analysis programs on these data, the same programs
used by X-ray astronomers. The actual "number crunching" will be performed on
powerful UNIX computers at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO). Results
such as images, graphs and charts will be sent back to you from the Smithsonian
Astrophysical Observatory for display in DS9 on your own computer.

To use the Chandra Education data analysis software and activities, the first thing that
you must do is to install the imaging system ds9 on your computer. The Chandra-ed
website http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/install.html provides a step-by-step guide on
how to download the DS9 software onto your computer, and how to access x-ray data for
several objects that have been imaged by Chandra. The DS9 software will accept any
FITS file image, so eventually you can use DS9 to study images in radio, optical, and
other wavelengths. It may be easier for you to use the tutorial provided on the following
pages if you are unfamiliar with using software image analysis programs. It is not very
much different than the tutorial on the website; however, it does provide screen shots so
you can see what the image should look like when using the tools.




132

DS9 Image Analysis Software

Installing the DS9 Toolbox on your Desktop:

A. Access the URL: http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/
B. In the New Users box click on Step 1: Install the System
C. Scroll down to the following section and click on the operating system you want to
download:
Directions for installation of ds9:
Currently, ds9 can be installed on systems running the operating systems listed below.
Please select the links below for (1) Windows OS, (2) Mac OS or (3) Unix OS. If the
version of the operating system that you run is not listed in one of those categories (i.e
Windows 95, Mac OS9), you most likely will not be able to install ds9. If you have
further questions or issues about installation or wish to contact us for help, view the
installation notes. NOTE: The download might take a while, especially when using a
slow modem, so plan to do the installation well before you want to use the system.
1. For Windows Vista/XP/2000/NT
2. For MacOSX (Tiger/Leopard)
3. For Linux, LinuxPPC, Solaris, SGI, Alpha OSF1, HP-UX
D. [NOTE: The follow directions assume that you are installing in a Windows
environment.] After clicking on number 1 above, a new page opens:
http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/install_win.html
E. In Step 1 click on the word here. The URL http://hea-www.harvard.edu/RD/ds9/
opens up with the title: SAOImage DS9: Astronomical Data Visualization Application.
F. Scroll down to

DS9 Version 6.0 Binaries
Click Windows 7/Vista/XP

G. A window opens up asking if you want to open the file or if you want to save it to
disk. Check the box for Save to Disk.
H. When the next box opens up click on Desktop (it is easier to save the program to the
desktop. You can move it somewhere else after the file has been extracted.) Click on
save. The zipped file, ds9.windows, is now on your desktop.
I. Double click on the ds9.windows file. An unzip window will appear. Click on browse,
and then on desktop - so the file will be extracted to the desktop. Click on unzip.
J. On your desktop are two new icons, ds9 and cygwin1.dll. Create a folder named DS9
and place both icons in the folder.
K. You now have installed a virtual Linux software system onto your desktop. When
You use DS9 analysis commands, the analyses are performed on a dedicated Linux
server farm at the Harvard-Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge,
Massachusetts. The URL http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/ contains more detailed
installation instructions if you need them. These instructions are a summary of those
on the website.



133
Learning to Use the DS9 Imaging Analysis Software:

Open the ds9 folder and double click on the DS9 icon. The window
shown on the left will appear. Click on the word Analysis in the
menu and a drop down menu will appear,
like the windows shown on the right. Click
on the words Virtual Observatory. A
window will open and give you several
sites to go to acquire images to drop into
DS9. Eventually you can try all of these
sites and decide which ones are easier for
you to use. They are all useful and contain several objects.

We will start by using the Rutgers site, because it is
the quickest way to access an image to drop into the
DS9 window. Click in the
box next to the New
Rutgers X-Ray Analysis
Server URL. A list of
Chandra-Ed images will
appear. Click on Obs ID 114, ACID OBSERVATION OF
CASA (first 5k seconds only). A window will appear stating
that the loading of the Cas A image is complete. Close the
window. Now look at the DS9 window, and you will see that the
Type II supernova remnant Cas A is now loaded into the
software analysis window.

A complete description of all the menu tools is at:
http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/learning_ds9.html Scroll down to Looking at an X-
ray Image and there are three pages that explain the quantitative and analysis tools.
Below is a very brief look at some of the menu tools. Play around with each of the tools
to get a feel for how DS9 works.

Co-ordinate Systems:

1. Click on Analysis.
2. Click on Coordinate Grid.
3. Click on Coordinate Grid
Parameters and leave open.
4. Click on WCS and in the drop-down
menu click on Equatorial J2000.
Click on Galactic.
5. Under the Analysis menu click on
Coordinate Grid Parameters.
6. Play around with the table. Close Parameters.
7. Click on Analysis. Click on display
Co-ordinate Grid again to unclick
it and remove the grid.


134

Color and Scales:

Color:
1. Click on Color. Click on each color
in the dropdown menu under Color.
Select gray.
2. Grey is neutral represents intensity
(# of photons) without reference to
energy (color). Shows # of photons
that arrived during the observation.
3. Click on scale.
Scale goes from black (0) to white
(255). This is a Linear scale and it
emphasizes bright features.
4. Ratio of bright to faint is 25:1; the
ratio of bright to faint in a square
root scale is 5:1 so a square root
scale favors seeing faint features.
SQRT





Scales:
1. Click on Scale and then SQRT (square root).
This scale brings out features too faint to
be seen in the linear scale.
2. Click on Log. This scale emphasizes the
faintest features and the brightest features
no longer dominate the image.
3. Click on the other scales to see how the
image changes. LOG
4. Click on SQRT. Click on Analysis. On the
dropdown menu select Pixel Table.













135



Scales and Zoom:
1. Click on Zoom. On the dropdown menu
select Zoom In. Repeat two more times.
Individual pixels can be seen.
2. Move the cursor around the image and
watch the upper right box. Note how the
color changes when intensity changes.
Zoom back out to original size and close
the pixel table.
3. Toggle between SQRT and Log and look
at the blowout area in the upper left
region of the CASA remnant. Note how
Log emphasizes the faintest regions,
and SQRT emphasizes faint to medium
bright regions.








Summary of Scales:

1. The Log scale emphasizes the faintest regions.

2. The SQRT scale emphasizes faint to medium bright regions.

3. The Linear scale emphasizes medium bright to bright regions.

4. The Squared scale emphasizes only the brightest regions.


LOG SQRT LINEAR SQUARED












136

Contours
1. Click on Analysis.
2. On the dropdown menu click on
Contours.
3. Click on Analysis again.
4. On the dropdown menu click on
Contour Parameters.
5. The contour lines enclose pixels
of equal intensity.
6. The Contour Parameters menu
allows you to change the number
of contour levels and the contour
smoothness.
7. Toggle between the Linear and Log
scales and compare the contours.


Contour Levels:
1. Click on Scale Linear.
2. On the Contour Parameters menu
change the number of levels to 30.
Click on Generate and then click on
Apply.
3. Click on Log, SQRT and Squared
scales to compare the contour lines.
4. Change the number of levels and look
at the levels in all four scales to see
how the contour lines change.
5. The contour lines of equal pixel
intensity are similar to lines of equal
elevation on a topographic map.


Contour Smoothness:
1. On the Contour Parameters menu
change the Contour Smoothness to
20. Click on Generate, then click
on Apply.
2. Click on Log, SQRT, and Squared
scales to compare the contour lines.
Note that the greater the level of
smoothness, the larger the areas of
equal pixel intensity.
3. Set the Contour Level to 5 and the
Contour Smoothness to 4.
4. Close the Contour Parameters menu
and unclick Contours.


137



Color Contrast & Bias:
1. Click on Color in the upper menu bar.
2. On the dropdown menu click on
Colormap Parameters.
3. Move Contrast to right. Notice the bottom
bar compresses. Contrast controls how
quickly you move from black to white.
4. Move Bias to right. Bias determines the level
at which black changes to white.
5. Another way to do this is to right click
and drag. Moving horizontally changes
the Bias, and moving vertically changes
the Contrast.
6. Leave Contrast at 1.0 and Bias at .50.
7. Close Colormap Parameters.





Panning Tool:
1. Click on Linear Scale and Color Grey.
2. Left click, hold and drag from within
blue viewing box. End with the
image off-center. Alternatively you
can click Edit on the horizontal menu,
then Pan.
NOTE: Pointer changes into a cross.
3. Click anywhere you wish to have the
image centered. Click on your center.
The image is now centered.
4. Click on Zoom and In.
NOTE: the blue box gets smaller and
you start seeing pixels. Each pixel is
0.5 arc seconds for Chandra.
5. The more pixels per area on the sky
the higher the resolution and the
sharper the image.








138



Regions:

1. Click on Edit (either menu) and click on pointer.
2. Go anywhere in the image and left click to
get a Region. Left click again inside the Region
so you can change its size and move it around.
Four corners will appear around the Region.
NOTE: If you get an unwanted Region, click on
Region and then click on Delete All Regions.
3. Grab a corner by left clicking, hold, and drag
to the desired size. Left click within the Region,
hold and drag to different areas of the image.
4. For fine-tuning the placement, use the arrow
keys to move the Region which the cursor is
within the region.
5. Click on Regions, then click on Shape. Select
Ellipse. Change its shape and move it around.
6. Delete all Regions.










Horizontal and Vertical Cut Graphs:
1. Click on View, then Horizontal
Graph.
2. Move the cursor up and down in the
image. This graph displays the values in
the horizontal (x-axis) lines of pixels.
3. Click on View, Unclick Horizontal
Graph. Click on View again,
and click on Vertical Graph.
4. This graph displays the values in the
vertical (y-axis) lines of pixels.
5. Both the Horizontal and Vertical
Graphs can be displayed simultaneously.






139

Horizontal and Vertical Cut Graphs Together:























The procedures above are for the purpose of showing the different types tools that are
available in DS9. If you have used this quick introduction, you should go to the DS9
website at http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/learning_ds9.html and scroll down to
looking at an x-ray image and follow those procedures. They describe the same set of
tools; however, they are in a different sequence and have a good description of the
purpose of each of the tools. You may want to practice dropping in other images, using
both the Rutgers site and the Chandra site. The Chandra-Ed site also allows access to the
thousands of Chandra observations. The images you are dropping into the DS9 image
analysis software program are FITS files. FITS is an acronym for Flexible Image
Transport System. This format is used in many areas of science besides astronomy, such
as medical imaging. Any FITS image can be used with DS9 not just X-ray. It is
possible to compare an x-ray image with optical, radio, UV, or IR as long as the images
are in the FITS file format.

Once you are comfortable with using the tools, it is time to learn some of the analysis
tools in DS9. Some of the analysis tools are determining counts in regions, radial profile
plots, creating annuli regions and adjusting the annulus parameters, spectral analysis,
energy spectrum plots, timing analysis, and plotting a light curve. An introduction to
these analysis tools is at: http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/learning_ds9part3.html





140







First Analysis Task:


1. Click on Analysis. Click on the dotted
line at the top of the dropdown menu.
Drag the menu to any convenient spot.

2. Click on Region, Shape, and select Annulus.




3. Center the pointer as close to the neutron
star using as you can by using the arrow key
and magnifier box.

4. Left click to generate. The concentric circle
Annulus will appear. Left Click in the center
to select. Corners will appear.

5. Left click on one of the corners, hold down
and drag until the outer circle fills the entire
remnant.

6. Double click inside the region to bring up the
properties box.


7. In the Annulus properties box change
the number of annuli from 1 to 10, and
change the inner radius to 0.

8. Click Generate and then click Apply.










141


9. In the Analysis menu click on Chandra Ed
Analysis Tools.

10. Click on Radial Profile Plot (Annulus
regions, options: none).

11. A radial profile across the annuli that you
generated will appear.

12. This is a graphical plot of the brightness
of the X-ray emission (average number of
photons per unit area) in concentric annuli
around a central point.

13. Play around with changing the number of annuli, the inner radius, dragging
the annuli around the image, and re-plotting. See example below.













On the Chandra-Ed homepage http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/index.html click on Step
3 - Images and Analysis Activities. When the next page opens up
click on Cas A: The Supernova as Cosmic Recycling Center.
This opens a page that has 6 activities that use the Cas A image
and the DS9 tools:

Activity 1: Pixels, Pixels, Everywhere
Activity 2: What is the distance to Cas A and when did it
explode?
Activity 3: How big is it?
Activity 4: Make a light curve
Activity 5: Radial Intensity profile
Activity 6: Make energy spectra

Go through these activities to calculate information about the Cas A supernova event, and
plot a light curve, radial intensity profile, and energy spectra for this supernova event.
Samples of Activity 6 are on the following page.



142

Cas A Activity 6: Making Energy Spectra Element Abundances Sample Results:






















Second Analysis Task: NOTE: This task requires
accessing the Rutgers site through the virtual observatory to
retrieve the Coma Cluster image.

1. Retrieve and load the Coma Cluster Image,
Obs ID 1112

2. Click on Color and then b, then click on Scale
and SQRT.

3. Click on Analysis and then Image Servers and
SAO-DSS. On the windows that appears, click
on Retrieve. WAIT!

4. Click anywhere on the X-ray image on the left
to select an area.

5. In the menu at the top click on Frame. On the drop-
down menu click on Match Frames, then WCS.







143

6. Click on Edit, then Crosshair.

7. Click on Frame, then Lock Crosshairs and
WCS. The crosshairs are now locked in both
images and you can match individual features
in both the X-ray image on the left and the
optical image on the right.

8. Click on Edit, then Pointer.

9. Click on Region, then Shape, then Ellipse.
Click anywhere in the X-ray image.

10. Click anywhere inside the Ellipse so that the
corners appear. Click on a corner and drag
until it fills the cluster region.

11. Click on Analysis, then Chandra Ed Analysis
Tools, then Quick Energy Spectrum Plot.







NOTE: Any questions on National Science Olympiad Astronomy events will use screen
shots and the questions will be general in nature - covering the same information in this
tutorial.



















144


DS9 Investigations and Activities: A series of image analysis activities and
investigations have been developed that focus on one of the ds9 tools. Complete
instructions are included within the activity. Reading the tutorial outlined above is not
necessary.


Ds9 Image Analysis and the Multi-Wavelength Universe:


A. 3-Color Composite Images ds9 Activity

Purpose: To produce three-color composite images of supernova remnants from
Chandra X-ray Observatory data showing the areas of low, medium and high energies.

Introduction and Background Images and Color:

The colors we see are the result of how the human eye
and brain perceive different wavelengths of light in the
visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum roughly
radiation in the range of 380 nm to 740 nm. The ability
of the human eye to distinguish colors is based on the
varying sensitivity of different cells in the retina to light
of different wavelengths. The retina contains three types
of color receptor cells, or cones. Light, no matter how complex its composition of
wavelengths, is reduced to three color components by the
eye. For each location in the visual field, the three types of
cones yield three signals based on the extent to which each
is stimulated: red, blue and green. True-color images of a
subject are images that appear to the human eye exactly
like the original subject would: a blue sky is blue, a red
apple is red, and green grass is green.


A false-color image is an image that depicts a subject in colors that differ from those a
faithful full-color photograph would show. The term false-color is typically used to
describe images whose colors represent measured intensities outside the visible portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum. Astronomical images are false-colored images. A false-
color image is not incorrect it is an arbitrary selection of colors chosen to represent
some characteristic in an image, such as intensity, energy or chemical composition. The
colors selected are representative of the physical processes underlying the objects in the
images, and display in a single image as much information as possible that's available
from the data. The data are transported into image analysis software where adjustments
are made to emphasize the individual features or processes that scientists are interested in
or enhanced to make the images more interesting to the public.

Although computers and software are used extensively, scientists and programmers go
through painstaking calibration and validation processes to ensure that technically correct
images are produced. The colors used for the

145




images are selected to emphasize specific information within the data.
The color selections used by the Chandra X-ray images are usually
associated with intensity or brightness, or energy. For example, in the
yellow and orange Chandra X-ray image of the Cas A supernova
remnant to the right, the white and yellow colors represent the areas of
highest X-ray intensity, the orange to red areas represent the areas of
lower intensity, and the black represents little or no emission.
Cas A SNR (Chandra)

The X-ray image of the pulsar 3C58 on the left
shows an image constructed by selecting different
X-ray energy bands from the data and representing
them with different colors red, green, and blue.
The result is a 3-color composite image. The low,
medium, and higher X-ray energy bands of the
3C58 (Chandra) Chandra data are shown as red, green, and blue
respectively. In this particular image, red, green and blue represent X-ray energy bands of
0.5 to 1.0 kilovolts, 1.00 to 1.5 kilovolts, and 1.5 to 10 kilovolts, respectively.

In this activity, two image analysis software programs, ds9 and ImageJ, are used to
construct a three-color composite image of the Cas A supernova remnant. The red,
green, and blue regions in the composite will show the intensities of low, medium, and
high-energy X-rays as in the composite image of 3C58 above. The ds9 software utilizes
data sets and astrophysical analysis tools from the Chandra X-ray Observatory. The
program uses the same process that X-ray astronomers follow in analyzing the data from
Chandra observations. The download instructions to install the ds9 toolbox on your
desktop are located at http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/install.html. The introduction at
http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/learning_ds9overview.html describes the overview
and purpose of the software and gives a short summary of the Chandra mission. The
tutorial for using the ds9 software is located at http://chandra
ed.harvard.edu/learning_ds9.html. ImageJ is a software program developed by the
National Institute of Health and is available for download from
http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij/download.html.

NOTE: It is not necessary to read the tutorial before beginning the 3-Color Composite
Images ds9 Activity . Complete instructions to use the image analysis tools in ds9 are
given in the following procedure.

Procedure:

1. Download and install ds9 according to the instructions on the Chandra-Ed web
site.

2. Open ds9 and maximize the screen. From the pull down menus, choose
Analysis>Virtual Observatories and choose Chandra-Ed Archive Server or New
Rutgers X-ray Analysis Server from the list that appears.

3. Click Obs ID 114 ACIS OBSERVATION OF CAS A (first 5K seconds only)
in the new window that appears.

146

4. Use Analysis>Chandra Ed Analysis Tools>Energy Filter to show only the x-
rays in the soft band (lo = 0.6 KeV, hi =1.65 KeV). Leave Display all images in
tile mode? and Save image for further analysis checked.



5. When the new image comes up in a second frame (the frame should be lined in
blue, if not, click this frame), go to File>Save Frame as FITS. Name this file
casared.fits. Choose Frame>Delete Frame to leave only your original image.

6. Repeat steps #4-5 for the medium (1.65-2.25 KeV) and the hard (2.25-7.50 KeV)
bands, saving them as casagreen.fits and casablue.fits, respectively.

7. Download and install ImageJ and run the program.

8. Go to File>Open three times to load casared.fits, casagreen.fits and casablue.fits.

9. Go to Image>Color>RGB Merge. From the pull-down menus in the new
window, choose the appropriate files to go with each color as shown below and
click OK.



10. You now have a three-color composite of Cas A. You can use the following
tools to enhance the image to emphasize different features.

Image>Adjust>Size
Image>Adjust/Brightness/Contrast
Image>Adjust/Brightness/Color Balance
Process>Smooth
Process>Sharpen

147


Extension:

Use the same method to produce 3-color composite images for the following two
objects.
Obs ID 7639 - A Deep Chandra Observation of the Tycho Supernova Remnant
Obs ID 115 - ACIS Observation of Tycho and Kepler

If the Obs ID for the SNR you wish to investigate is not in list in the internal browser
window, scroll to the bottom of the page and click on Unofficial Chandra Public
Archive. Enter your Obs ID and click Search then click on the Title of a returned
observation to load it into ds9.






































148



B. 3-Star Formation and U/HLXs in the Cartwheel Galaxy ds9 Activity


The Cartwheel Galaxy


The Cartwheel Galaxy is part of a group of galaxies ~five
hundred million (500x10
6
) light years away in the direction
of the constellation Sculptor. The composite image to the
left shows the unique structure of the Cartwheel Galaxy.
The image combines data from four different observatories:
the Chandra X-ray Observatory (purple); the Galaxy
Evolution Explorer satellite (ultraviolet/blue); the Hubble
Space Telescope (visible/green); and the Spitzer Space
The Cartwheel Galaxy Telescope (infrared/red). The ring-shaped rim of the
Multi-Wavelength Composite Cartwheel Galaxy is the result of a rare and spectacular
head-on collision between two galaxies. The Cartwheel
Galaxy was probably a normal spiral structure galaxy similar to the Milky Way Galaxy
before the collision; the spiral structure is beginning to re-emerge, as seen in the faint
arms or spokes between the outer ring and the bulls-eye shaped nucleus. The gravitational
disruption of a smaller intruder galaxy passing through the Cartwheel Galaxy compressed
the interstellar gas and dust causing a wave of star formation to move out from the
impact point like a ripple across the surface of a pond.

The image to the right is a composite showing an
optical image of the Cartwheel galaxy and several
smaller galaxies associated with the Cartwheel group
superimposed with high resolution radio observations
of neutral hydrogen (traced by the green contours). The
neutral hydrogen trail suggests that the intruder galaxy
could be the galaxy located at the lower left of the image.
The Intruder Galaxy
(NRAO, ISU, Hughes STX, STScI, NASA)


The Cartwheel Galaxy provides an opportunity to study how extremely massive stars are
born in large fragmented gas clouds. The ring structure contains several billion new stars
that would not normally have been created in such a short time span. When the most
massive of these stars undergo catastrophic collapse as supernova
events, neutron stars and black holes are formed. Young supernovas
and supernova remnants are ultra and hyperluminous X-ray sources
(U/HLXs). Some of the neutron stars and black holes are in contact
binary systems with companion stars. Material is pulled from the
companion stars and forms accretion discs around the neutron stars
and back holes due to their extreme gravitational fields. The in-fall
of material from the accretion disc produces highly energetic X-rays,
and these systems are also classified as U/HLXs.
U/HLXs Cartwheel Galaxy
(Chandra)


149


Image Analysis of the Cartwheel Galaxy

The following activity has been designed for students to examine the Cartwheel Galaxy
in both optical and X-ray bands and determine the sources that are producing the ultra
and hyperluminous X-ray emissions (U/HLXs). The activity uses ds9 an image
analysis software package. Ds9 allows the user to download a toolbox onto their desktop
and remotely access dedicated Linux servers which process the analysis commands.

The ds9 image analysis software allows educators, students, amateur astronomers and the
general public to perform X-ray astronomy data analysis using data sets from the
Chandra X-ray Observatory, the ds9 image display program, and astrophysical software
analysis tools. The program uses the same analysis process that an X-ray astronomer
would follow in analyzing the data from a Chandra observation. The download
instructions to install the ds9 toolbox on your desktop are located at http://chandra-
ed.harvard.edu/install.html . The introduction at http://chandra-
ed.harvard.edu/learning_ds9overview.html describes the overview and purpose of the
software and gives a short summary of the Chandra mission. The tutorial for using the
ds9 software is located at http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/learning_ds9.html.

NOTE: It is not necessary to read the tutorial before beginning the Star Formation and
U/HLXs in the Cartwheel Galaxy activity. All ds9 educational activities are constructed
to use one or two specific software tools, and complete constructions to use the tools are
given within the individual activities.


Star Formation and U/HLXs in the Cartwheel Galaxy

Purpose: To examine and compare the Cartwheel Galaxy in optical and X-ray bands and
determine the sources of the ultra- and hyperluminous x-rays (U/HLXs).

Procedure:
Install the software and load the FITS file (data/image file):
1. Download and install ds9 according to the instructions on the Chandra-Ed web
site.
2. Open ds9. From the menus, choose Analysis>Virtual Observatory>Chandra-
Ed Archive Server.
3. In the new window that comes up, scroll down to and click ObsID 2019 THE
CARTWHEELS RING.
4. When the image is loaded, go back to the SAOImage ds9 window. Maximize
your screen. Choose Scale>Square Root and Color>b.
Acquiring the optical image:
5. Choose Analysis>Image Servers>SAO-DSS and then click Retrieve in the new
window that comes up. What are the coordinates of the Cartwheel Galaxy?
right ascension ___________________, declination ___________________
150
6. With the new frame on the right chosen (it should be outlined in blue), choose
Zoom>Zoom 4. Center the Cartwheel Galaxy in the frame by moving the blue
rectangle over it in the small image in the upper right corner (see below).






Matching up the x-ray and optical images:
7. With the frame on the right still chosen, go to Frame>Match Frames>WCS.
8. Click the frame on the left. Adjust the contrast and bias to better see the point x-
ray sources using Colors>Colormap Parameters (suggested settings, Contrast
4.4, Bias0.25).
9. Contour lines may help define these x-ray sources. Go to Analysis>Contours and
then Analysis>Contour Parameters. In the new window, use these settings:
Contour levels10, Contour Smoothness1, Low0, High550 and then click
Generate, Apply and Close.
10. To explore where these x-rays sources are located in the optical image, choose
Edit>Crosshair and Frame>Lock Crosshairs>WCS. Move your cursor (while
holding the left click) over the x-ray point sources. Note their locations on the
optical image.
Determining the size of the ring:
11. Go to Edit>Pointer. Click the right frame. Left click (hold this down) in the
center of the Cartwheel Galaxy and drag a circular region around the galaxy. The
region should be just big enough to enclose the entire ring. Once you have drawn
the region, if you left click on it again, green squares will appear in the corners of
the region. You can left click in the center and drag the circle to the correct spot if
it is slightly off-center or change the size by left-clicking on one of the green
squares at the corner and dragging.
12. Click on the left frame. Go back to
Edit>Crosshair. Move the
crosshairs on the x-ray image to
determine the diameter of the region
you drew in #11 in the optical
image. Record the physical x- and
y-coordinates (see upper left corner
of the window) of two points on
opposite sides of the circle.
151


(x
1
, y
1
) = ( ________ , ________ ) (x
2
, y
2
) = ( ________ , ________ )
Find the distance in pixels between these points using

13. In a Chandra observation, 1 pixel = 0.5 arc sec. Also, 1 radian = 206,265 arc sec.
Convert your answer from #12 to radians.

14. Use the small angle formula below to determine the size of the ring in light years.
The distance to the Cartwheel Galaxy is ~380 million light years. How does the
size of the ring compare to that of the Milky Way Galaxy (~100,000 light years in
diameter)?
angular size in radians= (actual size of object) / (distance to object)


Conclusions and Analysis:

The gravitational disruption of a smaller intruder galaxy passing
through the Cartwheel Galaxy compressed the interstellar gas
and dust causing a wave of star formation to move out from
the impact point like a ripple across the surface of a pond at
~200,000 mi/hr. The wave of new star formation from the head-
on collision has produced the ring-like structure seen in the
optical image to the right.

Cartwheel Galaxy (Hubble)


1. In the Hubble image above, the bright blue knots represent areas of new star
formation. How do the locations of the majority of X-ray sources compare to
these areas?

2. Using the information above and your answer to #14, determine how long ago
the collision of galaxies may have occurred. (1 light year = 5.87849981 10
12

miles)

152

The supermassive black hole at the center of an Active Galaxy is
called an Active Galactic Nucleus or AGN. Galaxies that contain an
AGN emit enormous amounts of radiation (radio, optical, X-rays,
gamma rays) and particle jets and are highly variable. X-rays from
AGNs are produced when in-falling matter from the surrounding disk
Chandra AGN Illustration is heated to temperatures of millions of degrees as it swirls toward
the supermassive black hole. Some of the in-falling material escapes as a hot wind that is
blown away from the disc at speeds as high as a tenth of the speed of light.
3. From your comparison of the x-ray and optical images of the Cartwheel Galaxy,
does it seem to have an AGN? Explain.

4. Use your knowledge of stellar evolution, your ds9 analysis, and the chart of
stellar life spans below to explain what types of objects each of the X-ray sources
might be. You may have different answers depending upon the location of the X-
ray source (i.e. along the ring, within the ring, outside the ring).



Star Mass
(solar masses)
Time (years)
Spectral
Type
Color
60 3 million O3 bluest
30 11 million O7 bluest
10 32 million B4 bluish
3 370 million A5 blue-white
1.5 3 billion F5 white
1 10 billion G2 (Sun) yellow
0.1 1000s billion M7 red


5. Compare your findings to those published in the paper, Nonnuclear
Hyper/Ultraluminous X-Ray Sources in the Starbursting Cartwheel Ring Galaxy,
Yu Gao,
1
Q. Daniel Wang,
1
P. N. Appleton,
2
and Ray A. Lucas
3
, The
Astrophysical Journal Letters, 596:L171L174, 2003 October 20.
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1538-4357/596/2/L171/17541.html

153

Extensions: Suggestions for further investigations of colliding or starburst galaxies
using ds9.
1. The Antennae: Chandra Locates Mother Lode of Planetary Ore in Colliding Galaxies
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2004/antennae/
2. M82: Images From Space Telescopes Produce Stunning View of Starburst Galaxy
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2006/m82/index.html
To load the images into ds9, go to Analysis>Virtual Observatory>Chandra-Ed
Archive Server. In the new window that comes up, scroll down to the bottom of the page
and click Unofficial Chandra Public Archive. In the next window enter the OBS ID
given in Fast Facts section of the links above. Click Search and then the link that
comes up under Title. In addition to the type of analysis you have done in this activity,
you can analyze the spectra of these galaxies. Instructions for analyzing spectra are in the
ds9 activity, X-Ray Spectroscopy of Supernova Remnants.




Answers for Star Formation and U/HLXs in the Cartwheel Galaxy ds9 Activity

Determining the size of the ring:
12. The diameter of the ring is ~170 pixels.
13. 170 pixels (0.5 arcsec / 1 pixel)(1 rad / 206,625 arc sec) = 0.00041 rad
14. (0.00041 rad)(380 ly) = 160,000 ly
Conclusions and Analyses:
1. Most of the X-ray sources are along the lower part of the ring where Hubble observed
bright blue knots that are gigantic clusters of newborn stars.
2. Using the expansion rate given in the background material and the distance the ring
has moved from the center (half your answer to #14):
(200,000 mi/h) / (5.88 X 10
12
mi/ly) X (24 h/day) X (365.25 days/y) = 0.0003 ly/y
v = d/t so t = d/v = (80,000 ly) / ( 0.0003 ly/y) = 300 million years
3. No, there is no X-ray source corresponding to the galactic nucleus as seen in the
optical image.
4. Answers may vary, but X-ray sources along the ring could be supernova remnants,
neutron stars or black holes because the lifetime of a massive star is less than 300 MY
which is approximately when the galaxy collision occurred and new star formation
was triggered.

154

5. From Nonnuclear Hyper/Ultraluminous X-Ray Sources:
A. It has been argued on observational and theoretical grounds (Appleton & Struck-
Marcell 1996; Bransford et al. 1998) that the triggering of newly formed stars in
ring galaxies occurs approximately simultaneously as the wave propagates out
through the diskthe outer ring representing the most recently formed stars, with
representative ages < 10
7
yrs. In this picture, the ring represents the outermost
progress of a wave that began at the disk-center some 300 Myrs previously,
created by the central perturbation of the intruder, either G3 or G1.
B. Almost all the X-ray emission in the Cartwheel originates from point-like
sources within the southern quadrant of the outer ring. The sources are nearly
coincident with the strong H , radio continuum emission and blue super-star
clusters (SSCs).
C. The companion galaxy G1 (spiral) contains 6 point-like X-ray sources, and the
early-type spiral G2 is seen as a fainter diffuse source (Fig 1). The farthest
companion galaxy G3 is also significantly detected, with one ULX in the eastern
edge of its disk. In addition, a faint, diffuse X-ray envelope which includes the
Cartwheel, G1 and G2 is marginally detected.
D. The absence of any point-like X-ray source in the nuclear region of the
Cartwheel rules out the existence of AGN.
E. A point-like source 31, 10 kpc north of G2, is likely a background galaxy or
AGN as it has a faint optical counterpart in the HST image.
F. The two most likely sources of X-ray emission associated with massive young
star-forming regions are probably supernovae (SNe) or extremely young SN
remnants (SNRs) and the high-mass X-ray binaries (HMXBs). We can almost
rule-out low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXBs) to be the significant sources for
H/ULXs along the Cartwheel narrow ring, although intermediate mass black holes
(IMBHs, see review by Miller & Colbert 2003) are likely viable. It is conceivable
that LMXBs and/or background sources could be responsible for the three ULXs
interior to the ring. Three ULXs outside the Cartwheel with faint optical
counterparts are likely background galaxies.

The Cartwheel Galaxy Image URLs

The Cartwheel Galaxy http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2006/cartwheel/
The Intruder Galaxy http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap970224.html
U/HLXs Cartwheel Galaxy
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2006/cartwheel/cartwheel_xray.jpg
Hubble Optical
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2006/cartwheel/cartwheel_opt.jpg
Chandra Illustration AGN
http://chandra.harvard.edu/resources/illustrations/quasar2.html#accret_reddisk
X-Ray Spectroscopy of Supernova Remnants.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/snr/ds9.html






155






















































156

Ds9 Image Analysis and Stellar Evolution:
The two investigations in this section also have a pencil and paper versions which can be
used if computers and/or the internet is not available.


C. Estimating the Age of Supernova Remnants ds9 Version

Purpose: To use the observed size of the Cassiopeia A supernova remnant (SNR) from
its X-ray image and an estimated rate of expansion to calculate its approximate age.

Background:

There is controversial evidence that the British astronomer
John Flamsteed observed and recorded the Cas A supernova
event in his journal on the evening of August 16
th
, 1680. He
observed a star that was near the position of Cas A, not
observed by anyone else, and was never seen again it could
have been the explosion that
produced Cas A. The Cas A
remnant is ~11,100 light years
away, and if John Flamsteed
did observe the catastrophic
Cassiopeia A: Chandras 1
st
Light collapse of the massive star
August 19, 1999, NASA/CXC/SAO ~330 years ago, the supernova
event occurred approximately
11,430 years ago. There are some scientific methods of
analyzing supernova remnants to try and determine Historia Coelestis, 1725
their age; this activity utilizes ds9 image analysis software and Chandra X-ray
observational data. Ds9 allows users to download a toolbox onto their desktop and
remotely access dedicated Linux servers which process the analysis commands .The
download instructions to install the ds9 toolbox on your desktop are located at
http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/install.html . The introduction at http://chandra-
ed.harvard.edu/learning_ds9overview.html describes the overview and purpose of the
software and gives a short summary of the Chandra mission. The tutorial for using the
ds9 software is located at http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/learning_ds9.html.
NOTE: It is not necessary to read the tutorial before beginning the Estimating the Age of
Supernova Remnants activity. Complete instructions to use the image analysis tools in
ds9 are given in the following procedure. All necessary equations and conversion factors
are listed at the end of the activity.
Procedure:
How Big is Cas A?

1. Install ds9 if it is not already on your computer.

2. Open ds9. Go to Analysis>Virtual Observatory. Choose any of the servers from
the menu that appears.

157


3. Choose Obs ID 114, ACIS OBSERVATION OF CAS A from the menu that
appears. The Cas A image should appear in your ds9 window.

4. To better view the edges of Cas A, choose Scale>Square Root and
Color>Invert Colormap.

5. Left click on the black dot (neutron star) in the center. Holding the left click
button down, drag a circular region around the edges of the supernova remnant.
Exclude the jet in the upper left from the regionthe dynamics of this jet
formation are different that those of the overall expansion of the SNR.

6. Left click in the center of the green region to select it. Adjust the radius of the
region by positioning the pointer over one of the square boxes in the corner and
left clicking and dragging the pointer. Adjust the position of the region by putting
the pointer in the middle, left clicking and dragging.

7. Select Region>Get Info Record the radius of your region (and of Cas A) in
pixels and also the x- and y-coordinates of the center of the region you will need
the radius in #10 below. Make sure it says physical next to each of these.

8. To find the radius of Cas A in meters, use the small angle approximation. Imagine
the lines of sight from Cas A to Earth. These lines form an angle, . On a
Chandra image, 1 pixel corresponds to 0.5 arc seconds of angle. Find the angular
size of the radius of Cas A in arc seconds and convert to radians.

9. The lines of sight are the radii of an imaginary circle with Earth at the center and
Cas A on the circumference. The radius of this circle is the distance to Cas A. For
very small angles, the radius of Cas A is approximately equal to the arc length
transcribed by these lines of sight. Therefore, the small angle formula is as
follows, where is in radians:

= (radius of Cas A) / (distance to Cas A)

Using the small angle formula and a distance to Cas A of ~11,100 light years, find
the radius of Cas A in meters.

What is the rate of expansion of Cas A?

The average amount of energy released in a supernova explosion is ~10
44
Joules, and
approximately one quarter of the energy drives the expansion of the remnant. Although
the initial explosion ejects the outer layers of the star, most of the gas in the remnant is
not from the star itself. As the ejected material expands outwards, it encounters and
intermingles with the interstellar medium and propels it outward, building up the outer
shock wave. The volume through which the remnant has expanded and the density of the
interstellar medium determine the amount of material in the shell. On average this density
is approximately 10
-21
kg/m
3
.

10. The Cas A SNR is basically a sphere. Determine the mass of the gas within the
remnant using the radius previously calculated in #7 above.

158



11. Calculate the velocity of the gas (the expansion velocity of Cas A).

12. Use the expansion velocity and the radius of Cas A to estimate its age. Convert
from seconds to years.

13. What is the displacement of the remnant from the center of the SNR?

14. In the center of the remnant, you can see a dot that is the remaining core of the
collapsed star. Find the physical x- and y-coordinates of the core by moving the
pointer over the core remnant (this will appear as a dark gray dot towards the
center of the remnant with Invert Colormap). The box in the upper right corner
gives you a close up view of where your pointer is. With the pointer over the core
remnant, record the x- and y-coordinates next to Physical in the table at the top
left.

15. Use the coordinates of the center of the region (from #7 above) to find the
displacement of the stellar core from the center.

16. Find the average velocity of the stellar core for this displacement.

17. Using this average velocity, find its kinetic energy. Evidence indicates the core is
a neutron star with a typical mass of about 1.4 solar masses.


Conclusions and Analysis:

1. How does your estimated age for Cas A compare to 330 years? Does it have the
same order of magnitude?

2. What approximations and assumptions were made in this method of estimating
the age of a supernova remnant? How might these affect the results?

3. Could Cas A be the supernova observed by John Flamsteed in 1680? Why or
why not?

Extensions:

11. Use the same age determination method for other supernova remnants. Find
scientific papers and historic accounts of these supernovas and compare your
calculated results to the ages found in your research. Distances to many SNR and
the Obs IDs necessary to load the image into ds9 are located in the Chandra Photo
album at http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/category/snr.html

Some suggestions: Try G11.2-0.3 (Obs IDs 780, 781, 2322) (could this be the
Guest Star of 386 AD, witnessed by Chinese astronomers?) or Tycho's
Supernova Remnant (Obs IDs 115, 3837) (note: this is a type Ia supernova event
and does not have a core remnant).


159


If the Obs ID for the SNR you decide to investigate is not in list in the internal
browser window, scroll to the bottom of the page and click on Unofficial
Chandra Public Archive. Enter your Obs ID and click Search then click on
the Title of a returned observation to load it into ds9.
12. Research other methods of determining the ages of supernova remnants and
describe your findings.



Resources:

The Three-dimensional Structure of the Cassiopeia A Supernova Remnant
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1995ApJ...440..706R

The Guest Star of 386AD
http://www.geocities.com/perry_science/chandra_activities/Supernova_G11_Activit
y.doc

Chandra X-Ray Observations of G11.2-0.3: Implications for Pulsar Ages
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0004-637X/560/1/371

Finding the Age of Supernova Remnant N157B
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/features/news/25feb98b.html

Survivor Found From Tycho's Supernova
http://www.universetoday.com/am/publish/tycho_supernova_survivor.html

A VLA Study of the Expansion of Tycho's Supernova Remnant
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0004-637X/491/2/816/



















160




Equations and Conversion Factors


Conversion Factors/constants:

60 arc sec = 1 arc min

60 arc min = 1 deg

360 deg = 2 rad

1 light year = 9.46 10
15
meters

mass of the sun = 2.0 X 10
30
kg

Small Angle Formula:

angle in radians () = [arc length (s)] / [radius (r)]

therefore, for astronomical objects with small angular sizes:

angular size as viewed from Earth () = (actual size of object) / (distance to object)

Additional Equations:

density = mass/volume

volume of a sphere = 4/3 r
3


kinetic energy = (mass)(velocity)
2


velocity = distance/time

distance between 2 points = sqrt [ (x
2
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
y
1
)
2
]




161



Estimating the Age of Supernova Remnants Pencil and Paper Version

Purpose: To use the observed size of the Cassiopeia A supernova remnant (SNR) from
its X-ray image and an estimated rate of expansion to calculate its approximate age.

Background:

There is controversial evidence that the British astronomer
John Flamsteed observed and recorded the Cas A supernova
event in his journal on the evening of August 16
th
, 1680. He
observed a star that was near the position of Cas A, not
observed by anyone else, and was never seen again it could
have been the explosion that
produced Cas A. The Cas A
remnant is ~11,100 light years
away, and if John Flamsteed
did observe the catastrophic
Cassiopeia A: Chandras 1
st
Light collapse of the massive star
August 19, 1999, NASA/CXC/SAO ~330 years ago, the supernova
event occurred approximately
11,430 years ago. There are some scientific methods of
analyzing supernova remnants to try and determine Historia Coelestis, 1725
their age; one method is using ds9 image analysis software and Chandra X-ray
observational data.

Procedure:

How Large is Cas A?

1. Record the radius of Cas A in pixels given in the Circle information box on the
ds9 screenshot shown in Fig. 1. Note that the jet in the upper left has been
excluded from the region surrounding Cas A the dynamics of this jet formation
are different that those of the overall expansion of the SNR. Record the x- and y-
coordinates of the center of the region to use in #8 below.

2. To find the radius of Cas A in meters, use the small angle approximation. Imagine
the lines of sight from Cas A to Earth. These lines form an angle, . On a
Chandra image, 1 pixel corresponds to 0.5 arc seconds of angle. Find the angular
size of the radius of Cas A in arc seconds and convert to radians.


3. The lines of sight are the radii of an imaginary circle with Earth at the center and
Cas A on the circumference. The radius of this circle is the distance to Cas A. For
very small angles, the radius of Cas A is approximately equal to the arc length
transcribed by these lines of sight. Therefore, the small angle formula is as
follows, where is in radians:

= (radius of Cas A) / (distance to Cas A)


162

Using the small angle formula and a distance to Cas A of ~11,100 light years, find
the radius of Cas A in meters.


What is the rate of expansion of Cas A?

The average amount of energy released in a supernova explosion is ~10
44
Joules, and
approximately one quarter of the energy drives the expansion of the remnant. Although
the initial explosion ejects the outer layers of the star, most of the gas in the remnant is
not from the star. As the ejected material expands outwards, it encounters and
intermingles with the interstellar medium and propels it outward, building up the outer
shock wave. The volume through which the remnant has expanded and the density of the
interstellar medium determine the amount of gas in the shell. On average this density is
approximately 10
-21
kg/m
3
.

4. The Cas A SNR is basically a sphere. Determine the mass of the gas within the
remnant using the radius previously calculated in #1.

5. Calculate the velocity of the gas (the expansion velocity of Cas A).

6. Use the expansion velocity and the radius of Cas A to estimate its age. Convert
from seconds to years.


What is the displacement of the core remnant from the center of the SNR?

7. A dot located in the center of the remnant is the remaining core of the collapsed
star. Use figure 2 to find the physical x- and y-coordinates of the core.

8. Use the coordinates of the center of the region (from #1 above) to find the
displacement of the stellar core from the center.

9. Find the average velocity of the stellar core for this displacement.

10. Using this average velocity, find its kinetic energy. Evidence indicates the core is
a neutron star with a typical mass of about 1.4 solar masses.



Conclusions and Analysis:

4. How does your estimated age for Cas A compare to 330 years? Does it have the
same order of magnitude?

5. What approximations and assumptions were made in this method of estimating
the age of a supernova remnant? How might these affect the results?

6. Could Cas A be the supernova observed by John Flamsteed in 1680? Why or
why not?

163


Extensions:

Research other methods of determining the ages of supernova remnants and describe your
findings.

Resources:

The Three-dimensional Structure of the Cassiopeia A Supernova Remnant
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1995ApJ...440..706R

The Guest Star of 386AD
http://www.geocities.com/perry_science/chandra_activities/Supernova_G11_Activit
y.doc

Chandra X-Ray Observations of G11.2-0.3: Implications for Pulsar Ages
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0004-637X/560/1/371

Finding the Age of Supernova Remnant N157B
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/features/news/25feb98b.html

Survivor Found From Tycho's Supernova
http://www.universetoday.com/am/publish/tycho_supernova_survivor.html

A VLA Study of the Expansion of Tycho's Supernova Remnant
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0004-637X/491/2/816/

























164



Figure 1. Finding the radius of Cas A




165



Figure 2. Locating the core remnant (physical coordinates)










166





Equations and Conversion Factors


Conversion Factors/constants:

60 arc sec = 1 arc min

60 arc min = 1 deg

360 deg = 2 rad

1 light year = 9.46 10
15
meters

mass of the sun = 2.0 X 10
30
kg

Small Angle Formula:

angle in radians () = [arc length (s)] / [radius (r)]

therefore, for astronomical objects with small angular sizes:

angular size as viewed from Earth () = (actual size of object) / (distance to object)

Additional Equations:

density = mass/volume

volume of a sphere = 4/3 r
3


kinetic energy = (mass)(velocity)
2


velocity = distance/time

distance between 2 points = sqrt [ (x
2
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
y
1
)
2
]




167



Investigating Supernova Remnants with X-ray Spectroscopy

Introduction and Background:


RCW 86 is a supernova remnant that was created by the
destruction of a star approximately two thousand (2000)
years ago. This age matches observations recorded by the
Chinese and the Romans in 185 A.D. RCW 86 is 8200 light
years away in the direction of the constellation Circinus and
is considered to be the earliest recorded observation of a
supernova event. Supernova explosions are relatively rare in
the Milky Way Galaxy, occurring about once every one
RCW 86 (Chandra, XMM-Newton) hundred (100) years. The last supernova explosion in the
Milky Way Galaxy took place in the mid 17
th
century.
Because supernovas are rare within any galaxy, obtaining a good sample of supernovas to
study requires regular monitoring of many galaxies. In the Large Magellanic Cloud
galaxy, one hundred and sixty thousand (160,000) light years away, a supernova
explosion took place in 1987. Astronomers and spacecraft
have been monitoring this event (SN 1987A) continuously
as it changes over time. The movie clip on the right is a
composite image showing the effects of the powerful shock
wave moving away from the explosion. Bright spots of X-
ray and optical emission arise where the shock collides
with structures in the surrounding gas. These structures
were carved out by the wind from the progenitor star. Hot-
spots in the Hubble image (pink-white) now encircle
Supernova 1987A and the Chandra data (blue-purple)
reveals multimillion-degree gas at the location of the
optical hot-spots. These data greatly increase our Chandra Time-lapse Movie of SN1987A
understanding of the processes involved as a supernova
remnant expands into the surrounding interstellar medium.

Type II Supernovae

There are several scenarios that can result in a supernova
event; however, supernovas are classified by the type of
triggering mechanism that initiates the destruction. Type II
supernovas are produced by the core collapse of a massive
star RCW 86 and SN 1987A mentioned above are Type II
events. Thermonuclear fusion in stars with masses between
~0.8 and 8 solar masses produces the outward radiation
pressure to counterbalance gravitational forces for
approximately ten billion years. When the core hydrogen
has been converted to helium and fusion stops, gravity
SNR G292.0+1.8 (Chandra) Type II takes over and the core begins to collapse. The layers
outside the core collapse also - the layers closer to the center collapse more quickly than
the ones near the stellar surface. As the layers collapse, the gas compresses and heats up.
The core temperature becomes high enough for helium to fuse into carbon and oxygen,
with hydrogen to helium fusion continuing in a thin layer surrounding the core. The outer

168

layers expand to an enormous size and the star is now called a red giant. The star
brightens by a factor of 1,000 to 10,000, and the surface temperature of the extended
envelope drops to about 3,000K - 4,000K, giving the star its reddish appearance. A strong
wind begins to blow from the star's surface, carrying away most of the hydrogen
envelope surrounding the star's central core. During the final shedding of its envelope,
when the mass loss is greatest, the star pulsates - the surface
layers expand and then contract in repeating cycles with periods
ranging from several months to more than a year. The material
ejected by the star forms a planetary nebula which expands into
the surrounding interstellar medium at ~17-35 km/hr. The core of
the star left in the center of the planetary nebula is called a white
dwarf. The planetary nebula is very tenuous, and becomes so thin
that after ~50,000 years it is no longer visible. A white dwarf can
not create internal pressure and its complete collapse is prevented
by quantum mechanics. Two electrons with the same spin are NGC 6543 Planetary Nebula
not allowed to occupy the same energy level. Since there are only (Chandra, Hubble)
two ways an electron can spin, only two electrons can occupy any single energy level;
this is called the Pauli Exclusion Principle. In a normal gas, this is not a problem; there
are not enough electrons floating around to completely fill up all the energy levels. In a
white dwarf, all of the electrons are forced close together, and all the energy levels in its
atoms are filled up with electrons. If all the energy levels are filled, and it is impossible to
put more than two electrons in each level, then the white dwarf has now become
degenerate. Since a white dwarf is degenerate, gravity cannot compress it any more
because quantum mechanics tells us there is no more available space. The complete
collapse of the white dwarf is prevented because it is held in equilibrium with gravity by
electron degeneracy pressure. The white dwarf is extremely dense, ~200,000 times more
dense than the Earth. The mass limit for a white dwarf to remain in equilibrium between
gravity and electron degeneracy pressure is 1.4 solar masses - the Chandrasekhar limit.
Over hundreds of billions to a trillion years the white dwarf will radiate its remaining
heat away and become a black dwarf - a cold, dark mass of electron degenerate matter.

Stars with masses greater than eight solar masses continue nuclear fusion beyond that of
core helium. The carbon-oxygen core more massive stars acquired during the core helium
fusion contracts and heats. After all of the helium in the core is gone, carbon and oxygen
begin to fuse. Their fusion yields neon, magnesium, silicon, and sulfur. Eventually,
silicon and sulfur fuse in the star's core to form iron, nickel, and other elements of similar
atomic weight. The star's structure now resembles an onion. The central core of the onion
consists of iron. Surrounding it is a shell in which silicon and sulfur fuse, adding more
iron to the iron core. In additional shells further out, lighter elements fuse - oxygen,
carbon, helium, and hydrogen. The iron core is very
compact and cannot induce further nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fusion is possible only if the reactions release
energy. The fusion of iron with other nuclei to make still
heavier nuclei requires an input of energy - it is an
endothermic nuclear reaction. The energy required to
produce elements heavier than iron becomes available
only during the imminent catastrophic collapse of the
star's core and the violent explosion of the star's outer
envelope.
Cas A Type II Supernova Remnant (Chandra) 169

The mass of the stars iron core approaches 1.4 solar masses due to the continued silicon
And sulfur fusion in the thin layer adjacent to the iron core, and the continued fusion of
iron requires more energy than is available. Radiation pressure is no longer able to
support the core against gravity and the iron core collapses. In less than a second, the core
collapses from a diameter of ~8000 kilometers to ~19 kilometers - the collapse happens
so rapidly that the outer layers have no time to react or collapse along with the core. The
energy released during core collapse is unimaginable - more energy than is produced by
100 stars like the Sun during their entire lifetimes of more than 10 billion years. Most of
the energy released during collapse is carried off into space by neutrinos; a small fraction
of the energy triggers the accompanying supernova explosion. The core collapses so fast
that it momentarily goes past its equilibrium point at nuclear density and instantaneously
rebounds. The innermost layers of the star are still in-falling and meet the rebounding
core, creating a super strong shock wave that runs outward through the layers towards to
the star's surface. The shock wave heats the outer layers, inducing explosive nuclear
fusion, and ejects the outermost layers in excess of speeds of ~16
million kilometers per hour. The energy released by the shockwave
produces elements heavier than iron. When the shock wave
reaches the star's surface, it heats the surface layers and brightens
them - within a day or two the exploding star becomes brighter
than a billion Suns. The expanding gaseous shell, referred to as a
supernova remnant, plows into the surrounding interstellar
medium (ISM), and pushes, compresses, and intermingles with it.
A forward and a reverse shock are created when the supernova Cas A Type II Supernova Event
shock wave interacts with the ISM. The forward shock continues Movie
to expand into the ISM, and the reverse shock travels back into the freely expanding
supernova ejecta heating the material to millions of degrees Kelvin and producing
thermal X-ray emissions. This is a Type II supernova event - the core collapse of a
massive star. The end product within the remnant depends upon the initial mass of the
star, and is a neutron star, pulsar, magnetar, or black hole.


Type Ia Supernovae

A white dwarf is not always the end product in the
collapse of a mid-sized (~.8 8 solar masses) star if it
is in a contact binary system. Suppose two stars, one
with one solar mass and the other with five solar masses
are in a binary system. The five solar mass star runs out
of hydrogen faster than its less massive companion,
becomes a red giant, shrugs off a planetary nebula, and
collapses into a white dwarf. Eventually the companion
star runs out of hydrogen and enters the red giant stage.
The outer layers of the red giant are loosely held by the
star, and the extreme gravitational field of the white
dwarf starts pulling the material from the red giant into
Tycho Type Ia Supernova Remnant (Chandra) an accretion disk around the white dwarf. The mass
transfer continues, with the material orbiting the white
dwarf in the accretion disk. Magnetic friction slows the matter's orbital motion, which
causes the matter to spiral through the disk down to the surface of the white dwarf. The
falling and spiraling of the matter towards the white dwarf releases large amounts of
gravitational
170



energy and heats the accretion disk. The white dwarf accretes
matter from its companion relatively rapidly at the Langarian
point the point where the Roche lobe of the white dwarf and
red giant make contact. The Roche lobe is the region of space
around a star in a binary system within which orbiting material
is gravitationally bound to that star; the red giants outer
atmospheric layers are easily transferred by the strong gravity of the white dwarf.

Consequently, the white dwarf grows in mass. When the accretion has raised the white
dwarf's mass to the critical mass of 1.4 solar masses, the
density and temperature in the center of the white dwarf
become so severe that carbon starts fusing explosively.
Within one second the fusion moves from the center to the
surface and the white dwarf undergoes a thermonuclear
explosion and is completely destroyed. Only the remnant
remains. All of the cores matter the products of nuclear
fusion (iron, nickel, silicon, magnesium, and nickel, silicon,
magnesium, and other heavy elements) plus unfused carbon Mira Red Giant & White Dwarf
and oxygen - are ejected into the interstellar medium at Companion
speeds upwards of ~48,000,000 km/hr. This type of event is called a Type Ia supernova.

Type II and Type Ia Supernovas

Type II supernova events core collapses of massive stars are more common than Type
Ia events the thermonuclear explosion of white dwarfs. The progenitor stars for Type II
supernovas exist for a much shorter length of time. The initial mass of a star determines
its evolutionary history; the more massive the star the more rapidly the core hydrogen is
fused into helium and when all the core hydrogen is fused the stage is set for the
eventual collapse of the star. The entire process takes from ~70 million years for a six (6)
solar mass star to ~500 million for a two (2) solar mass star. Type Ia supernovas occur
when a white dwarf exceeds Chandrasekhars Limit. A white dwarf is the end product of
a mid-sized star such as the sun, and from protostar to white dwarf takes ~10 billion
years. The universe is ~13.7 billions years old; therefore fewer mid-sized stars have had
time to evolve into white dwarfs than massive stars have had to collapse into neutron
stars, pulsars, magnetars or black holes.


The composite X-ray (red and green)/optical (blue)
image of DEM L316 reveals an image produced by the
remnants of two exploded stars in the Large Magellanic
Cloud galaxy. The upper remnant is a Type Ia event and
the lower remnant is a Type II event. It takes billions of
years to form a white dwarf star, whereas a massive
young star will collapse in a few million years. The
disparity of ages for the progenitor stars for these two
remnants means that it is very unlikely that the two
DEM L316 (Chandra/NOAO) events happened in close proximity. The apparent
closeness of the two remnants is most likely the result
of a chance alignment resulting in an optical illusion.

171
How do scientists determine if a supernova remnant is the result
of a core collapse of a massive star or the thermonuclear
destruction of a white dwarf? In DEM L316 one indicator is the
large amount of iron in the upper Type Ia remnant compared to
the amount of iron in the lower Type II remnant. The
composition of supernova remnants is determined by analyzing
their spectra. The elements and their relative abundances are
different for Type Ia and Type II remnants because the Cas A Distribution of Elements
progenitors are different. Type Ia remnants from white dwarfs
usually show relatively strong Si, S, Ar, Ca, and Fe, and weak O, Ne, and Mg lines; Type
II remnants from massive stars generally have the reverse pattern. In addition to the
composition of the ejecta, spectroscopy can show how much of the stellar material was
convectively mixed during the supernova event by calculating the density and
temperature of the ionizing gas that generates the spectral lines. However, spectroscopy
of supernova remnants is not clear cut and drawing conclusions is complicated; it is
sometimes difficult to determine if a remnant is Type II or Type Ia. The Chandra and
XMM-Newton missions have inaugurated the era of true spatially resolved X-ray
spectroscopy. For supernova remnants, this means the capability to measure, for the first
time, the detailed distribution of the ejecta and the spectra of ejecta at different positions
in the remnant. This capability is greatly increasing our knowledge of the dynamics and
processes involved in stellar catastrophic events. Chandra has detected numerous pulsars
and their associated pulsar nebulas. These discoveries are proving to be one of the best
ways to identify supernova remnants produced by the core collapse of a massive star, and
distinguish them from Type Ia supernova remnants.


X-Ray Radiation and Spectroscopy

The animation above shows the distribution of elements in the
Cas A supernova remnant. The X-ray spectrum to the left
shows the abundances of those elements. The Cas A spectrum
is typical of X-ray spectra, and differs from optical spectra
which is what is we are most familiar with. The cataclysmic
spectral image below is an emission spectrum showing the
composition of a star in the optical part of the spectrum. To
accurately measure the wavelengths of the emission lines, a
spectral plot is constructed. On a spectral plot, the emission
Cas A X-Ray Spectra (Chandra) lines appear as sharp peaks.

On the X-ray spectra above, the emission lines
produced by the elements also show as peaks; the
higher the peak, the stronger the emission line.
However on the X-ray spectra the emission lines are
superimposed on top of a large curve. This curve is Cataclysmic Spectral Image Optical
produced by the acceleration of electrons as they are
deflected by positively charged atomic nuclei
and is called Bremsstrahlung (breaking) radiation.
Bremsstrahlung is also referred to as free-free
radiation. This refers to radiation that arises as a
Cataclysmic Spectral Plot Optical
172



result of a charged particle that is free both before
and after the deflection (acceleration) that caused
the emission. When a free-ranging electron is
accelerated by the electric field of a proton, the
photons emitted can have a wide range of energies
that depends on how fast the electrons are moving
and how much they are accelerated. The distribution
of photon energies due to this process is called a
continuous spectrum, and is graphed as a smooth
curve as in the Cas A spectrum above. In addition,
emission lines can appear superimposed on the
Bremsstrahlung Radiation Bremsstrahlung radiation curve corresponding to
the ejection of K and L shell electrons knocked out
of atoms in collisions with the high-energy electrons. Higher energy electrons then fall
into the vacated energy states emitting X-ray photons and producing the emission lines.
The energies of these emission lines can be used to identify the elements in plasmas such
as supernova remnants. A hot gas or plasma will produce a spectrum composed of many
emission lines due to the various elements that are present.


Image Analysis of Supernova Remnants

An activity X-Ray Spectroscopy of Supernova Remnants has been developed so
students can examine the spectra of several supernova remnants; determine the elements
that are present and their relative abundances, and decide if each remnant is from a Type
II core-collapse event or the Type Ia thermonuclear destruction of a white dwarf. This
activity uses ds9 an image analysis software package. Ds9 allows the user to download
a toolbox onto their desktop and remotely access dedicated Linux servers which process
the analysis commands.

The ds9 image analysis software allows educators, students, amateur astronomers and the
general public to perform X-ray astronomy data analysis using data sets from the
Chandra X-ray Observatory, the ds9 image display program, and astrophysical software
analysis tools. The program uses the same analysis process that an X-ray astronomer
would follow in analyzing the data from a Chandra observation. The download
instructions to install the ds9 toolbox on your desktop are located at http://chandra-
ed.harvard.edu/install.html . The introduction at http://chandra-
ed.harvard.edu/learning_ds9overview.html describes the overview and purpose of the
software and gives a short summary of the Chandra mission. The tutorial for using the
ds9 software is located at http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/learning_ds9.html.

NOTE: It is not necessary to read the tutorial before beginning the X-ray Spectroscopy of
Supernova Remnants activity. All ds9 educational activities are constructed to use one or
two specific software tools, and complete constructions to use the tools are given within
the individual activities. If a computer activity is not available as an option, a paper and
pencil version of this activity is also provided. Screen shots of the necessary spectra from
ds9 are included with the activity, and the only additional materials required are pencils
and rulers.


173


D. X-ray Spectroscopy of Supernova Remnants Activity ds9 Version

Purpose: To determine types of supernovas by examining Chandra X-ray Observatory
images of supernova remnants (SNRs) and by identifying the elements in their energy
spectra.


Figure 1. Tychos SNR, Type Ia Figure 2. SNR G292.0+1.8, Type II
Credit: NASA/CXC/Rutgers/J.Warren & J.Hughes et al. Credit: NASA/CXC/Rutgers/J.Hughes et al.



Tychos Supernova Remnant

In the year 1572, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe observed and
studied the sudden appearance of a bright new star in the direction of
the constellation Cassiopeia. Now known as Tychos supernova remnant,
the event created a sensation in Tychos time because until then stars
were thought to be unchanging. Tychos observations of this event
marked the beginning of the study of astronomy as a science. This object is a Type Ia
event the thermonuclear destruction of a white dwarf. Information about this object is
located at http://chandra.harvard.edu/press/05_releases/press_092205.html

SNR G292.0+1.8

The Type II core collapse of a massive star that produced this supernova remnant ~1600
years ago is located in the direction of the constellation Centaurus. SNR G292.0+1.8 is
interesting because it is one of only three oxygen-rich remnants and one of the primary
sources of the heavy elements necessary to form planets and people. Although considered
a textbook case of a supernova remnant, the intricate structure shown here reveals a
few surprises. Information about this object is located at
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2007/g292/

Tychos Supernova Remnant (Type Ia) and SNR G292.0+1.8 (Type II) are representative
of the two supernova types. Follow the procedure below to analyze their spectra and
determine the elements present in the remnants and their relative abundances. The same
procedure will be used to study other remnants, compare the results to Tycho and SNR
G292.0+1.8, and determine if they are Type II or Type Ia supernova events.

174

Procedure:
Install the software and load the FITS file (data/image file):
15. Download and install ds9 according to the instructions on the Chandra-Ed web
site. http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/install.html
16. Open ds9. From the menus, choose Analysis>Virtual Observatory>Chandra-
Ed Archive Server.
17. In the new window that comes up, click ObsID 115 ACIS OBSERVATIONS
OF TYCHO AND KEPLER. Do not close this window you will need it later.
18. When the image is loaded, go back to the SAOImage ds9 window.
Plot the spectrum of Tychos SNR:
19. Click in the center of the Tycho SNR and drag a circular region completely
around the whole remnant.
20. Choose Analysis>Chandra Ed>CIAO: Sherpa Spectral fit. For Model
Type, choose bremsstrahlung (when you click on power law, a menu will
appear). It may take a few minutes for the plot to appear. NOTE: If this takes to
long, or you are unable to get the plot, try Analysis>Chandra Ed>Quick Energy
Spectrum Plot. Note that the unit on the x-axis on this plot is eV rather than
keV.
21. On the graph window that comes up, choose Graph>linear-log. Maximize the
screen by clicking the square in the upper right corner.
22. Print the graph by using the Print Scrn button on the keyboard and then pasting it
into a PowerPoint or Word document and printing from there.
Identify the emission lines in Tychos SNR:
23. To get the energy of each emission line, create a zoom box on the graph by
holding the left mouse button down and dragging a box around the area of the
emission line (peak). When you click again, a close-up of that area will appear.
Right clicking the mouse returns you to the original graph. (See Fig. 6)

Fig. 6 Zoom in on an emission line
175



24. Record the energies and identify the elements for each X-ray emission line/peak
in the Data section and on your printed graph, using Table 1. If you have lines
whose energy is not close to that of one of the elements in the chart, leave those
lines unidentified.

Plot the spectrum of G292.0+1.8 and identify the emission lines:
25. On the arvard-ed.cfa.harvard.edu window, click the back arrow to go back to
the previous page. Obs ID 126 G292.0+1.8 A REMARKABLE OXYGEN-
RICH SUPERNOVA REMNANT. Again, do not close this window.
26. Repeat steps #4-10 for SNR G292.0+1.8. To see the emission lines better, you
can zoom in as shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7 Zoom to magnify emission lines


Table 1. Energies of X-ray Emission Lines
element Energy (Kev) element Energy (Kev) element Energy (Kev)
O 0.18 Mg 1.33 Ar 3.32
Mg 0.25 Mg 1.45 Ar 3.69
Mg 0.27 Fe 1.66 Ca 3.86
O 0.64 Si 1.87 Ca 3.89
O 0.66 Si 1.98 Ca 4.11
Fe 0.80 Si 2.14 Ca 4.95
Fe 0.81 S 2.42 Fe 6.47
Ne 0.92 S 2.44 Fe 6.54
Ne 0.93 S 2.63 Fe 6.97
Ne 1.02 Ar 3.10 Fe 7.80




176


Data:

Tychos SNR (Type Ia) SNR G292.0+1.8 SNR (Type II)
Energy of
emission line
(KeV)
chemical
symbol
of element
Energy of
emission line
(KeV)
chemical
symbol
of element











Conclusions and Analysis:

1. What are the similarities and differences between these two spectra?

2. From your analysis of Tychos SNR and SNR G292.0+1.8, what elements are
more predominant in a Type Ia supernova? Which are more predominant in a
Type II? Are there elements present in one that are not in another?

3. Explain how you might be able to classify a supernova event as type Ia or type II
from its spectrum based on your observations of Tychos SNR and SNR
G292.0+1.8. Sometimes, due to interstellar absorption, emission lines less than
1.5 KeV are not seen. How could this affect your classification of a supernova
remnant?

Extensions:
1. Analyze the spectra of any three of the following SNRs using the same procedure
as Tychos SNR and G292.0+1.8. Construct your own data tables.

a. Obs ID 117 ACIS OBSERVATIONS OF W49B
b. Obs ID 116 Keplers SNR
c. Obs ID 2758 SNR 0103-72.6: AN UNSUALLY BRIGHT
REMNANT IN THE SMC ALTERNATE TARGET
d. Obs ID 775 A SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF LMC SNRS WITH
AXAF (this is the SNR called DEM L71)
e. Obs ID 114 ACIS OBSERVATIONS OF CAS A

2. From your analyses, classify these SNR by type. What is the basis for your
conclusions? How sure are you of your classifications? What features of the
spectra helped with your classifications? What features made it difficult to
classify these SNR?

3. Look up these supernovas in the Chandra Supernova Photo Album. How do your
results compare with the information in the Photo Album?
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/category/snr.html

177


Additional Information for X-ray Spectroscopy and Supernova Remnants ds9
Version:

1. Additional information for Tychos supernova remnant and supernova G292.0+1.8

OBS ID 115 (Tychos SNR) - Type Ia
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2002/0005/index.html












178




OBS ID 126 (G292.0+1.8) Type II
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2001/0112/index.html







179




Hughes, et all 2001.
Note the higher abundance
of O, Ne, and Mg in this
Type II spectrum.
Use Analysis>Chandra
Ed Analysis
Tools>Energy Filter in
ds9 to view the location
of only the high energy or
hard x-ray photons (a
lo of 4 KeV and a hi
of 8 KeV). in this SNR.
You can see the results in
the frame on the right.
This shows the region that
could be the core remnant
pointing to a type II
supernova from a massive
star.



1. Information for the supernova remnants listed in number 1 (a through e) in the
Extensions Section.

OBS ID 117 (W49B) Type II; though hard to tell from the spectrum perhaps due to
interstellar absorption of lines less than 1.5 keV ( so you cant see O, Me and Mg lines).
From this spectrum it is very difficult to classify the supernova type. Students may say it
is a type Ia if they do no further research.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/press/04_releases/press_060204.html

OBS OD 116 Type?; Astronomers have studied Kepler intensively over the past three
decades with radio, optical and X-ray telescopes, but its origin has remained a puzzle. On
the one hand, the presence of large amounts of iron and the absence of a detectable
neutron star points toward a Type Ia supernova. On the other hand, when viewed in
optical light, the supernova remnant appears to be expanding into dense material that is
rich in nitrogen. This would suggest Kepler is a Type II supernova event as Type Ia
supernovas do not normally have such surroundings.

OBS ID 2758 (SNR 0103-72.6) Type II; Oxygen and neon are the most abundant
elements in the spectrum as in the spectrum of G292.0+1.8. In ds9, using color>bb and
scale>square root, you can also see (faintly) a core remnant.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2003/snr0103/

Obs ID 775 (DEM L71) Type 1a; O and Ne are not evident in the spectrum (which
could be due to interstellar absorption BUT there also does not seem to be a core remnant
as in a type II). Other elements are similar to those of Tychos SNR.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2003/deml71/

Obs ID 114 (Cas A) Type II; Spectrum has a peak at Ne, but O and Mg are either
missing or not very prominent. Spectrum looks very much like that of Tychos SNR. A
bright core, however, is evident at the center of the image. Interstellar absorption may be
responsible for not seeing emission lines less than 1.5 KeV.
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2002/0237/


3. References that can be used for further discussion and study of the classification of
supernova remnants.


Typing supernovae from their remnants
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1995ApJ...444L..81H/L000084.000.html

X-ray Spectroscopy of Young SNR Imagine! The Universe
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/features/topics/snr_group/spectroscopy.html

An X-Ray Study of the Supernova Remnant G290.1-0.8
http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ApJ/journal/issues/ApJ/v564n1/54479/54479.text.
html

180



The X-Ray Line Emission from the Supernova Remnant W49B
http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ApJ/journal/issues/ApJ/v532n2/50112/50112.text.
html

0103-72.6: A New Oxygen-Rich Supernova Remnant in the Small Magellanic Cloud
http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ApJ/journal/issues/ApJL/v598n2/17768/17768.tex
t.html

Iron-rich Ejecta in the Supernova Remnant DEM L71
http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ApJ/journal/issues/ApJL/v582n2/16886/brief/168
86.abstract.html

HST Observations of SNRs in Magellanic Clouds. II.
http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ApJ/journal/issues/ApJ/v537n2/50874/50874.text.
html

ASCA X-Ray Spectroscopy of Large Magellanic Cloud Supernova Remnants and
the Metal Abundances of the Large Magellanic Cloud
http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ApJ/journal/issues/ApJ/v505n2/38033/38033.pdf

Young Supernova Remnants in the Magellanic Clouds
http://www.citebase.org/fulltext?format=application%2Fpdf&identifier=oai%3Aar
Xiv.org%3Aastro-ph%2F0102377

Hughes Presentation on X-ray studies of SNR
http://constellation.gsfc.nasa.gov/documents/mission/fst/2003May/hughes.pdf





















181





X-ray Spectroscopy of Supernova Remnants Pencil and Paper Version

NOTE: The introduction and background, along with additional supporting information,
is included with the ds9 version of this activity preceding this version.

Purpose: To determine types of supernovas by examining Chandra X-ray Observatory
images of supernova remnants (SNRs) and by identifying the elements in their energy
spectra.


Figure 1. Tychos SNR, Type Ia Figure 2. SNR G292.0+1.8, Type II
Credit: NASA/CXC/Rutgers/J.Warren & J.Hughes et al. Credit: NASA/CXC/Rutgers/J.Hughes et al.



Tychos Supernova Remnant

In the year 1572, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe observed and
studied the sudden appearance of a bright "new star" in the direction of
the constellation Cassiopeia. Now known as Tycho's supernova remnant,
the event created a sensation in Tycho's time because until then stars
were thought to be unchanging. Tychos observations of this event
marked the beginning of the study of astronomy as a science. This object is a Type Ia
event the thermonuclear destruction of a white dwarf. Information about this object is
located at http://chandra.harvard.edu/press/05_releases/press_092205.html

SNR G292.0+1.8

The Type II core collapse of a massive star that produced this supernova remnant ~1600
years ago is located in the direction of the constellation Centaurus. SNR G292.0+1.8 is
interesting because it is one of only three oxygen-rich remnants and one of the primary
sources of the heavy elements necessary to form planets and people. Although considered
a "textbook" case of a supernova remnant, the intricate structure shown here reveals a few
surprises. Information about this object is located at
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2007/g292/



182



Tychos Supernova Remnant (Type Ia) and SNR G292.0+1.8 (Type II) are representative
of the two supernova types. Follow the procedure below to analyze their spectra and
determine the elements present in the remnants and their relative abundances. The same
procedure will be used to study other remnants, compare the results to Tycho and SNR
G292.0+1.8, and determine if they are Type II or Type Ia supernova events.

Procedure:

1. Examine Figure 6, the bremsstrahlung spectrum of Tychos SNR.

2. On Figure 6, number the emission lines (peaks) you have decided to identify.

3. To get the energy of each emission line, measure the distance between 1 and 2
keV to the nearest tenth of a centimeter (mm). This gives a scale in cm/keV.
Measure the distance in cm (with as much precision as possible) from 1 keV to
the center of each peak (X- ray emission line). Make this distance negative if the
peak is before 1 KeV and positive if it is after 1 keV. Record in the data table.

4. Divide the distance to each peak (cm) by your scale (cm/keV) and add to 1 KeV
to get the energy (keV) of each emission line. Record in the data table.
1 KeV + [(d in cm)/(scale in cm/KeV)]

5. Identify the elements for each X-ray emission line/peak using Table 1. If you have
lines whose energy is not close to that of one of the elements in the chart, leave
those lines unidentified. Record in the data table.

6. Repeat steps #1-5 for Figure 7, the bremsstrahlung spectrum of SNR G292.0+1.8.




Table 1. Energies of X-ray Emission Lines
element Energy (Kev) element Energy (Kev) element Energy (Kev)
O 0.18 Mg 1.33 Ar 3.32
Mg 0.25 Mg 1.45 Ar 3.69
Mg 0.27 Fe 1.66 Ca 3.86
O 0.64 Si 1.87 Ca 3.89
O 0.66 Si 1.98 Ca 4.11
Fe 0.80 Si 2.14 Ca 4.95
Fe 0.81 S 2.42 Fe 6.47
Ne 0.92 S 2.44 Fe 6.54
Ne 0.93 S 2.63 Fe 6.97
Ne 1.02 Ar 3.10 Fe 7.80





183


Data:

Tychos SNR (Type Ia)

Distance from 1 KeV to 2 KeV: 1 Kev = ________ cm


# of
emission
line
distance
from 1 KeV
(cm)
Energy of
emission line
(KeV)
chemical
symbol
of element













SNR G292.0+1.8 SNR (Type II)

Distance from 1 KeV to 2 KeV: 1 Kev = ________ cm

# of
emission
line
distance
from 1 KeV
(cm)
Energy of
emission line
(KeV)
chemical
symbol
of element












Conclusions and Analysis:

4. What are the similarities and differences between these two spectra?

5. From your analysis of Tychos SNR and SNR G292.0+1.8, what elements are
more predominant in a Type Ia supernova? Which are more predominant in a
Type II? Are there elements present in one that are not in another?


184


6. Explain how you might be able to classify a supernova event as type Ia or type II
from its spectrum based on your observations of Tychos SNR and SNR
G292.0+1.8. Sometimes, due to interstellar absorption, emission lines less than
1.5 KeV are not seen. How could this affect your classification of a supernova
remnant?



Extensions:

1. Analyze the spectra of any three of the following SNRs using the same procedure
as Tychos SNR and G292.0+1.8. Construct your own data tables.

a. Figure 8. W49B
b. Figure 9. Keplers SNR
c. Figure 10. SNR 0103-72.6
d. Figure 11. DEM L71
e. Figure 12. Cas A

4. From your analyses, classify these SNR by type. What is the basis for your
conclusions? How sure are you of your classifications? What features of the
spectra helped with your classifications? What features made it difficult to
classify these SNR?

5. Look up these supernovas in the Chandra Supernova Photo Album. How do your
results compare with the information in the Photo Album?
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/category/snr.html






















185




Figure 6. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum of Tychos SNR




186

Figure 7. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum of G292.0+1.8





187

Figure 8. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum of W49B





188


Figure 9. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum of Keplers SNR




189


Figure 10. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum of SNR 0103-72.6




190


Figure 11. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum of DEM L71




191


Figure 12. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum of Cas A




192




Analyzing Pulsating Sources
This activity uses basic physics principles and equation to analyze varying sources. The
background information in this manual on white dwarfs and neutron stars in both the
Stellar Evolution and Variable Star sections, as well as in the Introduction for
Investigating Supernova Remnants with X-ray Spectroscopy on pages 165 169 is
useful for understanding this activity. There are both ds9 and pencil and paper versions
for this activity.
NOTE: All other ds9 activities are posted on the Chandra education website. This
activity is not yet posted, though it is expected to be added to the website by the end of
2010. This is a beta version draft of the final activity.

E. Analysis of Two Pulsating X-ray Sources ds9 Version

Purpose:

To determine if GK Per and Cen X-3 could be white dwarfs or neutron stars by finding
the periods of the X-ray emission pulses using data sets from the Chandra X-ray
Observatory.

Background:

ds9 can produce a light curve for data gathered by the Chandra X-ray Observatory. A
light curve is a graph of the brightness of an object versus time. For stellar objects which
change brightness over time, such as supernovae, novae and variable stars, a light curve
can help astronomers classify the object and identify its nature.

Accreting White Dwarf illustration of an accretion powered pulsar
Credit: CXC/M.Weiss

The regularity in the changes in brightness for GK Per and Cen X-3 lead us to believe
that there is some periodic mechanism causing this. In the case of rotating variable stars,
the brightness in X-rays could change as a hot spot rotates in and out of our view. In
the case of a white dwarf, such a hot spot might occur if a white dwarf with a magnetic
field accretes matter from a companion star. The accretion disk is disrupted at small radii
by the white dwarfs magnetosphere. Material leaves the disk and travels along magnetic
field lines. At some distance to the surface, a strong shock occurs where freefall kinetic
energy is converted to thermal energy. Below this, material settles onto the white dwarf
near the magnetic poles. As this material cools, it releases x-rays. If the magnetic axis is

193


offset from the spin axis, the X-ray emission will pulse with the spin period of the white
dwarf.

A sun-like star eventually becomes a white dwarf when the core, left behind after a red
giant puffs off its outer layers, collapses. An object the size of an olive made of white
dwarf material would have the same mass as an automobile!

The central part of a more massive star will collapse even further to form a neutron star.
Electrons are pushed into protons to form neutrons and the result is a tiny star with very
little empty space. A neutron star would have the same density as 10 million full-sized
African elephants in the space of a thimble.

A neutron star in a binary system can become an accretion powered pulsar, producing a
pulsing X-ray emission in much the same way as described above for the white dwarf. A
neutron star, however, can spin faster (have a shorter period) because its higher mass and
smaller size generates a stronger gravitational field that can prevent a fast spinning pulsar
from breaking apart.

Procedure:
1. Go to http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/install.html and install ds9
if it is not already on your computer.
2. Open ds9. Go to Analysis>Virtual Observatory>Chandra-Ed Archive Server and
click Obs ID 3454 - CHANDRA HETG SPECTROSCOPY OF GK PER IN
OUTBURST on the screen that comes up. (Do not close this window you will be
loading another image later.)
3. Regions have been pre-drawn for you. If you wish, play with different Scales and
Colors to see the details of GK Per. Go to Analysis>Chandra Ed Analysis
Tools>FTOOLS Light Curve and click OK. On the light curve generated, zoom in on
an area on the graph by either left clicking and dragging a box around a region of the
graph or by changing the x-axis range under Graph>Axis Range until you can determine
if there appears to be a periodic x-ray pulse.
4. Go to Analysis>Chandra Ed Analysis Tools>FTOOLS Power Spectrum and click
OK. This command does a fast Fourier Transform on the data to search for periodicities.
If the data isnt periodic, you will not see one large peak as you will for GK Per. Zoom in
on the peak until you can determine its frequency. Convert the frequency to period
(period = 1/frequency).
5. Go to Analysis>Chandra Ed Analysis Tools>FTOOLS Period Fold. This will help
you to check the accuracy of the period you found in step 4. Enter the value for this
period in the window that comes up and click OK. To understand what this command is
doing, picture a drawing of a sine wave on a long piece of paper. Cut this paper into
sections, each one period long, and put each cycle on top of the first one, adding all the
sine waves together. If your cuts are not exactly every period, when you add the sine
waves, parts of the waves would cancel out and your composite wave would have a
194

smaller amplitude. How does your Period Fold graph look? Try it again with a period
several seconds different than the one you used before. Which graph is more sine-like
and has the highest amplitude? If you need to, try Period Fold again with different
periods until you produce the best graph. Record this period. This is equal to GK Pers
spin period as discussed in the background information.
6. Go to chandra-ed.cfa.harvard.edu window and hit the back arrow. Click Obs ID
1943 THE WIND AND ACCRETION DISK IN CEN X-3/V779 CEN. Make a light
curve, power spectrum, and period fold for this data to find the period of Cen X-3.
Calculations and Interpretations:

The acceleration due to gravity (g) on the surface of a star (according to Newtons
Universal Law of Gravitation) is given by

g = (GM)/R
2
where G = 6.67 X 10
-11
Nm
2
/kg
2
, M=stars mass and R = stars radius

Centripetal acceleration (a
c
) of an object on the surface of a star at its equator is given by

a
c
= V
2
/R and since V = 2R/T for an object moving in a circle
a
c
= 4
2
R/T
2
, where R = stars radius and T = stars spin period

If the centripetal acceleration on material on the stars surface for a given period is less
than the acceleration due to gravity, the gravitational force would be enough to hold the
material on the surface and the star could sustain such a period without disruption.

1. Find the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of a white dwarf. Let the mass
of a white dwarf be approximately one solar mass or 2.0 X 10
30
kg and its radius,
approximately that of Earth or 6.4 X 10
6
m.

2. Find the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of a neutron star. Let the mass
of a neutron star be two solar masses or 4 X 10
30
kg and its radius be 10.0 km.

3. Assume GK Per is a white dwarf. Calculate the centripetal acceleration of
material on the surface of GK Per (using the period you found from the power
spectrum). According to your calculations, can GK Per be a white dwarf*? Why
or why not?

4. If your answer above is no, repeat #3 assuming GK Per is a neutron star.

5. Repeat #3 and #4 for Cen X-3. Is it more likely that Cen X-3 is a white dwarf or
a neutron star? Why?

*Note: If it is possible that a star is a white dwarf according to the types of
calculations you did in this activity, other analysis would be necessary to
determine if an object is actually white dwarf, such as examination of its
temperature and luminosity


195



Resources:

Podcasts:

Supernovas: When Stars Die (contains description of a white dwarf)
http://chandra.harvard.edu/resources/podcasts/media/pod301006.m4v

The Exotic World of Neutron Stars
http://chandra.harvard.edu/resources/podcasts/media/pod300407.m4v

References:

Chandra Education Data Analysis Software And Activities
http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/

Chandra Field Guide
http://chandra.harvard.edu/field_guide.html

Variable Star Of The Month Nov. '00: GK Persei (Nova Persei 1901)
http://www.aavso.org/vstar/vsots/1100.shtml

The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight - Cen X-3
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/Centaurus_X-3.html

ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS YY Draconis and V709 Cassiopeiae
http://physics.open.ac.uk/~ajnorton/papers/yydra_v709cas.pdf




















196





Analysis of Two Pulsating X-ray Sources Answers:













197




Analysis of Two Pulsating X-ray Sources Pencil and Paper Version

Purpose:

To determine if GK Per and Cen X-3 could be white dwarfs or neutron stars by finding
the periods of the X-ray emission pulses using data sets from the Chandra X-ray
Observatory.

Background:

A light curve is a graph of the brightness of an object versus time. For stellar objects
which change brightness over time, such as supernovae, novae and variable stars, a light
curve can help astronomers classify the object and identify its nature.

Accreting White Dwarf illustration of an accretion powered pulsar
Credit: CXC/M.Weiss

The regularity in the changes in brightness for GK Per and Cen X-3 lead us to believe
that there is some periodic mechanism causing this. In the case of rotating variable stars,
the brightness in X-rays could change as a hot spot rotates in and out of our view. In
the case of a white dwarf, such a hot spot might occur if a white dwarf with a magnetic
field accretes matter from a companion star. The accretion disk is disrupted at small radii
by the white dwarfs magnetosphere. Material leaves the disk and travels along magnetic
field lines. At some distance to the surface, a strong shock occurs where freefall kinetic
energy is converted to thermal energy. Below this, material settles onto the white dwarf
near the magnetic poles. As this material cools, it releases x-rays. If the magnetic axis is
offset from the spin axis, the X-ray emission will pulse with the spin period of the white
dwarf.

A sun-like star eventually becomes a white dwarf when the core, left behind after a red
giant puffs off its outer layers, collapses. An object the size of an olive made of white
dwarf material would have the same mass as an automobile!

The central part of a more massive star will collapse even further to form a neutron star.
Electrons are pushed into protons to form neutrons and the result is a tiny star with very
little empty space. A neutron star would have the same density as 10 million full-sized
African elephants in the space of a thimble.


198




A neutron star in a binary system can become an accretion powered pulsar, producing a
pulsing X-ray emission in much the same way as described above for the white dwarf. A
neutron star, however, can spin faster (have a shorter period) because its higher mass and
smaller size generates a stronger gravitational field that can prevent a fast spinning pulsar
from breaking apart.

Procedure:

1. Figure 3. is a light curve of GK Per obtained from Chandra X-Ray Observatory
data. This is a plot of brightness vs time. Does the change in brightness seem to
be periodic? Estimate the possible period.

2. Figure 4. is a power spectrum of GK Pers light curve. A power spectrum
indicates the likelihood that certain frequencies (of rotation or other periodic
phenomena) are present in the data. Zooming in on the tallest spike (Figure 5.),
you can estimate the frequency of the x-ray flashes which is also the frequency
of the rotation of GK Per. Calculate the period, T, by taking the inverse of the
frequency, f (T = 1/f). How does this compare with the period you obtained from
the light curve?

3. Repeat steps 1 and 2, using Figures 6, 7 and 8 for Cen X-3.


Calculations and Interpretations:

The acceleration due to gravity (g) on the surface of a star (according to Newtons
Universal Law of Gravitation) is given by

g = (GM)/R
2
where G = 6.67 X 10
-11
Nm
2
/kg
2
, M=stars mass and R = stars radius

Centripetal acceleration (a
c
) of an object on the surface of a star at its equator is given by

a
c
= V
2
/R and since V = 2R/T for an object moving in a circle
a
c
= 4
2
R/T
2
, where R = stars radius and T = stars spin period

If the centripetal acceleration on material on the stars surface for a given period is less
than the acceleration due to gravity, the gravitational force would be enough to hold the
material on the surface and the star could sustain such a period without disruption.

6. Find the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of a white dwarf. Let the mass
of a white dwarf be approximately one solar mass or 2.0 X 10
30
kg and its radius,
approximately that of Earth or 6.4 X 10
6
m.

7. Find the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of a neutron star. Let the mass
of a neutron star be two solar masses or 4 X 10
30
kg and its radius be 10.0 km.



199



8. Assume GK Per is a white dwarf. Calculate the centripetal acceleration of
material on the surface of GK Per (using the period you found from the power
spectrum). According to your calculations, can GK Per be a white dwarf*? Why
or why not?

9. If your answer above is no, repeat #3 assuming GK Per is a neutron star.

10. Repeat #3 and #4 for Cen X-3. Is it more likely that Cen X-3 is a white dwarf or
a neutron star? Why?

*Note: If it is possible that a star is a white dwarf according to the types of
calculations you did in this activity, other analysis would be necessary to
determine if an object is actually white dwarf, such as examination of its
temperature and luminosity

































200

Figure 3. Light Curve of GK Per


Figure 4. Power Spectrum of GK Per



201




Figure 5. Zoom of Power Spectrum of GK Per


Figure 6. Light Curve of Cen X-3



202





Figure 7. Power Spectrum of Cen X-3


Figure 8. Zoom of Power Spectrum of Cen X-3



203





Analysis of Two Pulsating X-ray Sources Answers:



NOTE: Additional resources for this activity are listed in the ds9 version of this activity
on page 194







204


I. Free Resources:

The Chandra X-Ray Observatory homepage at http://chandra.harvard.edu/ contains
many resources, such as the photo album , and the educational materials. By January
2005,a stellar evolution module will be added to the educational website with
information, activities and links that will be especially useful to prepare for this event.
The http://chandra-ed.harvard.edu/ site is the homepage for the Chandra DS9 data
analysis software - including instructions for downloading and using the software.

http://www3.gettysburg.edu/~marschal/clea/CLEAhome.html is the homepage for the
CLEA (Contemporary Laboratory Exercises in Astronomy) Project - the labs all include a
dedicated computer program, a student manual, and a technical guide for the instructor.
The technical guides describe file formats, user-settable options, and algorithms used in
the programs. The most advanced CLEA labs run under Windows on PC's, or on color-
capable Macintosh computers. All of the software and manuals are free and
downloadable.

The http://skyserver.sdss.org/dr2/en/ website brings you the entire public database of
the Sloan Digital Sky Survey - over 80 million stars, galaxies and quasars. The site
includes a variety of tools to view and download SDSS data, and many projects and
activities at levels from basic to advanced to learn about spectra, the H-R diagram, and
Hubble's law, among others.

http://www.astro.washington.edu/labs/clearinghouse/labs/labs_comments.html
is a website maintained by the University of Washington astronomy department. It has
~60 introductory astronomy labs organized by type - i.e. the Stellar Evolution and H-R
diagram section.

http://aavso.org/ is the website for the American Association of Variable Star Observers.
It contains a lot of helpful information and activities. It is also link to the variable star
activities on the Chandra website at:
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/variable_stars/

http://www.aavso.org/education/vsa/ is the Variable Star Astronomy curriculum which
contains information and activities on variable stars including light curves, phase
diagrams, and O-C diagrams.


II. Recommended Resources Available for Purchase:

http://store.soinc.org/c-14-new-materials-for-2010.aspx This CD contains all prior
astronomy national and state exams and materials, and coaches clinic presentations.
These are excellent resources to study for state and national competition.

The Stellar Journey board game available from Other Worlds Educational Enterprises at
http://stellarjourney.net/
NOTE: This site is off-line until ~May 2010




205

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen