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A2 Unit F324: Rings, polymers and analysis
Module 1 Rings, acids and amines
Arenes
Done

Compare the Kekul and delocalised models for benzene in terms of p-orbital
overlap forming bonds.
Review the evidence for a delocalised model of benzene in terms of bond lengths
enthalp! change of h!drogenation and resistance to reaction.
"escribe the electrophilic substitution of arenes with#
$i% concentrated nitric acid in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid
$ii% a halogen in the presence of a halogen carrier.
&utline the mechanism of electrophilic substitution in arenes using the
mononitration and monohalogenation of benzene as e'amples.
('plain the relative resistance to bromination of benzene compared with alkenes
in terms of the delocalised electron densit! of the bonds in benzene compared
with the localised electron densit! of the C)C bond in alkenes.
"escribe the reactions of phenol#
$i% with a*ueous alkalis and with sodium to form salts
$ii% with bromine to form +,--tribromophenol.
('plain the relative ease of bromination of phenol compared with benzene in terms
of electron-pair donation to the benzene ring from an o'!gen p orbital in phenol.
.tate the uses of phenols in the production of plastics antiseptics disinfectants and
resins for paints.
Caronyl compounds
Done

"escribe the o'idation of alcohols using Cr

+
&
/
+0
12
3
$i.e. K
+
Cr
+
&
/
12
+
.&
,
% including#
$i% the o'idation of primar! alcohols to form aldeh!des and carbo'!lic acids4 the
control of the o'idation product using different reaction conditions
$ii% the o'idation of secondar! alcohols to form ketones.
"escribe the o'idation of aldeh!des using Cr
+
&
/
+0
12
3
to form carbo'!lic acids.
"escribe the reduction of carbon!l compounds using 5a62
,
to form alcohols.
&utline the mechanism for nucleophilic addition reactions of aldeh!des and ketones
with h!drides such as 5a62
,
.
"escribe the use of +,-dinitrophen!lh!drazine to#
$i% detect the presence of a carbon!l group in an organic compound
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$ii% identif! a carbon!l compound from the melting point of the derivative.
"escribe the use of 7ollens8 reagent $ammoniacal silver nitrate% to#
$i% detect the presence of an aldeh!de group
$ii% distinguish between aldeh!des and ketones e'plained in terms of the o'idation
of aldeh!des to carbo'!lic acids with reduction of silver ions to silver.
Caro!ylic acids and esters
Done

('plain the water solubilit! of carbo'!lic acids in terms of h!drogen bonding and
dipole0dipole interaction.
"escribe the reactions of carbo'!lic acids with metals carbonates and bases.
"escribe esterification of carbo'!lic acids with alcohols in the presence of an acid
catal!st4 of acid anh!drides with alcohols.
"escribe the h!drol!sis of esters#
$i% in hot a*ueous acid to form carbo'!lic acids and alcohols
$ii% in hot a*ueous alkali to form carbo'!late salts and alcohols.
.tate the uses of esters in perfumes and flavourings.
"escribe a triglyceride as a triester of gl!cerol $propane-1+9-triol% and fatt! acids.
Compare the structures of saturated fats unsaturated fats and fatt! acids including
cis and trans isomers from s!stematic names and shorthand formulae.
Compare the link between trans fatt! acids the possible increase in :bad8
cholesterol and the resultant increased risk of coronar! heart disease and strokes.
"escribe and e'plain the increased use of esters of fatt! acids as biodiesel.
Amines
Done

('plain the basicit! of amines in terms of proton acceptance b! the nitrogen lone
pair.
"escribe the reactions of amines with acids to form salts.
"escribe the preparation of#
$i% aliphatic amines b! substitution of halogenoalkanes with e'cess ethanolic
ammonia
$ii% aromatic amines b! reduction of nitroarenes using tin and concentrated
h!drochloric acid.
"escribe the s!nthesis of an azo d!e b! reaction of an aromatic amine with nitrous
acid $;1< =C% with formation of a diazonium ion followed b! coupling with a phenol
under alkaline conditions.
.tate the use of reactions in the formation of d!estuffs.
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Module 2 "olymers and synt#esis
Amino acids and c#irality
Done

.tate the general formula for an >-amino acid as RC2$52

+
%C&&2.
.tate that an amino acid e'ists as a zwitterion at a p2 value called the isoelectric
point.
.tate that different R groups in >-amino acids ma! result in different isoelectric
points.
"escribe the acid0base properties of >-amino acids at different p2 values.
('plain the formation of a peptide $amide% linkage between >-amino acids b!
condensation and subse*uent condensation pol!merisation to form pol!peptides
and proteins.
"escribe the acid and the alkaline h!drol!sis of proteins and peptides to form >-
amino acids or carbo'!lates.
"escribe optical isomers as non-superimposable mirror images about an organic
chiral centre# four different groups attached to a carbon atom.
?dentif! chiral centres in a molecule of given structural formula.
('plain that optical isomerism and EIZ isomerism are different t!pes of
stereoisomerism.
"olyesters and polyamides
Done

"escribe condensation polymerisation to form#

$i% pol!esters e.g. 7er!lene from benzene-1,-dicarbo'!lic acid and ethane-1+-diol
pol!$lactic acid% from +-h!dro'!propanoic acid $lactic acid%
$ii% pol!amides e.g. n!lon--- from 1--diaminohe'ane and he'ane-1--dicarbo'!lic
acid Kevlar from benzene-1,-diamine and benzene-1,-dicarbo'!lic acid.
Compare condensation pol!merisation with addition pol!merisation.
.uggest the t!pe of pol!merisation from#
$i% a given monomer or pair of monomers
$ii% a given section of a pol!mer molecule.
?dentif! the monomer$s% re*uired to form a given section of a pol!mer $and vice
versa%.
.tate the use of pol!esters and pol!amides as fibres in clothing.
"escribe the acid and the base h!drol!sis of pol!esters and pol!amides.
&utline the role of chemists in minimising environmental waste b! development of
degradable pol!mers similar in structure to pol!$lactic acid%.
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('plain that condensation pol!mers#
$i% ma! be photodegradable as the C)& bond absorbs radiation
$ii% ma! be h!drol!sed at the ester or amide group.
$ynt#esis
Done

@or an organic molecule containing several functional groups#

$i% identif! individual functional groups
$ii% predict properties and reactions.
"evise multi-stage s!nthetic routes for preparing organic compounds.
('plain that the s!nthesis of pharmaceuticals often re*uires the production of a
single optical isomer.
('plain that molecules prepared s!ntheticall! in the laborator! often contain a
mi'ture of optical isomers whereas molecules of the same compound produced
naturall! b! enz!mes in living s!stems will often be present as one optical isomer
onl!.
('plain that the s!nthesis of a pharmaceutical that is a single optical isomer#
$i% increases costs due to difficult! in separating the optical isomers
$ii% reduces possible side effects and improves pharmacological activit!.
('plain that modern s!nthesis of a pharmaceutical with a single optical isomer is
often carried out#
$i% using enz!mes or bacteria which promote stereoselectivit!
$ii% using chemical chiral s!nthesis or chiral catal!sts
$iii% using natural chiral molecules such as A-amino acids or sugars as starting
materials.
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Module 3 Analysis
C#romatograp#y
Done

"escribe chromatograph! as an anal!tical techni*ue that separates components in

a mi'ture between a mobile phase and a stationar! phase.
.tate that#
$i% the mobile phase ma! be a li*uid or a gas
$ii% the stationar! phase ma! be a solid $as in thin-la!er chromatograph! 7AC% or
either a li*uid or solid on a solid support $as in gas chromatograph! CC%.
.tate that#
$i% a solid stationar! phase separates b! adsorption
$ii% a li*uid stationar! phase separates b! relative solubilit!.
('plain the term R
f
value and interpret one-wa! chromatograms in terms of R
f
values.
('plain the term retention time and interpret gas chromatograms in terms of
retention times and the appro'imate proportions of the components of a mi'ture.
('plain that anal!sis b! gas chromatograph! has limitations e.g. similar
compounds often have#
$i% similar retention times
$ii% unknown compounds have no reference retention times for comparison.
('plain that mass spectrometr! can be combined with chromatograph!#
$i% to provide a far more powerful anal!tical tool than from chromatograph! alone
$ii% to generate mass spectra which can be anal!sed or compared with a spectral
database b! computer for positive identification of a component.
.tate the use of CC-D. in anal!sis e.g. in forensics environmental anal!sis
airport securit! and space probes.
$pectroscopy
Done

.tate that 5DR spectroscop! involves interaction of materials with the low-energ!
radiowave region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Enal!se a carbon-19 5DR spectrum of a simple molecule to make predictions
about#
$i% the different t!pes of carbon present from chemical shift values
$ii% possible structures for the molecule.
Enal!se a high-resolution proton 5DR spectrum of a simple molecule to make
predictions about#
$i% the different t!pes of proton present from chemical shift values
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$ii% the relative numbers of each t!pe of proton present from relative peak areas
using integration traces or ratio numbers when re*uired
$iii% the number of non-e*uivalent protons adFacent to a given proton from the spin0
spin splitting pattern using the n 3 1 rule
$iv% possible structures for the molecule.
Gredict the chemical shifts and splitting patterns of the protons in a given molecule.
"escribe the use of tetrameth!lsilane 7D. as the standard for chemical shift
measurements.
.tate the need for deuterated solvents e.g. C"Cl
9
when running an 5DR
spectrum.
"escribe the identification of &02 and 502 protons b! proton e'change using "
+
&.
('plain that 5DR spectroscop! is the same technolog! as that used in :magnetic
resonance imaging8 $DR?% to obtain diagnostic information about internal structures
in bod! scanners.
@or organic compounds containing an! of the following atoms# C 2 5 and &#
$i% anal!se infrared absorptions in an infrared spectrum to identif! the presence of
functional groups in a molecule
$ii% anal!se molecular ion peaks and fragmentation peaks in a mass spectrum to
identif! parts of structures
$iii% combine evidence from a number of spectra# 5DR ?R and mass spectra to
deduce structures.
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A2 Unit F32%: &'uiliria, energetics and elements
Module 1 Rates, e'uilirium and p(
(o) *ast+
Done

('plain and use the terms# rate of reaction order rate constant half-life rate-
determining step.
"educe from a concentration0time graph the rate of a reaction and the half-life of
a first order reaction.
.tate that the half-life of a first-order reaction is independent of the concentration.
"educe from a rate0concentration graph the order $< 1 or +% with respect to a reactant.
"etermine using the initial rates method the order $< 1 or +% with respect to a reactant.
"educe from orders a rate e*uation of the form# rate ) kHEI
m
H6I
n
for which m and
n are < 1 or +.
Calculate the rate constant k from a rate e*uation.
('plain *ualitativel! the effect of temperature change on a rate constant and hence
the rate of a reaction.
@or a multi-step reaction#
$i% propose a rate e*uation that is consistent with the rate-determining step
$ii% propose steps in a reaction mechanism from the rate e*uation and the balanced
e*uation for the overall reaction.
(o) *ar+
Done

Calculate given appropriate data the concentration or *uantities present at e*uilibrium.

"educe for homogeneous reactions e'pressions for the e*uilibrium constant K
c
.
Calculate the values of the e*uilibrium constant K
c
including determination of units.
('plain the effect of changing temperature on the value of K
c
for e'othermic and
endothermic reactions.
.tate that the value of K
c
is unaffected b! changes in concentration or pressure or
b! the presence of a catal!st.
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Acids, ases and u**ers
Done

"escribe an acid as a species that can donate a proton and a base as a species
that can accept a proton.
?llustrate using ionic e*uations the role of 2
3
in the reactions of acids with metals
carbonates bases and alkalis.
"escribe and use the term conjugate acidbase pairs.
('plain *ualitativel! in terms of dissociation the differences between strong and
eak acids.
('plain that the acid dissociation constant! K
a
shows the e'tent of acid dissociation.
"educe for weak acids e'pressions for K
a
and pK
a
.
"efine p" as p2 ) 0logH2
3
I4 H2
3
I ) 1<
0p2
.
.tate and use the e'pression for the ionic product of ater K
w
.
Calculate p2 from H2
3
$a*%I and H2
3
$a*%I from p2 for#
$i% strong monobasic acids
$ii% weak monobasic acids
$iii% strong bases using K
w
.
Calculate K
a
for a weak acid given appropriate data.
"escribe a buffer solution as a s!stem that minimises p2 changes on addition of
small amounts of an acid or a base.
.tate that a buffer solution can be made from a weak acid and a salt of the weak
acid e.g. C2
9
C&&21C2
9
C&&5a.
('plain the role of the conFugate acid0base pair in an acid buffer solution e.g.
C2
9
C&&21C2
9
C&&
0
in the control of p2.
Calculate the p2 of a buffer solution from the K
a
value of a weak acid and the
e*uilibrium concentrations of the conFugate acid0base pair.
('plain the role of carbonic acid0h!drogencarbonate as a buffer in the control of
blood p2.
@or acid0base titration p2 curves for strong and weak acids and bases#
$i% interpret or sketch their shapes
$ii% e'plain the choice of suitable indicators for acid0base titrations given the p2
range of the indicator.
"efine and use the term enthalpy change of neutralisation and calculate enthalp!
changes from appropriate e'perimental results.
K
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Module 2 &nergy
,attice ent#alpy
Done

('plain and use the term lattice enthalpy $L" negative i.e. gaseous ions to the
solid lattice% as a measure of ionic bond strength.
Mse the lattice enthalp! of a simple ionic solid $i.e. 5aCl DgCl
+
% and relevant
energ! terms to#
$i% construct 6orn02aber c!cles
$ii% carr! out related calculations.
('plain and use the terms enthalpy change of solution and enthalpy change of
hydration.
Mse the enthalp! change of solution of a simple ionic solid $i.e. 5aCl DgCl
+
% and
relevant energ! terms $enthalpy change of hydration! and lattice enthalpy% to#
$i% construct 6orn02aber c!cles
$ii% carr! out related calculations.
('plain in *ualitative terms the effect of ionic charge and ionic radius on the
e'othermic value of a lattice enthalp! and enthalp! change of h!dration.
&nt#alpy and entropy
Done

('plain that entrop! is a measure of the disorder of a s!stem and that a s!stem
becomes energeticall! more stable when it becomes more disordered.
('plain the difference in magnitude of entrop!#
$i% of a solid and a gas
$ii% when a solid lattice dissolves
$iii% for a reaction in which there is a change in the number of gaseous molecules.
Calculate the entrop! change for a reaction given the entropies of the reactants and
products.
('plain that the tendenc! of a process to take place depends on absolute
temperature # the entrop! change in the s!stem L$ and the enthalp! change
L" with the surroundings.
('plain that the balance between entrop! and enthalp! changes is the free energy
change L% which determines the feasibilit! of a reaction.
.tate and use the relationship L% ) L" 0 #L$.
('plain in terms of enthalp! and entrop! how endothermic reactions are able to
take place spontaneousl!.
&lectrode potentials and *uel cells
Done

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('plain for simple redo' reactions the terms redo&! o&idation number! half-
reaction! o&idising agent and reducing agent.
Construct redo' e*uations using relevant half-e*uations or o'idation numbers.
?nterpret and make predictions for reactions involving electron transfer.
"efine the term standard electrode 'redo&( potential E .
"escribe how to measure using a h!drogen electrode standard electrode
potentials of#
$i% metals or non-metals in contact with their ions in a*ueous solution
$ii% ions of the same element in different o'idation states.
Calculate a standard cell potential b! combining two standard electrode potentials.
Gredict using standard cell potentials the feasibilit! of a reaction.
Consider the limitations of predictions made using standard cell potentials in terms
of kinetics and concentration.
Eppl! principles of electrode potentials to modern storage cells.
('plain that a fuel cell uses the energ! from the reaction of a fuel with o'!gen to
create a voltage.
('plain the changes that take place at each electrode in a h!drogen0o'!gen fuel
cell.
&utline that scientists in the car industr! are developing fuel cell vehicles $@CNs%
fuelled b!#
$i% h!drogen gas
$ii% h!drogen-rich fuels.
.tate advantages of @CNs over conventional petrol or diesel-powered vehicles in
terms of#
$i% less pollution and less C&
+
$ii% greater efficienc!.
Mnderstand how h!drogen might be stored in @CNs#
$i% as a li*uid under pressure
$ii% adsorbed on the surface of a solid material
$iii% absorbed within a solid material.
Consider limitations of h!drogen fuel cells for e'ample#
$i% storing and transporting h!drogen in terms of safet! feasibilit! of a pressurised
li*uid and a limited life c!cle of a solid :adsorber8 or :absorber8
$ii% limited lifetime $re*uiring regular replacement and disposal% and high production
costs
$iii% use of to'ic chemicals in their production.
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Comment that a :h!drogen econom!8 ma! contribute largel! to future energ! needs
but limitations include#
$i% public and political acceptance of h!drogen as a fuel
$ii% handling and maintenance of h!drogen s!stems
$iii% initial manufacture of h!drogen re*uiring energ!.
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Module 3 -ransition elements
-ransition elements
Done

"educe the electron configurations of atoms and ions of the d-block elements of
Geriod , $.c0On% given the atomic number and charge.
"escribe the elements 7i0Cu as transition elements i.e. d-block elements that have
an ion with an incomplete d sub-shell.
?llustrate#
$i% the e'istence of more than one o'idation state for each element in its
compounds
$ii% the formation of coloured ions
$iii% the catal!tic behaviour of the elements and1or their compounds4
"escribe including ionic e*uations the simple precipitation reactions and the
accompan!ing colour changes of Cu
+3
$a*% Co
+3
$a*% @e
+3
$a*% and @e
93
$a*% with
a*ueous sodium h!dro'ide.
('plain the term ligand in terms of coordinate bonding.
.tate and use the terms comple& ion and coordination number.
.tate and give e'amples of comple'es with si'fold coordination with an octahedral
shape.
('plain and use the term bidentate ligand $e.g. 52
+
C2
+
C2
+
52
+
:en8%.
"escribe the t!pes of stereoisomerism shown b! comple'es including those
associated with bidentate and multidentate ligands#
$i% cis-trans isomerism e.g. 5i$52
9
%
+
Cl
+
$ii% optical isomerism e.g. H5i$52
+
C2
+
C2
+
52
+
%
9
I
+3
"escribe the use of cis-platin as an anticancer drug and its action b! binding to
"5E in cancer cells preventing division.
"escribe the process of ligand substitution and the accompan!ing colour changes
in the formation of#
$i% HCu$52
9
%
,
$2
+
&%
+
I
+3
and HCuCl
,
I
+0
from HCu$2
+
&%
-
I
+3
$ii% HCoCl
,
I
+0
from HCo$2
+
&%
-
I
+3
.
('plain the biochemical importance of iron in haemoglobin including ligand
substitution involving &
+
and C&.
.tate that the stabilit! constant K
stab
of a comple' ion is the e*uilibrium constant
for the formation of the comple' ion in a solvent from its constituent ions.
"educe e'pressions for the stabilit! constant K
stab
of a ligand substitution e.g. D
+3
$a*% 3 -P
0
$a*% DP
-

,0
$a*%
K
stab
) HDP
-

,0
$a*%I1HD
+3
$a*%IHP
0
$a*%I
-
.
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Relate ligand substitution reactions of comple'es to stabilit! constants and
understand that a large K
stab
results in formation of a stable comple' ion.
"escribe using suitable e'amples redo' behaviour in transition elements.
Carr! out redo' titrations and carr! out structured calculations involving Dn&
,
0
and
?
+
1.
+
&
9
+Q
.
Gerform non-structured titration calculations based on e'perimental results.