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Skel eton


Skel etal System Composi ti on

1. Bones Strong connective tissue with mineralized matrix of
calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate.

2. Carti l age Flexible connective tissue made of collagen and
elastin fibers that cover joint surfaces of bones.

3. Li gaments Regular fibrous tissue that holds bones together
at the joints.

4. Tendons Dense fibrous tissue that attach bone to muscl e.


Skel etal System Di vi si on

























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Functi ons of the Skel eton

1. Support Framework that supports the body.

2. Protecti on Skull protects the brain, vertebrae surround the
spinal cord and rib cage protects vital organs of the thorax.

3. Movement Act as levers with skeletal muscles to move
body.

4. Mi neral Storage Calcium and phosphate ions are released
into the bloodstream as needed for distribution to body.

5. Bl ood pH Regul ator Absorbs bicarbonate ions.

6. Bl ood Formati on Red bone marrow produces blood cells.


Shapes and Bone Features

1. Long Bones Greater in length and width, and includes
bones of the arms and legs. E.g. Humerus and Femur.

2. Short Bones More equal in length and width, and include
carpal (wrist) bones.

3. Fl at Bones Flattened and include bones of the skull and
sternum. E.g. Parietal bone of roof skull.

4. I rregul ar Bones Complex shape and include pelvis and
spinal vertebrae.












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Bone Cel l s

1. Osteoprogeni tor Cel l s

! Mitotic stem cel l s found in the membranous
peri osteum and endosteum.

! Differentiate into osteobl asts (bone-forming cells).

2. Osteobl asts

! Form and help mineralize the organic matter of the bony
matri x.

! Non-mitotic.

3. Osteocytes

! Matured version of osteoblasts when they have become
trapped in the matrix they formed.

! Reside in l acunae (pocket) and are connected to
osteocytes by gap junctions.

! They do not continually form bone.

! I mportant: Signal osteocl asts (bone-destroying cells)
and osteoblasts about mechanical stresses on the bone.

4. Osteocl asts

! Multinucleated cells that break down the calcified matrix.

! Secrete aci ds that dissolve the inorganic component of
the calcified matrix.

! Release proteol yti c enzymes that digest the organic
components.





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Bone Matri x

1. Organi c Matter (~1/3)

! Col l agen providing flexibility.

! Glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans and glycoproteins.

2. I norgani c Matter (2/3)

! Mostly hydroxyapatite crystallized cal ci um
phosphate.

! The remainder is carbonate and other minerals (F
-
,
Mg
2+
and K
+
).


Compact Bone

! Very dense and has repeating shape.

! The osteon is the basic structural unit of compact bone.

! Osteon comprised of cylinders of tissue formed from l amel l ae
(layers) of matrix arranged around central canal holding a
blood vessel.

! Lacunae containing osteocytes are located in between
lamellae.

Spongy Bone

! Provides strength with little weight and trabeculae develop
along stress lines of bones.

! Bone cells lie within the trabecul ae and get nutrients from
substance diffusing into the canal i cul i .

! Trabeculae contain irregularly arranged lamellae and osteocytes
interconnected by canaliculi.

! High vascular and contains red bone marrow for the production
of blood cells.
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Peri osteum

! Fibrous white membrane layer covering bones.

! Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts that participate in bone
growth and repair.

! Has two layers:

1. Outer Fi brous Layer contains fibroblasts.

2. I nner Osteogeni c Layer contains osteoprogenitor
cells that developed into osteoblasts.


Endosteum

! Delicate connective tissue membrane that covers internal bone
surfaces.

! Covers the trabeculae of spongy bone.

! Lines the central canals that pass through the compact bone.

! Have osteoblasts and osteoclasts.


Bone General Features

! Compact (dense) bone outer shell of long bone.

! Di aphysi s elongated shaft of long bone providing leverage.

! Medul l ary cavi ty space in diaphysis that contains yellow
bone marrow.

! Epi physi s enlarged ends of a long bone to strengthen joints.

! Epi physeal pl ate cartilage that separates the marrow
spaces of epiphysis and diaphysis.



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Apposi ti onal Bone Growth

! Increase bone diameter of existing bones.

! Osteoprogenitor cells in periosteum differentiate into
osteoblasts to add more bone matrix to outer surface of the
bone.

! Osteoclasts remove matrix at inner surface to enlarge medullary
cavity.


Bone Marrow

! Soft tissue that occupies the marrow cavity of a long bone and
small spaces between trabeculae of spongy bone.

! Types:

1. Red Marrow

! Mesh of network fibers and stem cells.

! Hemopoi eti c ti ssue that gives rise to RBCs,
WBCs and platelets.

! Found in the vertebrae, ribs, sternum (breastbone)
and proximal heads of the femur and humerus.

2. Yel l ow Marrow

! Fatty substance that fills the shafts of most long
bones in adults.

! Non-hemopoietic and is an energy reservoir.








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Cal ci um Homeostasi s

1. Parathyroi d (Low Ca
2+
Levels)

! PTH secreted when calcium blood levels are l ow.

! Stimulates osteoclast production and activity.

! Promotes calcium reabsorption by the kidneys.

! Promotes calcitriol synthesis in the kidneys.

2. Cal ci toni n (High Ca
2+
Levels)

! Secreted by C cel l s of the thyroid gland when calcium
blood levels are high.

! Inhibits osteoclast activity, hence bone resorption.

! Stimulates Ca
2+
uptake and incorporation into bone
matrix.

3. Cal ci tri ol (Low Ca
2+
Levels)

! Processes by the liver and kidney.

! Enters the blood to stimulate the intestine to absorb
calcium and phosphate.

! Promotes osteoclast activity, raising blood Ca
2+
levels.


Ossi fi cati on formation of new bones.










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I ntramembranous Ossi fi cati on

! Produces fl at bones of the skul l and cl avi cl e (collarbone).

! Fibrous connective tissue membranes formed by
mesenchymal cel l s.

! Mesenchymal (stems) cells differentiate into osteoblasts.


4 Maj or Steps of I ntramembranous Ossi fi cati on

1. Ossi fi cati on center appears i n fi brous connecti ve
ti ssue membrane

- Centrally located mesenchymal cells cluster and
differentiate into osteoblasts, forming the center.

2. Bone matri x (osteoi d) i s secreted wi th the fi brous
membrane

- Osteoblasts begin to secrete osteoid, being mineralized.

- Trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes.

3. Peri osteum Form

- Remaining mesenchyme at the surface gives rise to
periosteum.

4. Center remodel i ng

- Osteoclasts remodel the center of the flat bone to contain
marrow spaces.

- Osteoblasts around blood vessels remodel the surface to
form compact bone.






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Endochondral Ossi fi cati on

! Produces most bones of the body, especially below the skull.

! Chondrocytes produces cartilage composed of collagen,
elastin and proteoglycans.

! Uses hyaline cartilage as a model for bone construction.

! Bones grow in diameter and length, involving appositional bone
deposition.

Steps of I ntramembranous Ossi fi cati on

1. In shaft, chondrocytes enlarge and matrix ossifies (turn into
bone). Chondrocytes then die leaving cavities within cartilage.

2. Blood vessels grow around cartilage edge. Osteoblasts then
form a superficial layer of bone.

3. Peri chondri um around the cartilage stops producing
chondrocytes and beings producing osteoblasts.

4. Blood vessels invade the central region, enabling fibroblasts to
differentiate into osteoblasts.

5. Osteoblasts begin to form spongy bone in spaces previously
housing the cartilage.

6. Medullary cavity created by cartilage replaced by osseous
tissue.

7. Secondary ossification centers form as capillaries and
osteoblasts migrate into epiphyses.

8. Epiphyses fill with spongy bone.

9. As spongy bone is deposited in the diaphysis and epiphysis, a
band of cartilage epi physeal pl ate remains between the two
ossification centers.



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Heal i ng Of Fractures

1. Hematoma is formed and is converted to granulation tissue,
formed by fibroblasts with high concentration of capillaries.

2. A callus forms and begins as a soft callus of fibrocartilage that
is eventually replaced by hard callus of bone.

3. Bone remodeling occurs where small bone fragments are
removed by osteoclasts.

4. Osteoblasts then deposit spongy bone and then convert it to
compact bone.