Literature during Ancient period

Vedic literature is the most valuable and precious contribution of the Aryans to the Aryans
to the Indian culture. It is a storehouse of knowledge. The Vedas are predominantly books
of religion, but we get details of philosophy, society, literature and almost every other
branch of the brahmanas, loanishads, aranyakas etc.
The entire vedic literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts, sruti and smarti. The
former was not composed by the rihis on the basis of their social, political and economic
experience.
The veda : the veda are four in number :rigveda samveda yajurveda and atharveda
.the rigveda is the first and the oldest of all the four Vedas. The Vedas were not composed
at one time but with different intervalos in between. Theperiod ascribed to their writings is
oirca 2500 to 500 B.C. the samveda is full of borrowed hymns which originally belong to
the rigveda hence the samveda does not have

an independent text. The "Yajurveda" contains description of charms and spells used by the priestly
classes at the time of Yajnas or sacrifices. The "Atharyaveda" describes the popular beliefs and
superstitions of the people. All the four. Vedas are an important source of information for knowing
the history of the Vedic period.
The Samhitas :The Samhitas are the books of hymns or psalms which are sung in the praise of
various gods. They are the most important part" of these holy books, since they are related to the
religious life of the Aryans. It is believed that in very early times these hymns and psalms were
unwritten and were passed on to posterity orally. The "Rigveda" and the "SamvedaSamhita" are
composed in verse, and are recited melodiously by the priests at the time of religious ceremonies,
whereas the "YajurvedaSamhita" is a mixture of prose and poetry. But the "AtharvavedaSamhita"
deals with the magic spells and witchcraft. There are a large number of prayers meant for the
annihilation of the enemies and worldly success of the Aryans.
The Brahmanas :These parts of the Vedas are in prose. These are really meant for instructions.
They are, in fact, explanations and interpretations of the earlier part, i.e., the "Samhita". A
prominent scholar has written, "Their subject matter is ritual and language is prose. Rituals,
sacrifices, their mystic meanings and sacred significance are dealt with in the 'Brahmanas'
elaborately.
Every Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it.
1. AttreyaBrahniana" and "KositakiBrahmana are attached to Rigveda.
2. "TandyaMahaBrahmana" and "JeminiBrahmana" are attached to "Samveda". The
"JeminiBrahmana" is very important and interesting.
3. The "TaitreyaBrahmana" and the "SatapathBrahmana" are the two important parts of
"Yajurveda".
4.The "GopathaBrahmana" is attached to the "Atharvaveda".
The Aranyakas:The literary meaning of the word Aranyak", is forest. It is, therefore, stated that
these parts of the Vedic literature were meant for those people, who had renounced the family and
domestic life, and had begun to live in the forest as ascetics or Munis. They are, in fact, the
concluding parts of the Vedas, but they contain a classical discussion of higher values of life,
metaphysics and other philosophical topics, but simplicity is the chief characteristic of these parts of
the Vedas. They show strong opposition to the performance of rituals which had occupied the
foremost position in the 'religious life of the Aryan. TheAranyakas stressed moral virtues in
preference to sacrificial rituals. B.N. Lunia has remarked on the basis of "The Vedic Age": "Thus they
helped to bridge the gulf between the way of action (Karma Marga) which was the sole concern of
the Brahmanas, and the way of knowledge (InanaMarga) which the Upanishads advocated. The
Aranyakas further lay down Upasana (course of meditation) ,with certain symbols and austerities for
the realization of the Absolute."

The Upanishads : The word 'Upanishad' is taken from the root up-nisad which means 'to sit
down near someone It means pupils sitting near the teacher for getting education or instruction. Thus, in
the modern sense the Upanishads denote spiritual knowledge. They are also called the Vedantas as they are
found at the end of each Brahmana. The number of the Upanishads is about 300 and a vivid description of
the religious and spiritual thought of the Aryans is given in them. Ish, Prasana, Attreya, Taitreya,
Chhandogya, Katha, etc., are very famous. The Aryan philosophy of God and soul is describ6d in them.
They also deal with the doctrine of the transmigration of soul and ethical doctrine of Karma. A famous
scholar has described the importance of the Upanishads in these words :
"The Upanishads have influenced Indian thought and philosophy considerably. All
the philosophical systems and religions of India, heretical or orthodox, have sprung
up from the Upanishads. The theological, philosophical systems of Shankaracharya,
Ramanuja and other saints are founded on the Vedant Sutras of Badarayan which in their
turn are reared on the doctrines of the Upanishads. Upanishads also influenced the
spiritual ideology outside India."
Dr. R. C. Majumdar has observed : "From the mystical doctrines of the Upanishads,
one current of thought may be traced to the mysticism of the Persian Sufism, to the
mystic theosophical logos-doctrine of the Neo-Platonics and the Alexandrian
Christians down to the teachings of the Christian mystics, Eckhart and Tauler, and
finally to the philosophy of the great German mystic of the nineteenth century,
Schopenhauer."
The historical values of the Upanishads can also not be denied as they throw a
flood of light on the social, religious and spiritual life of the Aryans. Max Muller has
praised the Upanishads very much, and regardedt hem t o be a uni que
composi t i on of human mi nd and t hought .
The Vedangas :Besides the Vedic literature referred to above, the Vecth'iTgas also
formed an important part of the Vedic literature. They are six in number, namely :

( i ) Si ks ha ( phonet i cs ) .
( i i ) Kal pa ( r i t ua l ) .
( i i i ) Vyakar ana ( gr ammar ) .
( i v) Ni r ukt a ( et ymol ogy) .
( v) Chhandas ( met r i cs ) .
( vi ) i yot i s ha ( as t r onomy) .
As the six Vedangas deal with the six subjects, they help in properstudy,
understanding, and sacrificial use of the Vedas.
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
The Buddhist literature is also very important from the point of view of
historical knowledge of India. This literature has three branches known as
"Jataka `Pitaka', `Nikaya'. It is the most important of the Buddhi st canoni cal
l i t er at ur e. It consi st s of t hr ee di vi si ons :

(i)'Vinay-Pitaka', (ii) `SuttaPitaka', (iii) AbhidhammaPitaka'. These divisions describe the principles of
Buddhism in Pali language. In Pali literature other books like `Milind-Panha', `Dipvamsa', and
`Mahavamsa' are also helpful from the historical viewpoint. The book `Milind-Panha' contains
dialogues between the Greek king Menander and Buddhist saint Nagasena, Other two books
describe the-history of Ceylon and India from the 6th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C.
AnguttaraNikaya' is another important book of Buddhist literature. It gives a remarkable description
of political, social and religious conditions of the 6th century B.G. The books written by Nagarjuna, a
great teacher of Buddhism, are 'Satasaharika', Prainaparamita' and 'Mahayana Sutras' while
'Mahayana Sutralamkara' by Asanga and AbhidharmaKosha, by Vasubandhu are other important
books which give a vivid description of the contemporary society. Moreover, it is from Buddhist
literature that we get a lot of information about Ashoka, Kanishka, PushyamitraSunga, and
Chandragupta Maurya.
An- authentic description of the social conditions preceding the Buddha period is available in the
Jatakas which narrate his birth stories, as remarked by Dr.Winternitz :
"The Jatakas were of inestimable value, not only as regards liter-ature and art, but also from the
point of view of the history of civilization for the period of the 3rd century B.C. So far about 549
Jataka stories have been published; a vivid picture of the political, social, economic and religious
conditions of the people of the second or third century B.C., can be drawn from the Jatakas.
JAIN LITERATURE
Jain literature which mainly consists of Angas' and `Upangas', is also of a great value. These Angas'
and `Upangas' are twelve in number, and they impart the valuable teachings of lord Mahavira. But
the more important from the historical point of view is a work parishisthaParvana' of Hem Chandra.
Thus, we see that there is a gr eat literary treasure in the Brahmanas, but innumerable difficulties
are encountered in reconstructing ancient history of India.
From the literary point of view, the Mauryan Period was at the zenith of progress. It is clear from the
edicts of Ashoka that two scripts, `Brahmi' and `Kharoshthi' were prevalent at that time. We also
come to know from these inscriptions that the popular languages of the masses were 'Pali' and
'Sanskrit'. Pali was the language spoken by the people, while Sanskrit was the language of literature.
Almost all the books were written in Sanskrit in those days. But the inscriptions of Ashoka were
written in Pali language, and he declared Pali as the state language. The Arthashastra' of Kautilya,
the `Kalpa-sutra' of Bhadrabahu. Buddhist book Katha Vatthul. and many Dharrna sutras' and `Griha

sutras' were written during this period. That is why, some of the historians have called this period as
the period of Sutra Granthas'. Several books on Buddhism and Jainism were also written in this
period. It is the opinion of some of the historians that some parts of the Ramayana' and the
`Mahabharata' written during the Mauryan age. The Arthashastra' of Kautilya is the most prominent
book of the Mauryan period. This book has occupied an important place among all literary activities
of that time. With the help of this book, we get ample information about the Mauryan
administration.
Thus, it can be said that the literary books of high standard were written in this age. The growth of
Sanskrit is one which make the Mauryan period an important link in Indian civilization. To the period
500 B.C., belong the great works of Katyayan and Patanjali, who gave Sanskrit the form and shape
which it enjoys today. The literature of the Mauryan period reflects the social and religious con ion
of the people of that bygone age.
During the Gupta period, there was great advancement in literature. The Gupta period is known as
the golden age in the field of Sanskrit. Barnett remarks :The Gupta period is in the annals of
classical India almost what the Periclean age is in the history of Greece." In fact, the Gupta rulers
were the real admirers of Sanskrit language and they provided royal patronage and support to
various men of letters. Besides religious literature, poetry, story writing, drama, grammar philosophy
etc. also progressed during the reign of the Gupta kings.
Kalidasa :Kalidasa was the greatest literary personage of the Gupta age. Dr. R.C. Majumdar has
praised him in these words :
Kalidasa was the most brilliant luminary in the literary firmament of the Gupta age who has shed
lustre on the whole Sanskrit literature. He is by common consent the greatest poet and dramatist
that ever lived in. India and his works have enjoyed a high reputation and popularity throughout the
ages.
Owing to his grand and marvellous literary achievements, kalidasa is often compared with
Shakespeare, the famous English poet and dramatist and also known as Shakespeare of India. A
great deal of controversy revolves round the date of Kalidasaand historians and a scholars hold
divergent views about it. Some scholars regard him as a contemporary of Vikramaditya of Ujjain
while the others connect him with the royal court of Chandragupta II.
He wrote dramas like AbhijianaShakuntalammalavika-gnimitramandVikarzunovanasiyam' he also
penned epics like and `Kumarsambhav' and `Raghuvamisa'. His Gitikavyaslike ritusamhara and
Meghdut are also very popular. His description of nature is marvellous and excels all other poets in
Sanskrit. Dr. A.S. altekar remarks:
By a universal consensus o.t. opinion, kalidas has been regarded as the best poet in Sanskrit
literature and he well deserves this honour.

His poetry is characterised by grace, simplicity and sentiment and is decorated by striking figures of
speech. He is deservedly famous for his similes which appeal to us by their beauty, appropriateness
and variety. In characterisation he has few equals. He is superb in describing the emotions of love
and pathos. His love of nature is as unequalled as his power of describing it. Works of Kalidasa are
not only noteworthy for their aesthetic beauty and poetic appeal, but they are equally valuable for
the ideals, which they place before the society."
Paying his tribute to the masterly qualities of Kalidasa, Dr. B.G. Gokhaleremarks :
"With Kalidasa classical Sanskrit reaches its zenith.......... In Kalidasa's poetry we find a unique
combination of knowledge and sentiment, artistry and sincerity, faultlessness of language and
nobility of effect. Every work of his is a veritable testament of a genius who though conscious of his
power, was great in his humility."
Vishakhadatta :Vishakhadatta was another poet and dramatist of the Gupta age. He wrote
`Mudrarakshasa' and `Devichandragupta'. The former deals with Chandragupta Maurya and the
latter refers to victory of Chandragupta Vikramaditya over the Saka rulers.
Bhairavi and Sudraka :Bhairavi was also popular for his literary achievements. He composed
`Kiratarjuniyam'. Sudraka, another prominent writer of the Gupta period compiled
mirichchhakatika'.
Besides the above quoted prominent literary figures of the Gupta age, the following were also well
known for their literary contribution.
1. Amar Singh composed and compiled the famous Amarkosha'.
2. Ishwar Krishna wrote `Sankhiyakarika'.
3. Dandin wrote `Kavyadarshan' and `Dasskumarcharita'.
4. The stories of PanchTantra' and `Hitopadesa' were also written during the Gupta age.
5. Vatsyayana wrote `NyayaBhashya'.
Religious and Philosophical Literary Books
A great number of books on religion and philosophy were also composed during the Gupta period.
Various religious books, such as, Puranas, Smritis and the Ramavana and the Mahabharata were also
given final touches during the reign of Guptas. Apart from Hindu Puranic literature several books
were composed by Buddhist and Jain scholars. Many prominent scholars like Vasubandhu, Asanga,
Kumarjiva, Dignaga etc., wrote books on Buddhism. Buddhist books such as Dipvarnsa and
Mahavamsa were also compiled during the reign of the Gupta rulers, Jain scholars of that age were
AcharyaSidhasena, Dewakar, Jinbhadrani, Devananai who compiled several books pertaining to
Jainism.
Thus we see an all-round literary progress during the Gupta period. Books on poetry, drama, prose,
grammar and religion were composed and compiled during the Gupta period which constitute no
less than a treasure for the posterity.
Varahamihra was also a famous scientist. He, too, compiled several books on various scientific
topics. Dr.Altekar has remarked :
"Besides being an astronomer, mathematician and astrologer, Varahamihra was also a student of
metallurgy, and has given his own formulas and processes for sharpening swords........... He was a
student of Botany and has offered his own suggestion about various topics of gardening including
steps to be taken for making trees give fruit out of season......... He was a critical observer of animal
world and has given useful information to ascertain the nature of good as well as bad horses,
elephants, dogs etc .......... Again the science of meteorology had not escaped his attention, what
kind of clouds will bring rain when accompanied with what king of wind coming from what quarter
has been explained by him in great detail."
Brahmagupta was the third prominent scientist of the Gupta period. He propounded the principles
relating to Arithmetic, Geometry and. Algebra in details. He is supposed to have discovered the most
significant theory of Gravitation which was later on propounded by Newton, a modern scientist.
Chemistry and knowledge of metal working also made great advancement in the Gupta period.
Ayurveda :Ayurveda Sastra' also greatly progressed under the reign of Gupta rulers. Charak and
Sushruta were the two prominent doctors of this period. Veterinary science also developed in this
age. A book on medical science known as 'Hastyayurved' was written during this period.
Dhanvantari, the greatest physician of ancient times was also the product of this age.
Thus we see that there was an all-round progress in the field of arts, literature and science and it
could reach such an excellence due to the liberal patronage of the Gupta kings.
Harsha was not only a patron of art and learning, he was himself a great scholar. Dr. Ray Chaudhary
has written about him, "A great general and a just administrator, he was, even greater as a patron of
religion and literature. As a matter of fact he extended liberal patronage to learning and the
learned." He is supposed to have written three Sanskrit dramas `Ratnavali', `Naganand' and
Triyadarsika'. Banabhatta was the most prominent scholar and man of letters in his court. He wrote
Tarvatiparinaya', `Harshacharita' and 'Kadambari'. He promoted learning by awarding liberal grants
to the educational institutions like the Nalanda University. He used to spend one-fourth of his
income for the development of learning. He was, undoubtedly, a great patron of literature who
could gather round himself some of the finest intellectuals and holiest sages.
According to Dr. R.C. Majurndar, "Harsha distinguished himself almost equally in arts of peace and
war. He could wield the pen as well as the sword."
The brave and warrior Rajputs were lovers of art and literature. The Rajput kings were not only the
patrons of men of letters but they

themselves were great poets and writers. King VakapatiMunja was a famous poet. BhojaParamara,
successor of Munja was also a great scholar. He wrote books on many subjects, viz., medicine,
astronomy, grammar, religion and architecture. He patronised scholars like Halayudha, Dhananjaya,
Padam Gupta etc.
The following prominent and leading poets of the Rajput period deserve special mention for their
literary contribution :
1. Bhatti composed "Ravanvadha".
2. Magha composed "Sisupalvadha".
3. Sri Harsha's composition, "Naisadhacharita".
4. Padam Gupta composed "NavashasankaCharita".
5. Damodar Gupta composed "Kaltanimata."
6. Jaideva composed "GeetGovind".
The following prose writers also contributed to the development of literature during the Rajput era :
1. Dandin was the author of "DashnmarCharita".
2. Dhampal wrote "Tilakmanjari".
3. Yasastilak and Subandhar were the authors of "Vasavdatta" and "Kadambari" respectively.
Various dramas were also written in this age. The most prominent dramastist was Bhavbhuti. He
ranked comparison with Kalidas and took his place next only to Kalidas. He was a master of style and
diction. He wrote three famous dramas, viz.,Maltimadhav', MahavirCharita' and 'Uttar Ram Charita'.
Rajshekhar was another play-writer who wrote `Karpurmanjari', `KavyaMimansa', `Bal-Ramayan' and
'Bal-Mahabharata'. Jaideva wrote the famous drama of prasannaRaghav' and Bhatti Narayan wrote
`Venisanhara'.
Besides these literary works, some historical books were also written in this period. Some very
popular ones are given below :
1. Kalhana was a famous historian who wrote `Rajtarangini'. It deals with the history of Kashmir.
2. Bilhana wrote `VikramanKaCharita'. It is a biography of Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI.
3. SandhyaKaranditya composed Ramcharita'. it deals with the history of the Pala rulers.
Besides these, PrithvirajVijai' by Jayanak and `KumarpalCharita' were also famous biographical works
of Rajput period.
Hitopadesh' of Narayan Pandit, 'Brahata Katha Manjari' of Kshmendra are also famous works
belonging to this period, "Katha SaritSagar" by Sore. Deva is considered an encyclopaedia of social
life.
Jaiditya wrote a commentary on the Mahabhashya of Patanjali. Hem Chandra compiled dictionaries
together with Yadav Bhatt, Purshottarn Deva, and others. A critical commentary on the Kamasutra
was written by Vatsayan and KokaPandit wrote a book known as "Kok-shastra" during the Rajput
period.

Sharangadeva wrote a book on music known as `SangitRatnakar'. PramamMimamsa' on the
philosophy of Jainism was written by Hem Chandra. Dharamkirti also wrote a book on Buddhist
philosophy. Books on Sankhya philosophy and Vaisishika philosophy were also produced.
Vigyaneswar wrote a commentary on `Mitakshara', a book on Hindu law. Books were also written on
astronomy and medical science.
Vernacular literature also grew and developed during the Rajput period. Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi and
Bengali also forged ahead. The bards composed poems in praise of their masters. Chandrabardai
wrote "Prithvi Raj Raso" extolling the achievements of his patron.
Education : Tremendous advancement was made in the field of education and learning. The Rajputs
laid great emphasis on education. There was no change in the mode of education. It was based on
the ancient Indian education system. Even in the Rajput age students used to get education in the
Ashrams of their teachers. Free education was imparted to the rank and file in the Buddhist Viharas
and monasteries. Pathshalas were also established in the temples for the expansion of education.
Duringthe Rajput rule universities of Nalanda, Vikramshila, Kashi, Ujjain and Kanchi were coming into
prominence day by day and students thronged these Universities from far and wide, for admission. A
number of subjects were taught here. The authority and wisdom of the teachers of these centres
was par excellence.
Thus, we can conclude on the basis of the above description that the activities in the field of art and
literature were stepped up in the age of the Rajputs. The political, social and religious condition of
the Rajputs was fairly good. The Rajput kings maintained a high sense of morality which was also
reciprocated by their subjects. Hence the general condition of the people during the Rajput period
was satisfactory and they led a comfortable and untrammelled life.
Literature : The brave and warrior Rajputs were lovers of art and literature. The Rajput kings were
not only the patrons of men of letter-but they themselves were great poets and writers. King
'vrakapatiMunja was a famous poet. BhojaParamara, successor of Munja was also a great scholar. He
wrote books on many subjects, viz., medicine, astronomy, grammar, religion and architecture. He
patronised scholars like Halayudha, Dhananjaya, Padam Gupta etc.
The following prominent and leading poets of the Rajput period deserve special mention for their
literary contribution
1. Bhatti composed "Ravanvadha".
2. Magha composed "Sisupalvadha".
3. Sri Harsha's composition, "Naisadhacharita".
4. Padam Gupta composed "Navashasanka Charity".
5. Damodar Gupta composed "Kaltanimata."
6. Jaideva composed "Geer Govind".

The following prose writers also contributed to the development of literature during the Rajput era :
1. Dandin was the author of "DashnmarCharita."
2. Dhampal wrote "Tilakmanjari".
3. Yasastilak and Subandhar werethe authors of "Vasavdatta" and "Kadambari" respectively.
Various dramas were also written in this age. The most prominent dramatist was Bhavbhuti. He
ranked comparison with Kalidas and took his place next only to Kalidas. He was a master of style and
diction. He wrote three famous dramas, viz., `Maltimadhav', `MahavirCharita' and `Uttar Ram
Charita.' Rajshekhar was another play-writer who wrote `Karpurmanjari', `KavyaMimansa,"Bal-
Ramayan' and `bal- Mahabharata'. Jaideva wrote the famous drama of TrasannaRaghav' and Bhatti
Narayan wrote `Venisanhara.'
Besides these literary works, some historical books were also written in this period. Some very
popular ones are given below :
1. Kalhana was a famous historian who wrote `Rajtarangini.' It deals with the history of Kashmir.

Literature during Medieval Period Historians hold divergent opinion regarding the position of
Persian literature. Some scholars believe that the Delhi Sultanate was a cultural kingdom, but
the others have opined that the Sultanate period was a dark age from culture point of view. In
fact both these opinions are exaggerations and hence, are removed far from the reality. As the
Muslim rulers were foreigners and their religion, creed, customs and inspirations foreign, they
oppressed the Hindus and their culture. Hence it would be a white lie if we call Delhi Sultanate a
cultural state. But at the same time it would be false to presume that the Sultans of Delhi were
semi-barbarous soldiers and they did not have any attraction for literature and arts of the
contemporary period.
No doubt, the Turkish rulers were great warriors and they devoted most of their time in
suppression of revolts and in waging wars against their Hindu rivals; however, they patronised
the Muslim learning and arts. From Qutbuddin to Sikandar Lodi, all the rulers of Delhi Sultanate
gave liberal patronage to Persian writers, poets, philosophers and theologians. Some of the
Sultans had their own court historians. The name of HasanNizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj,
ZiauddinBarani, Shams-SirajAfif, Yahya-Bin-Ahmad Sirhindi and Isami who were the writers of
Tabgat-i-Nasiri, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, Fatawa-i-Jahandari, Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi and Fatuhat-i-
Salatinrespectivley merit special attention. The names of Amir Khusrau and Ain-ul-MulkMultani
also deserve mention due to their significant achievements. Amir Khusrau and Mir HasanDelhavi
were two great literary personalities of this time. The early name of Amir Khusrau was
Muhammad Hasan and he was born at Patiali. His father was turk refugee who took refuge
there some years earlier.

Amir Khusrau first of all joined the services of Muhammad Khan, the eldest son of Balban as court
poet and after his death he continued to serve all the Sultans from Balban to Ghiasuddin Amir
Khusrau was a true disciple of ShaikhNizamuddinAulia. He was a great writer and composed more
than four lakh couplets. It is an undisputable truth that he was the best among the Indian poets who
wrote in Persian. He wrote several books but he won laurals due to his `Khazain-ul-Futuh' and
`Tarikh-i-Alai'. He was the first Muslim writer who adopted Hindi words and Indian poetic imagery.
Dr.IshwariPrasad has thus praised his qualities of head and heart, "He was a gifted bard and singer,
and had command over the instrument of language. The variety of subjects, and the marvellous ease
and grace with which he describes human passions and emotions and scenes of love and war place
him among the greatest poets of all time."
The full name of Mir HasanDelhavi was NizamuddinHasan. He was a gifted poet and a prolific writer.
He settled in Daulatabad and breathed his last there in 1338 A.D. His most famous creation was
Badzi-i-Chach.
There were some other poets and scholars in provincial courts who devoted themselves to the
progress and development of Persian Literature but unfortunately they gave up the use of Hindi
words and Indian imagery and did not follow the path of Amir Khusrau.
Although the Muslim rulers were warriors, they paid some attention to the development of
education also. In fact they made some arrangements for the education of Muslim subjects and
founded some Maktabs and Madarassas but no attention was paid towards the education of Hindu
subjects. Generally, a Maktab was attached to a mosque where the children got their early
education and learnt the reading and writing of Persian.
Among the royal writers the name of Sultan FirozTughluq who wrote is autobiography, Fatuhat-i-
Firozshahi and Sikandar Lodi, who wrote several poems and Mahmood Gavan, the Prime Minister
are worth mentioning. They also contributed to the development of Persian literature. The
translation work from Sanskrit to Persian was also done during the Sultanate period. The name of
QaziShihabuddinDaulatabadi who wrote Hawash-i-Kufiah and Irshad is attached with provincial
dynasty of Jaunpur.
Thus we see that Persian literature flourished not only in the courts and under the patronage of the
royalists but the provincial rulers also helps in the rise and development of Persian literature to a
great extent.
sanskrit and Hindi Literature. Hindi literature also flourished during the Delhi Sultanate. Although the
speed of its progress was not as fast as that of Persian literature, yet it progressed. In fact, during the
Sultanate Period the Hindi Literature was in its infancy. According to Dr.Ishwari Prasad, Chandra
Bardai was the first Hindi poet who composed his PrithvirajRaso in 1206 A.D. In this book he was
depicted the life and

wars of king PrithvirajChauhan to Delhi. Rajasthan was the centre of Hindi writing and the literature
which was created there, was only limited to the descriptions of the deeds of the Rajput rulers and
some religious books. VisalDeoRaso and KhumanRaso of NarpatiNalha are the best examples. Amir
Khusrau also composed some couplets in Hindi. Dr. A.L. Srivastava has remarked about him, "He
wrote Hindi verses for .entertainment and not for poetic excellence."
Although the rulers of Delhi Sultanate did not provide patronage to Delhi literature; however, its
progress was not stemmed. Jagnik, a contemporary of Chandra Bardai composed Alahakhand in
which he praised the bravery of two legendry heroes, Alaha and Udala. The book is a unique
treasure for posterity.
Poet Sharangdhar composed .HamirRaso and HarnirMahakavya based on the events of the reign of
Hamir Deva of Ranthambhor. The famous Sufi saint BandanavazGeludaraz also wrote MiratalAashkin
in Hindi. Besides this, the saints of the Bhakti movement such as Kabir, Nanak, Dharamdas, Dadu,
Malookdass and Sunderdas also contributed to the rise of a Hindi literature through their excellent
Bhajans. The Muslim rulers did not patronise the Sanskrit literature. No doubt, some Sanskrit books
were translated into Persian during this period but it was not the result of the love of Muslim rulers
for Sanskrit literature but the utility of these books compelled them to do so. The provincial rulers of
Warangal, Vijaynagar and Gujarat really contributed to the rise of Sanskrit literature. The following
Sanskrit books were written during this period :UdarRagav was written by Mallacharya and
VamanBanbhatta wrote NalaAbhudaya and RaghunathCharitra. During this period Sanskrit dramas
like HerikeliNatak, LalitVigrahrajNatakPrasannaRaghav, HamirMadmardan, ParvatiPranaya,
VidagdhaMadhav and LalitMadhav were written which contributed a lot to the progress of Sanskrit
literature. Git Govind of Jaya Deva was also composed in 12th century.
Among historical books the DwetiyaRajtarangani and the TrityaRajtarangani of Jaunranaj,
RajvatiPataka of PragyaBhatta and Suk and PrasangRatnavati of Pattu. Bhatta were famous. Some
commentaries on Yoga, Vaisesika and Nyaya were also written during this period. Jain and Buddhist
scholars wrote some books on logic. PurushPariksha and PhuParikrama were the best specimens of
prose literature of this time. A fundamental book of law `Daibhag' , was also written by
Jimutvahanduring Delhi Sultanate.
Besides Persian, Hindi and Sanskrit some other languages also flourtsed during this period. Guru
Nanak wrote in Punjabi ;Narsi Mehta, Namadeva composed songs in Gujarati and Chandi Das and
Nusrat Shah enriched the Bengali literature. Marathi literature also flourished. Thus, the Sultanate of
Delhi.was a literary state and all literature developed during this period.

Rise of Urdu. A new language flourished during the reign of the Sultans of Delhi known as Urdu. It
was a link language amongst the Turk, and the Central Asian tribes and Hindus. Earlier, it was known
as Hindiv, but later it came to be known as Urdu. It had words of various provinces but its grammar
was Indian. Gradually, the words of Persian and Arabic language were also included in it. Amir
Khusrau was the first writer who made use of it but the Tbrkish rulers did not patronise it as they
were the lovers of Persian.
The Mughal period marks a new era in the literary history of India. Babur was a refined scholar, well
versed in Arabic, Persian and Turki. He composed poems and valued the work of men of letters. His
personal achievement was 'Thzak-i-Babari', which was written in Turki but later on translated in
various languages. Humayun was also a learned scholar. He patronised many 'poets and
philosophers. Jauhar completed his work `Tazkirai-ul-Waqiar under his patronage.
Akbar also patronised both Persian and Hindi literature and was equally interested in both of them.
The most well known works of his reign are, `Tarikh-i-Alfi', 'Ain-i-Akbari', Akbarnama', etc. AbulFazal,
Faizi, MullaDaud, Badauni and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana were the most renowned scholars of his
times. Many Sanskrit works were translated into Persian during his regime. The Ramaxana, the
Mahabharat and the Atharva Veda were prominent of them. Jahangir was also very much interested
in literature. He knew Persian as well as Turki. His autobiography is considered second to the
memoirs of Babur, his ancestor. Shahjahan also followed in the footsteps of his forefathers. He
encouraged men of learning, and his son DaraShikoh proved to be an authority in Vedanta.
Aurangzeb, though an orthodox Sunni, was a great scholar. He encouraged the education of
Muhammadans but destroyed the schools and temples of the Hindus. During his period, Hindi
Literature began to decline and the period of great poets and writers came to an end, Dr. R.C.
Majumdar remarks, "The Timuride rulers of India were patrons of literature and gave a considerable
impetus to its development in different branches. Many scholars flourished and wrote interesting
and important works under the patronage of Akbar."
Hindi literature also flourished during Mughal period. The early Mugh-a-1 emperors provided liberal
patronage to Hindi and as a result of this during the regime of Akbar, Hindi reached the zenith of its
development. Tulsi Das and Sur Das were the most renowned Hindi poets of Mughal period and
their most famous works were Ratnacharitmanas and Sursagar respectively. MeeraBai and Abdur
Rahim Khan-i-Khana were also well-known Hindi poets of the period of Akbar. Jahangir and
Shahjahan also patronized Hindi poets like Buta, Raja Suraj Singh, Raja Bishan Das and
RaiManoharTaal, SundarKaviRai, Senapati, KavindraAcharya, Keshav Das, a famous poet who lived in
Orchha, wrote RasikPriya, KaviPriya and AlankarManjari during the regime of Shahjahan.

But Hindi literature failed to achieve further progress during the regime of Aurangzeb as he was a
fanatic ruler and patronized Persian.
Akbar also gave shelter to Sanskrit literature and got some of the Sanskrit books translated into
Persian. The Jain scholar Padma Sundar and Jain AcharyaSiddhachandraUpadhyaya were renowned
scholars of Sanskrit. Rasa Gangadhar and Ganga Lahari were written during Mughal period. A
Persian-Sanskrit dictionary known as FarasiPrakash, was prepared during the Mughal period. Thus,
Sanskrit literature also flourished to some extent during the reign of early Mughal emperors.
A mixture of Persian and BrajBhasa, earlier known as Jaban-i-Hindvi and later called Urdu, also
flourished during the Mughal period. Historians are divided about its origin but undoubtedly Amir
Khusrau was the first great scholar of Urdu. Later on it was adopted by Sufi saints who preached
their teachings through this language because it was quite intelligible to the masses. Soon it became
the most popular language of Delhi and Uttar Pradesh and the poets and authors began to use it
frequently. Muhammad Shah, the later Mughal emperor, encouraged the study of Urdu very much.
besides Persian, Hindi, Sanskrit and Urdu literature, various regional languages, viz., Bengali,
Gujarati, Telugu, Tamil, Marathi and Punjabi also rose to prominence. The saints of Bhakti cult
helped a lot in the progress and development of regional languages. Efforts of the provincial rulers
and general masses also contributed to the rise of regional languages.
Literature during modern Period
Literature developed very rapidly during Modern period. Besides the English literature, Hindi, Urdu,
Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali, Telugu, Tamil, Punjabi, etc. also progressed and developed. One
prominent reason can be said for this the availability of books. After the invention of Press, books
became quite chew and as a result several historical books were written by the scholars.
in the early writers we find a glimpse of the ideas of Gandhiji but the latter scholars were impressed
by Fraid, Karl Marx and AurobindoGhosh. After some time the influence of European style began to
be visible on the contemporary writers. Hence it is evident that Indian literature always continued to
be influenced by one or the other style.
In modern period historical literature developed tremendously. The Western scholars during their
stay in India studied deeply and enriched ancient Indian history by their researches. They also
achieved excellence in Sanskrit in order to study Vedic, Buddh and Jain literature and established
Indian history by translation work. In 1784 A.D. Royal Asiatic Society was established with this view
by Sir William Jones. It directed the attention of foreign scholars towards Indian historical literature.
Besides the foreign scholars Indian historians like Dr.Tripathi, Dr.Quanungo, Dr.hhwari Prasad, Dr.
A.L. Srivastava, Dr. A.A. Rizvi,

Dr. P.N. Chopra etc. also produced their historical works. Because of their sincere effort we could be
able to get a chronological history from Ancient time to Modern era.
In the beginning of the nineteenth century, Hindi Literature could not be popular rapidly because of
its poetic form. But later on writers adopted prose form which helped to the rise of Hindi Literature
speedily. The primary nature of Hindi prose writing we find in Sukh Sagar and Rani Ketaki Ki Kahani.
Later on Prern Sagar, Batal Pachchisi, Singahasan Pachchisi etc. were also written in prose style.
Bhartendu Harish Chandra is said to be the father of modern prose writing. He greatly served Hindi
Literature and wrote several books. He also translated Mudra-Rakshas in 1-11ndi. After him Pratap
Narain Mishra, Bal Krishna Bhatt and Gangadhar Upadhayaya contributed significantly to the
development of Hindi literature.
Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, Devkinandan Khatri and Padam Singh Sharma also worked hard for the
progress of Hindi. In 1894 A.D. Nagri Pracharini Sabha was established because of the efforts of Ram
Narain Mishra, Babu Shyam Sundar Dass and Thakur Shiv Singh. It led the Hindi literature towards
development.
20th h century is said to be New Epoch of prosperity of Hindi Literature. Now originality began to be
visible in Hindi literature. Prem Chand, Vrindavan Lal Verma, Jai Shankar Prasad, Upendra Nath Ashk,
BhagwatiCharan, Chatur Sain Shastri etc. are prominent Hindi poets who played a significant role in
development of Hindi Literature. Besides the above Jagannath Das Ratnakar, Ramdevi Prasad,
Sridhar Pathak, Ayodhya Singh Upadhayaya etc. were important poets of BrajBhasa. Some significant
other Hindi poets are SumitraNandan Pant, Surya Kant Tripathi, Nirala, Mathlisharan Gupta,
Mahadevi Verma, Subhadra Kumari Chauhan, Siya Ram Saran Singh, Ramdhari Singh Dinkar etc.
After the declaration of Hindi to be the national language, its speed of progress enhanced very
much.
sanskrit Literature : Sanskrit is an ancient language and it was very much developed in Ancient time.
Medieval age proved to be a grave of it but in the Modern epoch attempts are being made to
establish her lost ancient glory as Sanskrit is considered mother of all languages. Separate schools
and Gurukulas are being established for the development of Sanskrit Literature. Now-a-days several
institution viz. 'Southern Educational Society,' 13handarkar Institution', 'Vedic Sanshodhan Mandal'
of Poona, Archaeological Temple of Rajasthan and many more are busy in the task of development
of Sanskrit in Modern time
Urdu Literature : In the 18th century, Urdu developed as a literary language. The chief credit of it
goes to Gilchrist, the principal of Fort college, who collected many scholars of Urdu and inspired
them for writing books in Urdu. Later on Urdu was made the language of courts. It contributed much
to the development of Urdu. Mirza Mohd. Galib and Sri Sayyad Ahmad Khan made significant
contributions in the rise of Urdu. During Modern period Delhi, Lahore, Lucknow, Rampur,

Hyderabad etc. are the famous centres of Urdu which are constantly busy for the development of
Urdu. Musharais are arranged at several places for the development and expansion of Urdu. By
chanting their verses before the audience, the Urdu poets add to the popularity of language and
entertain the public. Among the famous Urdu poets, the name of Hali, Dr.Nazir Hussain, Shaukat
Thanvi, Pt. Ratan Lal, Khwaza Hasan, Akbar Allahabadi, Josh Maliahabadi, Bashir Badra Bariellavi,
Maulana Tail etc. are very significant.
other Literatures : During modern period besides the prominent literature such as Hindi, Sanskrit
Urdu, other literature like English, Bangla, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Sindhi, Tamil, Malyalam,
Telugu etc. also developed tremendously. Different scholars made their contribution to the progress
and development of a particular literature. The English literature flourished because of Indian writer
and a new branch known as Anglo-Indian literature came into existence which contributed much
both in prose and poetry.
Hence it is quite clear that in the modern era with the development of famous literatures of the
period, the literature of regional languages also flourished which enriched the literary achievements
all the more. Thus modern age is quite prosperous and well known for the development of literature
and art.
Environment
Environment is also known as a significant theme of Indian history. The scholars and historians have
thrown ample of light on the role of environment in constructing history which makes it evident that
environment is an important factor not only in history but also of man as history is the study of
activities of man.
The role of geography and environment is deeply connected in the construction of history of any
period. High mountains of India, beautiful valleys, deserts, plateus, fertile lands, forests and great
oceans are the significant aspect of geography. There is a lot diversity in the. climate of In the
making of the history of India, the Himalayas also plays a significant role. Man and environment are
ultimately attached to one another. Environment and climate contribute a lot in the ways of lying,
eating habits and character making of man. Hence there is no reason of doubt that environment
helps the activities of man to a great extent. His intellectual development, body structure, capacity
of labour etc. also depend on the environment in which he passes his life. Because of environmental
problems the vast armies of the Mango's have to bow down before the Sultans of Delhi and the
Rajputs and the Marathas could get success against the mighty rulers of Medieval period because of
their bravery which is also the product of environment.
The Himalayas has also greatly affected the history of India..It provided complete safety to India
from the northern side and some of the great rivers of northern India have also originated from the
Himalayas ,which made the land of Punjab, sindh and the Doab of Ganga and Yarnuna fertile and it
added to the prosperity of -the country. The wealth

of India attracted the foreign invaders to India and they got enormous booty during the course of
their invasions. The passes in the mountain became the route of their commencement of India and
helped in the spread and expansion of Indian culture in abroad. Moreover India became land of
agriculture because of the fertility of land in which the role of environment also quite significant. The
desert of Rajasthan always discouraged the foreign invaders and the dry and terrible environment of
this place forced the invaders not to enter the Indian territory. The rise of Marathas and their.
Gaurilla warfare system is also a product of geographical situations and typical environment of South
which provided a new direction to Indian history.
The Indian climate is changeable which made the people of the country luxurious which is the result
of environment and geographical condition, Mughal emperor Babur has given a living account of
changeable climate of India in his autobiography Tuzuk-i-Babari. On the one hand he has praised the
rain while on the other hand pointed out to the bad affect of humidity on the bow made in
Samarkand.
From ancient time to Modern era the circumstances of India remain changeable because of which
our history has been affected by it. The Southern and Northern India cannot be united because of
vast difference of environment and climate nor political unity could be established for a long time.
The social equality also became impossible among the people living at different places and having
different type of customs and traditions. This diversity in India continued from the end of Medieval
period to the beginning of Modern period Later on as a result of feeling of nationalism and
establishment of the English empire in India, unity could be formed in the country.
It is, therefore, evident that like all other countries, India has also been affected by the geography
and environment. Indian religion and spiritualism is also impressed by it. The environment of the
country have made the people laborious and they got success to safeguard their culture even at the
time of encounters with the foreign invaders.
Development of Science and technology
Generally science and technology are two different word, which are used with different meaning.
Science means a systematic and planned study which can be proved by logic, presentation and
experiments and technology denotes to the presentation of scientific knowledge in a way that could
be useful in the field of production trade and commerce and industrialization which is very useful for
humanity.
In the latter half of the 18th century, the age of machinization usered in our country as a result of
new scientific invention. But it does not mean at all that earlier people of our country were not all
interested ;II science and technology. The fact is this that whatever inventions took place in the field
of science and technology could be used in the context of India, hence most of the people retain
ignorant towards the achievements of science and technology.