Diagnostic Testing

Rapid Review Pathology , Fourth Edition
Edward F. Goljan
Chapter 1, 1-7
Copyright 2014 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Chapter 1
Diagnostic Testing
I
Purpose of Laboratory Tests
Diagnostic Testing https://www-clinicalkey-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/#!/Cont...
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A.
Screen for disease
1.
General criteria for screening
a.
Effective therapy that is safe and inexpensive must be available.
b.
Disease must have a high enough prevalence to justify the expense.
c.
Disease should be detectable before symptoms surface in the patient.
d.
Test must not have many false positives (people misclassified as having disease).
e.
Test must have extremely high sensitivity.
Criteria for screening test: !sensitivity and prevalence; cost-effective; treatable
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2.
Examples of screening tests
a.
Newborn screening for inborn errors of metabolism
Examplesphenylketonuria, galactosemia, congenital hypothyroidism, and maple syrup

urine disease
b.
Adult screening tests
(1)
Mammography for breast cancer
(2)
Cervical Papanicolaou (Pap) smear for cervical cancer
Cervical Pap: overall best screening test for cancer
(3)
Screen for human papillomavirus DNA
(4)
Colonoscopy to detect/remove precancerous polyps
(5)
Fecal occult blood testing to detect colon cancer
(6)
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) to detect prostate cancer
Currently, there is debate over the usefulness of this test.

(7)
Bone densitometry scans to detect osteoporosis in women
(8)
Fasting lipid profiles to evaluate coronary artery risk
Includes total cholesterol, high-densitylipoprotein cholesterol, low-density

lipoprotein, and total triglyceride
(9)
Fasting blood glucose or 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test to screen for diabetes mellitus
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c.
Screening people with symptoms of a disease
Exampleserum antinuclear antibody test to rule out autoimmune disease

B.
Confirm disease; examples:
1.
Anti-Smith and double-stranded DNA antibodies to confirm systemic lupus erythematosus
2.
Chest x-ray to confirm pneumonia
3.
Urine culture to confirm a urinary tract infection
4.
Serum troponins I and T to confirm an acute myocardial infarction (AMI)
5.
Tissue biopsy to confirm cancer
6.
Fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test to confirm syphilis
Confirm disease: serum troponins to diagnose AMI
C.
Monitor disease status; examples:
1.
Hemoglobin (Hb) A
Ic
to evaluate long-term glycemic control in diabetics
2.
International normalized ratio (INR) to monitor warfarin therapy (anticoagulation)
3.
Therapeutic drug monitoring to ensure drug levels are in the optimal range
4.
Pulse oximeter to monitor oxygen saturation during anesthesia, asthmatic attacks
Monitor disease: HbA
1c
, INR, pulse oximeter
II
Operating Characteristics of Laboratory Tests
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A.
Terms for test results for people with a specific disease ( Fig. 1-1 )
1-1:
People with disease either have true positive (TP) or false negative (FN) test results. People without
disease either have true negative (TN) or false positive (FP) test results.
1.
True positive (TP)
Definitionnumber of people with a specific disease who have a positive test result
2.
False negative (FN)
Definitionnumber of people with a specific disease who have a negative test result
Test results in people with disease: TP and FN
B.
Terms for test results for people without disease (see Fig. 1-1 )
1.
True negative (TN)
Definitionnumber of people without disease who have a negative test result

2.
False positive (FP)
Definitionnumber of people without disease who have a positive test result

Test results in people without disease: TN and FP
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C.
Sensitivity of a test
1.
Sensitivity of a test is obtained by performing the test on people that are known to have the specific
disease for which the test is intended (e.g., systemic lupus erythematosus [SLE]).
2.
Definitionlikelihood that a person with disease will have a positive test result
3.
Formula for calculating sensitivity is TP (TP + FN).
The FN rate determines the test's sensitivity.

Sensitivity = TP (TP + FN); positivity in disease
4.
Usefulness of a test with 100% sensitivity (no FNs)
a.
Normal test result excludes disease (must be a TN).
b.
Positive test result includes all people with disease.
(1)
Positive test result does not confirm disease.
(2)
Positive test result could be a TP or a FP.
c.
Tests with 100% sensitivity are primarily used to screen for disease.
Test with 100% sensitivity: normal result TN; positive result TP or FP
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D.
Specificity of a test
1.
Specificity of a test is obtained by performing the test on people who do not have the specific disease for
which the test is intended.
Control group should include people of various ages and both sexes, and those who have
diseases that are closely related to the disease for which the test is intended.
2.
Definitionlikelihood that a person without disease will have a negative test result
3.
Formula for calculating specificity is TN (TN + FP).
FP rate determines the test's specificity.

Specificity = TN (TN + FP); negativity in health
4.
Usefulness for a test with 100% specificity (no FPs)
a.
Positive test result confirms disease (must be a TP).
b.
Negative test result does not exclude disease, because a test result could be a TN or a FN.
Test with 100% specificity: positive test TP; negative test TN or FN
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E.
Comments on using tests with high sensitivity and specificity
1.
When a test with 100% sensitivity (or close to it) returns negative (normal) on a patient on one or more
occasion, the disease can be excluded from the differential list.
For example, if the serum antinuclear antibody (ANA) test returns negative on more than one
occasion, the diagnosis of SLE can be excluded.
Usefulness of test with 100% sensitivity: exclude disease when test returns normal
2.
When a test with 100% sensitivity returns positive on a patient, a test with 100% specificity (or close to it)
should be used to decide if the test result was a TP or a FP.
Usefulness of test with 100% specificity: distinguish TP from FP test result
a.
For example if the serum ANA returns positive in a patient who is suspected of having SLE, the
serum anti-Smith (Sm) and antidouble-stranded DNA test should be used because they both
have extremely high specificity for diagnosing SLE.
b.
If either or both tests return positive, the patient has SLE.
c.
If both tests consistently return negative, the patient most likely does not have SLE but some other
closely related disease.
III
Predictive Value of Positive and Negative Test Results
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A.
Predictive value of a negative test result (PV!)
1.
Definitionlikelihood that a negative test result is a TN rather than a FN
2.
Formula for calculating PV" is TN (TN + FN).
PV" best reflects the true FN rate of a test.

3.
Tests with 100% sensitivity (no FNs) always have a PV" of 100%.
Disease is excluded from the differential list.

Sensitivity 100% # PV" 100% # excludes disease
B.
Predictive value of a positive test result (PV+)
1.
Definitionlikelihood that a positive test result is a TP rather than a FP
2.
Formula for calculating PV+ is TP (TP + FP).
PV+ best reflects the true FP rate of a test.

3.
Tests with 100% specificity (no FPs) always have a PV+ of 100%.
Disease is confirmed.
Specificity 100% # PV+ 100% # confirms disease
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C.
Effect of prevalence on PV! and PV+
1.
Definitiontotal number of people with disease in the population under study
Prevalence: total # people with disease in a population
Population includes people with disease and people without disease.

2.
To calculate prevalence, people with disease are in the numerator (TP + FN) and people with disease (TP
+ FN) and without disease (TN + FP) are in the denominator.
Prevalence: (TP + FN) (TP + FN + TN + FP)
(TP + FN) (TP + FN + TN + FP)

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3.
Low prevalence of disease (e.g., ambulatory population) ( Figs. 1-2 and 1-3 )
1-2:
Note that in a low prevalence situation (e.g., ambulatory population), the PV! increases, while
the PV+ decreases. The reverse occurs in a high prevalence situation (e.g., cardiac clinic) in
that the PV! decreases and the PV+ increases.
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1-3:
Note how the PV ! remained the same in both prevalence situations because of the 100%
sensitivity of the serum antinuclear antibody (ANA) for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).
However, the PV+ significantly changed, going from a low prevalence of SLE (~5%) to a high
prevalence of SLE (~83%).
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a.
PV" increases because more TNs are present than FNs.
b.
PV+ decreases because more FPs are present than TPs.
$Prevalence of disease: !PV", $PV+
4.
High prevalence of disease (e.g., cardiac clinic) (see Figs. 1-2 and 1-3)
a.
PV" decreases because more FNs are present than TNs.
b.
PV+ increases because more TPs are present than FPs.
!Prevalence of disease: $PV", !PV+
IV
Creating Highly Sensitive and Specific Tests
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A.
Ideal test ( Fig. 1-4A )
1-4:
Establishing tests with 100% sensitivity and specificity. Schematic A shows an ideal test with 100%
sensitivity (100% PV!) and 100% specificity (100% PV+) when the normal range is 0 to A. Test results
below the A cutoff point are all true negatives ( TN), whereas those beyond the A cutoff point are all
true positives ( TP). Schematic B shows a test with 100% sensitivity (100% PV!) when the upper
cutoff point is at A. Note that as sensitivity increases, the specificity and PV+ decrease because of an
increase in false positives ( FP). Schematic C shows a test with 100% specificity (100% PV+) when
the upper cutoff point is at B. Note that as specificity increases, the sensitivity and PV! decrease
because of an increase in false negatives ( FN). PV!, Predictive value of a negative test result; PV+,
predictive value of a positive test result.
(From Goljan E, Sloka K: Rapid Review Laboratory Testing in Clinical Medicine, Philadelphia, Mosby
Elsevier, 2008, p 5, Fig. 1-3.)
1.
Ideal test has 100% sensitivity (PV" 100%) and 100% specificity (PV+ 100%).
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2.
Note in the schematic that there are no FNs or FPs, because there is no overlap between the normal and
disease population.
3.
Ideal test is nonexistent; however, there are some tests that have very high sensitivity and specificity that
come close to being the ideal test (e.g., serum levels of troponins I and T in diagnosing an AMI).
Serum troponins: !sensitivity and specificity; screen/confirm AMI
4.
Most normal ranges (reference intervals) do not distinguish the normal from the disease population (see
Fig. 1-4B and C).
Note that there is an overlap between the normal and the disease population in parts B and C of
Figure 1-4.
B.
Establishing a test with 100% sensitivity and PV! (see Fig. 1-4B )
1.
To establish a test with 100% sensitivity and PV !, set the cutoff point for the reference interval at the
beginning of the disease curve (A).
a.
Note that this creates a test with 100% sensitivity and 100% PV !, because there are no FNs
within the newly established reference interval (0 to A).
b.
Test can now be used to screen for disease.
!Sensitivity/PV !: put cutoff point at the beginning of the disease curve; no FNs
2.
Note that by increasing sensitivity there is always a corresponding decrease in the specificity and PV+
due to a greater number of FPs.
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C.
Establishing a test with 100% specificity and PV+ (see Fig. 1-4C )
1.
To establish a test with 100% specificity/PV+, set the upper cutoff point for the reference interval at the
end of the normal curve (B).
a.
Note that this creates a test with 100% specificity and 100% PV+, because there are no FPs
outside the reference interval (0 to B).
b.
Test can now be used to confirm disease.
!Specificity/PV+: put cutoff point at the end of the normal curve; no FPs
2.
Note that by increasing specificity there is always a corresponding decrease in sensitivity and PV !, due
to a greater number of FNs.
V
Variables Affecting Laboratory Test Results
A.
Premature newborns
1.
Variable hemoglobin (Hb) concentration depending on the gestational age
2.
Anemia in prematurity is due to:
a.
Iron deficiency, related to loss of the daily supply of iron from the mother's iron stores
b.
Blood loss from excessive venipunctures in the premature newborn
Anemia prematurity: loss of iron from mother; blood loss from venipuncture
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B.
Newborns
1.
Newborns have higher normal ranges for Hb, Hct, and RBC counts than do infants and children.
2.
HbF (2%/2& globin chains) shifts the OBC to the left causing the release of EPO.
EPO causes an increase in Hb, Hct, and the RBC count.

3.
Over the ensuing 8 to 12 weeks after birth, the Hb drops from 16.8 g/dL (range 14"20 g/dL) to 11 g/dL
(this is called physiologic anemia).
Fetal RBCs containing HbF are destroyed by splenic macrophages. The unconjugated bilirubin derived from the
initial destruction of fetal RBCs is responsible for physiologic jaundice of the newborn, which occurs ~3 days
after birth.
4.
HbFcontaining cells are replaced by RBCs containing HbA (>97%), HbA
2
(2.0%), and HbF (1%).
Newborns: !HbF # left shift OBC # !EPO # !Hb, Hct, and RBC production
5.
Immunoglobulin (Ig) synthesis
a.
Synthesis of IgM begins shortly after birth.
b.
Newborns lack IgM isohemagglutinins (natural antibodies against blood groups) in their plasma.
For example, blood group A newborns lack anti-B IgM isohemagglutinin in their plasma.
Clinical correlation: Newborns with an increase in cord blood IgM may have an underlying congenital infection
(e.g., cytomegalovirus, rubella). Their blood should be screened for antibodies against the common congenital
infections.
Newborns: lack IgM at birth; !cord blood IgM indicates congenital infection
6.
IgG antibodies in newborns are of maternal origin.
a.
Newborns begin synthesizing IgG 2-3 months after birth.
b.
Adult levels of IgG are achieved by age 6 to 10 years.
Clinical correlation: A mother with a positive test for human immunodeficiency virus (e.g., IgG antibodies against
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the glyco protein gp120) transplacentally transfers IgG antibodies to the fetus. This does not mean that the child
is infected by the virus.
Newborns normally synthesize both IgM and IgG after birth
C.
Children
1.
When compared to an adult, children have higher serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels.
a.
This is due to increased bone growth in children and release of ALP from osteoblasts.
b.
ALP removes the phosphate from pyrophosphate, which normally inhibits bone mineralization.
2.
When compared to an adult, children have higher serum phosphorus levels.
For normal mineralization of bone to occur, phosphorus is required to drive calcium into bone;
hence, the higher phosphorus levels in children.
3.
When compared to an adult, children have a lower Hb concentration (11.5 g/dL; anemia <11.5 g/dL).
a.
This is most likely related to the increased serum phosphorus levels in children.
A proportionately greater amount of 2,3-bisphos phoglycerate (2,3-B PG) is synthesized

because of the availability of phosphorus.
b.
Increasing 2,3-BPG synthesis causes a greater release of O
2
to tissue (right shifts the O
2
binding
curve); hence, an 11.5 g/dL Hb concentration in a child delivers as much O
2
to tissue as a
13.5 g/dL Hb concentration does in an adult.
Children: !serum ALP, phosphorus, 2,3-BPG; $Hb
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D.
Adults
1.
When compared to men, women have slightly lower serum iron, ferritin, and Hb levels (12.5 g/dL; anemia
<12.5 g/dL), which is attributed to:
a.
Monthly menstrual flow
b.
Lower testosterone levels than men
Testosterone stimulates erythropoiesis, which also contributes to the higher Hb level in men
(13.5 g/dL; anemia <13.5 g/dL) than in women.
Women: $Hb, iron, ferritin than men
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2.
Advanced age
a.
Decrease in the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and creatinine clearance (CCr)
Potentially harmful to the proximal kidney tubules if nephrotoxic drugs (e.g.,

aminoglycosides) are not dose-adjusted to the age and GFR of the patient.
Elderly: $GFR, CCr; danger of drug toxicity in the kidneys
b.
Increase in serum ALP
(1)
Increase in serum ALP is of bone origin and relates to degeneration of articular cartilage in
the weight-bearing joints (osteoarthritis), a condition that invariably occurs in the elderly.
(2)
Reactive bone formation (called osteophytes) occurs at the margins of the joints, leading to
the slight increase in serum ALP.
c.
When compared to young adult males, there is a slight decrease in the Hb concentration in elderly
males.
(1)
Hb drops into the range of a normal adult woman (12.5 g/dL; anemia <12.5 g/dL) and
should not be misinterpreted as anemia.
(2)
Decrease in Hb parallels the normal decrease in testosterone associated with aging.
Elderly: Hb decreases with age
d.
Often a loss of blood group isohemagglutinins (e.g., anti-B IgM in a group A individual) occurs
because of a decrease in antibody synthesis.
Clinical correlation: Loss of isohemagglutinins explains why some elderly individuals transfused with the wrong
type of blood do not develop a hemolytic transfusion reaction. For example, a blood group A individual
inadvertently transfused with group B blood may not hemolyze the group B RBCs, because they do not have
anti-B IgM antibodies. This is not to say that elderly people can safely be given any blood group for transfusion;
they should receive blood group and Rh type specific blood.
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e.
Decrease in cell-mediated immunity
For example, a purified protein derivative test for tuberculosis is weakly reactive in elderly
patients who have previously been exposed to tuberculosis.
Elderly: decrease in antibody synthesis and cellular immunity
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E.
Pregnancy
1.
Normal decrease in Hb concentration
a.
Due to an increase in plasma volume (PV) and RBC production (RBC mass) with a much greater
increase in PV than in RBC mass
Dilutional effect decreases the Hb concentration (normal 11 g/dL; anemia <11 g/dL).
Pregnancy: !!plasma volume, !RBC mass; !GFR, CCr
b.
Other effects of an increase in PV include:
(1)
Increased GFR and CCr
(2)
Increased renal clearance of blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, and uric acid with
corresponding lower levels in serum
2.
Increase in serum ALP (placental origin)
Pregnancy: !serum ALP (placental origin)
3.
Increase in serum human placental lactogen (HPL)
a.
Normally synthesized by syncytiotrophoblasts lining the chorionic villi in the placenta
b.
Inhibits the sensitivity of peripheral tissue to insulin
Produces the normal glucose intolerance in pregnancy

Pregnancy: !HPL causes $insulin sensitivity # mild glucose intolerance
c.
Increases '-oxidation of fatty acids
Excess acetyl CoA is produced, leading to increased liver synthesis of ketone bodies and
the normal ketonemia in pregnancy.
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4.
Mild respiratory alkalosis
a.
Due to stimulation of the respiratory center by estrogen and progesterone
b.
Increased pulmonary clearance of CO
2
is responsible for the respiratory alkalosis and is not
accompanied by an increase in respiratory rate.
Pregnancy: respiratory alkalosis due to estrogen/progesterone
c.
Decreased P CO
2
causes a corresponding increase in P O
2
in maternal blood, which increases
the amount of oxygen that is available to the developing fetus.
Arterial P O
2
is usually >100 mm Hg in pregnancy.
5.
Increase in the total serum thyroxine (T
4
) and cortisol (refer to Chapter 23)
a.
Normal measurement of total serum T
4
and cortisol includes bound and free fractions.
b.
Estrogen increases liver synthesis of the binding proteins for T
4
(thyroid binding globulin) and
cortisol (transcortin); however, the free hormone levels (metabolically active) are unaffected.
Because the free hormone levels are normal, the serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) are also normal.
Pregnancy: !total serum T
4
/cortisol; free hormone levels are normal
F.
Hemolyzed blood specimen related to venipuncture
1.
Potassium is the major intracellular cation; therefore a hemolyzed blood sample falsely increases serum
potassium (FP).
2.
RBCs primarily use anaerobic glycolysis as a source of ATP; therefore lactate dehydrogenase (LDH),
which normally converts pyruvate to lactate, is also falsely increased (FP).
Hemolyzed specimen: !serum K
+
, LDH
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Rapid Review Pathology , Fourth Edition

Examplesphenylketonuria, galactosemia, congenital hypothyroidism, and maple syrup

Currently, there is debate over the usefulness of this test.

Includes total cholesterol, high-densitylipoprotein cholesterol, low-density

Exampleserum antinuclear antibody test to rule out autoimmune disease

Definitionnumber of people without disease who have a negative test result

Definitionnumber of people without disease who have a positive test result

The FN rate determines the test's sensitivity.

FP rate determines the test's specificity.

PV" best reflects the true FN rate of a test.

Disease is excluded from the differential list.

PV+ best reflects the true FP rate of a test.

Population includes people with disease and people without disease.

(TP + FN) (TP + FN + TN + FP)

EPO causes an increase in Hb, Hct, and the RBC count.

A proportionately greater amount of 2,3-bisphos phoglycerate (2,3-B PG) is synthesized

Potentially harmful to the proximal kidney tubules if nephrotoxic drugs (e.g.,

Produces the normal glucose intolerance in pregnancy

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